Leptospirosis in cats: Current literature review to guide diagnosis and management

Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of Leptospira interrogans and Leptospira borgpetersenii in cats from Central region of Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacteria of the genus Leptospira, which is responsible for substantial impacts on the economy, animal health, and public health. This disease has a global distribution and is particularly prevalent in Brazil. While leptospirosis can affect different animal species, including domestic ones such as dogs and cats, the role of dogs in its epidemiology is established and well-understood. Conversely, the role of domestic cats in the epidemiology of leptospirosis remains unclear, with a significant lack of studies elucidating the roles they play in the transmission of Leptospira spp. and the bacterial species they can host. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the presence of Leptospira spp. DNA in domestic cats and to assess the phylogenetic relationships of the identified microorganisms in the Central region of Rio Grande do Sul State (RS) in southern Brazil. The samples were evaluated for the presence of the gene lipL32 by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of the amplified fragment, followed by phylogenetic analysis. DNA from Leptospira spp. was extracted from the kidney tissue of domestic cats. Pathogenic Leptospira spp. DNA was detected in 22.1 % (67/303) of the samples. Molecular analyses revealed the presence of L. borgpetersenii and L. interrogans in these animals. This study is the first to identify L. borgpetersenii and L. interrogans in domestic cats in RS, highlighting their potential role as bacterial reservoirs. Our findings provide valuable insights into the epidemiology of leptospirosis and can contribute to sanitary measures aimed at controlling and preventing the disease, ultimately protecting public health.

Leptospira seroprevalence in dogs, cats, and horses in Tennessee, USA

We estimated the Leptospira seroprevalence in dogs, cats, and horses from Tennessee, USA, using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) against 12 Leptospira serovars. We observed Leptospira seropositivity in 110 of 374 (29.4%) dogs, 21 of 170 (12.4%) cats, and 42 of 88 (47.7%) horses. The highest seroprevalence was observed for serovars Autumnalis (74.6%) in dogs, and Bratislava in cats (42.9%) and horses (95.2%). We found a significant level of potential cross-reactivity between multiple Leptospira serovars tested, with highest cross-reactivity to serovar Autumnalis in dogs. Leptospira seroprevalence was significantly higher in vaccinated dogs (45 of 98 [46%]) compared to unvaccinated dogs (14 of 86 [16%]; p < 0.001). A significant difference in seroprevalence was observed in vaccinated and unvaccinated dogs to all 4 serovars included in canine leptospiral vaccines (p < 0.001). We also evaluated the Leptospira testing results from our diagnostic laboratory submissions from 2021-2023; 103 of 252 (40%) canine serum samples were positive, with the highest positivity rate for serovar Autumnalis. On Leptospira real-time PCR, 35 of 325 (10.7%) urine samples and 15 of 257 (5.8%) blood samples were positive. The cross-reactivity between the Leptospira serovars used in the MAT and vaccination status should be considered when estimating seroprevalence.

Grenadian cats as potential reservoir for Leptospira

Leptospirosis is a spirochetal disease caused by Leptospira spp. bacteria with global distribution affecting multiple mammalian species, including humans. The disease is endemic in many geographic areas and is of particular concern in tropical regions with abundant rainfall, such as the Caribbean. Currently, there are no published reports on Leptospira exposure or infection in Grenadian cat populations, and the role of cats in the epidemiology of the disease is unknown. Our hypothesis is that Grenadian cat population may be a reservoir host for zoonotic Leptospira on the island. During 2019-2021, 160 feral cats were captured from three parishes in Grenada, and their urine and blood were tested for Leptospira. Urine from 4 of 148 (2.7%) cat samples tested PCR-positive for Leptospira. Serum from 6 of 136 (4.4%) cat samples tested PCR-positive for Leptospira. Sequence analysis of the Leptospira rpoB gene showed 86-100% similarity to known or presumed pathogenic Leptospira species. The findings of this study suggest that Grenadian cat populations are infected with and are shedding Leptospira genotypes that are phylogenetically related to known pathogenic Leptospira, including known zoonotic strains. These observations support the hypothesis that Grenadian cat populations may be a reservoir host for zoonotic Leptospira on the Island.

Insights into Leptospira spp. infection in pet cats in Croatia: Clinical, serological and molecular findings with emphasis on the potential important role of serogroup Pomona

Leptospirosis, a globally re-emerging zoonosis caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp., poses a significant threat to public health. Leptospirosis in cats is often neglected due to its high underdiagnosis. Therefore, the role of cats in disease transmission and bacterial maintenance in the environment remains unclear. For this study, 54 serum samples, 54 urine samples and 27 EDTA-anticoagulated blood samples from pet cats presenting to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital due to health problems were used. The serum samples were tested for antibodies against 12 pathogenic serovars of Leptospira spp. using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). EDTA-anticoagulated blood and urine samples were tested for the lipL32 gene of pathogenic Leptospira spp. by conventional (PCR) and real-time (qPCR) polymerase chain reaction. Agglutinating antibodies were detected in 18.52% (10/54) of the sera with a titre range of 1:50 to 1:12800. The most common serogroup was Pomona, followed by Sejroe, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Australis and Javanica. Leptospira spp. DNA was found in 1.85% (1/54) of the urine samples, while all EDTA-anticoagulated blood samples were negative. A statistically significant difference in seropositivity regarding lifestyle was found between outdoor/indoor and indoor-only cats, while the presence of another cat in the household significantly increased the likelihood of seropositivity. Cats with immunocompromising conditions showed a significantly increased risk of seropositivity, especially those undergoing immunosuppressive treatment. In addition, respiratory signs and changes in lung structure associated with the presence of leptospiral antibodies, and these cats were more likely to be infected with the Pomona serogroup. Moreover, cats with anaemia, leucocytosis, and thrombocytopenia were significantly more likely to have antibodies against Leptospira spp., while seropositive cats had significantly lower urine-specific gravity compared to seronegative cats. The results underline the importance of raising awareness of feline leptospirosis in veterinary care and recognising pet cats as potential carriers of leptospires. Further research is needed to clarify the specific role of the Pomona serogroup as a potentially highly evolutionary drifting serogroup in terms of pathogenicity and to clarify the zoonotic potential of infected cats, which is crucial for the implementation of effective public health measures and veterinary interventions.

Leptospira spp. Antibody Seroprevalence in Stray Dogs and Cats: A Study in Milan, Northern Italy

Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis recognised as a re-emerging infectious disease in both humans and dogs, yet the actual seroprevalence of Leptospira in pets in Italy is relatively unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate Leptospira antibody prevalence in dogs and cats from a shelter by the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), the gold standard test in leptospiral serology, and to assess risk factors for Leptospira infection. This seroepidemiological study investigated the prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in a cohort of 106 dogs and 51 cats housed in a municipal shelter in Milan. Blood samples were collected from the animals during two sampling periods: spring/summer 2014 and autumn/winter 2016/2017. Eight serogroups were evaluated: L. Australis, L. Ballum, L. Canicola, L. Grippotyphosa, L. Icterohaemorrhagiae, L. Pomona, L. Sejroe, and L. Tarassovi. Antibody titres ranged from 1:100 to 1:6400. The results indicated that 21.7% of dogs had antibodies against serogroups L. Icterohaemorrhagiae and L. Australis, making them the most often found. Conversely, none of the cats showed any presence of antibodies. Seropositivity was higher in the spring/summer period (32.7%) than in autumn/winter (11.1%), and no statistically significant results were found regarding sex or age. These findings underscore the importance of ongoing serological surveillance and biosecurity measures in shelter environments to mitigate the zoonotic risk posed by leptospirosis.

Geospatial Analysis of Abiotic and Biotic Conditions Associated with Leptospirosis in the Klaten Regency, Central Java, Indonesia

The Klaten Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia, is a leptospirosis endemic area. The purpose of this study is to spatially describe the abiotic and biotic environmental factors that contributed to the incidence of leptospirosis in the Klaten Regency in 2018. This was a descriptive observational with a cross-sectional approach conducted in the Klaten Regency, Central Java, in 2019 with 59 respondents. The results revealed that the percentage of abiotic environmental factors such as poor waste disposal facilities, poor gutter conditions, rivers < 200 m, and flooding history, namely 35.6%, 41.2%, 54.2%, and 6.8%, respectively. The highest leptospirosis cases occurred in April 2018, with 325 mm of rainfall, an average temperature of 27 °C, an average humidity of 82.3%, and an altitude of 100-200 MASL (79.7%). Meanwhile, biotic factors included rat nest existence (100%), having pets at risk (32.2%), and ≥three types of vegetation (79.7%). The main result confirmed that all leptospirosis cases had rat nests throughout the respondent's house. This finding emphasizes the importance of rat pest control programs by establishing cross-sectoral collaboration with the Department of Agriculture and educating the public to also play a role in environmental cleanliness in controlling rats.

An Overview of Infectious and Non-Infectious Causes of Pregnancy Losses in Equine

Equine breeding plays an essential role in the local economic development of many countries, and it has experienced rapid growth in China in recent years. However, the equine industry, particularly large-scale donkey farms, faces a significant challenge with pregnancy losses. Unfortunately, there is a lack of systematic research on abortion during equine breeding. Several causes, both infectious and non-infectious, of pregnancy losses have been documented in equines. The infectious causes are viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi. Non-infectious causes may include long transportation, ingestion of mycotoxins, hormonal disturbances, twinning, placentitis, umbilical length and torsion, etc. In current review, we discuss the transmission routes, diagnostic methods, and control measures for these infectious agents. Early detection of the cause and appropriate management are crucial in preventing pregnancy loss in equine practice. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the potential causes of abortion in equines, including infectious agents and non-infectious factors. It emphasizes the importance of continued research and effective control measures to address this significant challenge in the equine industry.

Current knowledge on leptospirosis in cats: A systematic review with metanalysis on direct detection, serological response, and clinical data

Leptospirosis is a neglected bacterial zoonosis that affects a wide range of mammals, with important implications from a One Health perspective. Over the past years feline leptospirosis has gained increased attention in the scientific community. Here we describe a systematic review with meta-analysis that followed the PRISMA guidelines, with an additional PROSPERO registration. The study provides global seropositivity, urinary shedding rates, global serogroup distribution, descriptive data of leptospires that had been isolated from cats and clinical and laboratory features presented by symptomatic cats with acute disease. The search was carried out in six different databases, with the identification of 79 reports describing leptospiral infection in cats. The pooled frequency of seroreactive cats was 11% (95% CI: 9%-13%), with Javanica and Pomona as the most frequent serogroups found. Frequency for urinary shedding was 8% (95% CI: 5%-10%), with L. interrogans identified in most samples. A total of 16 isolates were isolated from cats, with Bataviae as the most frequent serogroup. Twenty symptomatic cats with confirmed leptospiral infection were identified. Anorexia, lethargy, polydipsia, and bleeding disorders were the clinical signs most frequently reported. The results suggest that cats from some locations are exposed to leptospires and may act as urinary shedders of this pathogen, thus indicating a possible role of this species in disease transmission. Clinical data indicates that acute infection is mostly atypical when compared to dogs, and due to difficulties to define an archetypal clinical presentation in cats, feline leptospirosis is likely to be underdiagnosed disease in this species.

Infection and re-infection of Leptospira spp. in stray dogs and cats from Bogota, Colombia

Background and Aim

Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonosis that is under-reported in tropical countries, and canines can be a potential reservoir of the disease. The objective of this study was to diagnose Leptospira spp. that is actively infected and re-infected in stray dogs and cats from Bogota, D.C., Colombia.

Materials and Methods

A sample of 200 animals, including dogs and cats from the animal protection programs of Bogota, Colombia, were used in this study. Blood was collected from these animals for serum and DNA analysis. Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed using the 16s rRNA primer set, and higher-quality amplification products were sequenced by Sanger. For serodiagnosis, a group of PCR-positive samples was tested using the microagglutination test (MAT).

Results

The overall PCR positivity of stray dogs and cats was 56%, 52.9%, and 65.3% in dogs and cats, respectively. The MAT seropositivity was 77.3%, and only dogs showed titers higher than 1:400. Canicola, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Pomona, Hardjo Prajitno, and Canicola and Hardjo prajitno were the serogroups associated with dogs and cats, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the strains belonging to Leptospira interrogans serovars related to isolated samples of American, European, and Asian bats (Myotis myotis), dogs, and bovines of American origin.

Conclusion

These results showed that stray dogs and cats were previously exposed to different serovars of Leptospira spp. and re-infected with other serovars that actively participated in the transmission cycle. These findings highlight the importance of actively diagnosing infectious animals to design effective intervention strategies.

Investigation of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies and leptospiruria in cats attended to a veterinary teaching hospital in southern Brazil

Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonosis that affects both humans and animals worldwide. Currently, it is known that cats may be susceptible to infection. This study aims to investigate the presence of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies and leptospiruria in cats, using Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT) and Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques, respectively. A total of 76 cats, undergoing comprehensive anamnesis, general physical examination, and complementary exams were included in the investigation. Among the 76 cats tested, 9.2% (7/76) exhibited the presence of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies, while Leptospira spp. DNA was detected in at 1.3% (1/76) of the evaluated urine samples. No significant associations were observed between the serological and molecular diagnostic results and the assessed variables, including clinical data and laboratory results of cats testing positive. This study provides insight into the occurrence of Leptospira spp. infection and leptospiruria in cats treated at a veterinary teaching hospital in southern Brazil.

Seroprevalence of pathogenic Leptospira serogroups in asymptomatic domestic dogs and cats: systematic review and meta-analysis

Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonotic disease transmitted by contact with the urine of animals infected with pathogenic species of the bacteria Leptospira or by contact with environments contaminated with the bacteria. Domestic dogs and cats may act as reservoirs or as sentinels of environmental contamination with leptospires, posing a public health concern. There is a great diversity of leptospires, and one common way to classify them is into serogroups that provide some information on the host species they are associated with. The aims of this study were: (1) to quantitatively summarize the overall prevalence and serogroup-specific prevalence of antibodies against pathogenic leptospires in asymptomatic dogs and cats and (2) to identify environmental and host characteristics that may affect the prevalence. Three electronic databases and the reference lists of eligible articles were screened, for epidemiological studies conducted between the years 2012-2022. We estimated overall and serogroup-specific prevalence using three-level meta-analysis models and assessed potential sources of heterogeneity by moderator analysis and meta-regression. Eighty-four studies met the inclusion criteria (dog studies 66.7%, cat studies 26.2%, and both species 7.1%). There were significant differences between dogs and cats in the overall prevalence model (P < 0.001), but not in the serogroup-specific model (P>0.05). In dogs, the prevalence of Leptospira interrogans serogroup Canicola was significantly higher than the other pathogenic serogroups (P < 0.001), while in cats there were no significant differences among serogroups (P = 0.373). Moderator analysis showed that the prevalence of L. kirschneri serogroup Grippotyphosa was significantly higher in stray/sheltered dogs than in domiciled dogs (P = 0.028). These results suggest that pathogenic serogroups associated with small mammals are circulating among asymptomatic pets and should be taken into account in the transmission cycle of leptospires, as well as in the standard MAT panel for diagnosis in dogs and cats. It also highlights the importance of including both dogs and cats as potential reservoirs when conducting eco-epidemiological studies in different geographical and ecological areas.

Feline leptospirosis prevalence worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic approaches

Background and Aim

Leptospirosis in felids (domestic and wild cats) presents an ongoing challenge in our understanding. Numerous studies have reported the detection of Leptospira spp. in these feline populations, highlighting their potential as zoonotic carriers. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to provide insight into the global prevalence of leptospirosis in domestic and wild cats.

Materials and Methods

We conducted extensive searches across five databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar) following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Protocols guidelines. Random-effect meta-analyses were performed using R software version 4.3.0 to estimate pooled prevalence rates. Subgroup meta-analyses were conducted based on continents, diagnostic methods, sample types, and wildcat genera.

Results

A total of 71 articles on leptospirosis in domestic cats and 23 articles on leptospirosis in wild cats met the eligibility criteria. Our findings indicated a significantly higher pooled seroprevalence of leptospirosis in domestic cats compared with infection prevalence (9.95% [95% confidence interval (CI), 7.60%-12.54%] vs. 4.62% [95% CI, 2.10%-7.83%], p = 0.01). In contrast, no significant difference was observed in pooled seroprevalence and infection prevalence among wild cats (13.38% [95% CI, 6.25%-21.93%] vs. 2.9% [95% CI, 0.00%-18.91%], p = 0.21). A subgroup meta-analysis of domestic cats revealed significant differences in seroprevalence across continents, sample types, and diagnostic methods. On the contrary, wild cats had no significant differences in any of the subgroups.

Conclusion

Leptospira spp. have evidently been exposed to both domestic and wild cats, highlighting their potential roles as reservoir hosts for leptospirosis. These findings highlight the importance of considering felids as a possible public health threat.

Updated ACVIM consensus statement on leptospirosis in dogs

Since publication of the last consensus statement on leptospirosis in dogs, there has been revision of leptospiral taxonomy and advancements in typing methods, widespread use of new diagnostic tests and vaccines, and improved understanding of the epidemiology and pathophysiology of the disease. Leptospirosis continues to be prevalent in dogs, including in small breed dogs from urban areas, puppies as young as 11 weeks of age, geriatric dogs, dogs in rural areas, and dogs that have been inadequately vaccinated for leptospirosis (including dogs vaccinated with 2-serovar Leptospira vaccines in some regions). In 2021, the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) Board of Regents voted to approve the topic for a revised Consensus Statement. After identification of core panelists, a multidisciplinary group of 6 experts from the fields of veterinary medicine, human medicine, and public health was assembled to vote on the recommendations using the Delphi method. A draft was presented at the 2023 ACVIM Forum, and a written draft posted on the ACVIM website for comment by the membership before submission to the editors of the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. This revised document provides guidance for veterinary practitioners on disease in dogs as well as cats. The level of agreement among the 12 voting members (including core panelists) is provided in association with each recommendation. A denominator lower than 12 reflects abstention of ≥1 panelists either because they considered the recommendation to be outside their scope of expertise or because there was a perceived conflict of interest.

Acute phase proteins and total antioxidant capacity in free-roaming cats infected by pathogenic leptospires

BACKGROUND

Leptospirosis is a neglected but widespread zoonotic disease throughout the world. Most mammals are hosts of Leptospira spp., including domestic cats, species in which no consensus has been reached on the clinical presentation or diagnosis of the disease. The study of acute-phase proteins (APPs) and biomarkers of oxidative status would contribute to knowledge about the disease in cats. This report evaluated four APPs: Serum amyloid A-SAA, Haptoglobin-Hp, albumin and Paraoxonase 1-PON1 and the antioxidant response through Total Antioxidant Capacity-TAC, in 32 free-roaming cats. Cats were classified as seroreactive for anti-leptospiral antibodies (group 1, n = 8), infected with Leptospira spp (group 2, n = 5) and leptospires-free cats (group 3, n = 19).

RESULTS

SAA differences were observed between groups 1 and 2 (p-value = 0.01) and between groups 2 and 3 (p-value = 0.0001). Hp concentration differences were only detected between groups 2 and 3 (p-value = 0.001). Albumin concentrations only differed between groups 1 and 3 (p-value = 0.017) and 2 and 3 (p-value < 0.005). Cats in groups 1 (p-value < 0.005) and 2 (p-value < 0.005) had lower PON1 concentrations than group 3. No statistically significant differences between pairs of groups were detected for TAC concentrations. The principal component analysis (PCA) retained two principal components, (PC1 and PC2), explaining 60.1% of the observed variability of the inflammatory proteins and the antioxidant TAC.

CONCLUSIONS

Increases in Serum SAA, Hp, and decreases in PON1 activity may indicate an active inflammatory state in infected cats (currently or recently infected).

Evaluation of Leptospira infection and exposure in free-roaming cat populations in northern California and southern Texas

OBJECTIVES

Leptospirosis is a re-emergent zoonotic bacterial disease associated with renal and hepatic injury. In free-roaming cats in some regions, a high prevalence of Leptospira antibodies has been identified, and pathogenic leptospires have been detected in renal tissue, indicating that they may play a role in Leptospira epidemiology. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Leptospira seroreactivity and urinary shedding of Leptospira DNA in free-roaming cats from northern California and southern Texas. A secondary objective was to compare the results of a point-of-care (POC) assay, designed to detect Leptospira antibodies, with the results of the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) when applied to serum samples from feral cats.

METHODS

Specimens were obtained from free-roaming cats from northern California (n = 52; 2020) and southern Texas (n = 75; 2017). Leptospira quantitative PCR was performed on blood and urine specimens from Californian cats. Serum samples from Californian and Texan cats were subjected to MAT to categorize them as Leptospira antibody-positive or antibody-negative. The performance of the POC assay was assessed using the MAT as the gold standard.

RESULTS

Leptospira DNA was not detected in the blood or urine of any cats tested. The results of the MAT were positive in 17.3% (n = 9) of Californian cats and 10.7% (n = 8) of Texan cats (P = 0.3). The median MAT titer was 1:100 (range 1:100-1:200) in Californian cats and 1:200 (range 1:100-1:800) in Texan cats. The POC assay was negative in all specimens.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Free-roaming cats in California and Texas are exposed to Leptospira species and may have the potential to act as sentinel hosts. No cats had evidence of current infection, as determined using PCR on blood and urine specimens. The POC test did not reliably detect anti-Leptospira antibodies in these cats. The role of cats in the maintenance or shedding of pathogenic leptospires requires further investigation.

Basic Aspects and Epidemiological Studies on Leptospirosis Carried Out in Animals in Chile: A Bibliographic Review

Leptospirosis is an important zoonosis worldwide. This disease affects numerous animal species, some of them are classified as "maintenance hosts", and others are categorized as "incidental hosts". Humans are at risk of becoming infected by having contact with domestic and wild animals. In this paper, general aspects of the etiology and transmission of leptospirosis are addressed, data regarding the clinical presentation of the pathology in humans and animals are also presented, and the results of some epidemiological studies on leptospirosis carried out in Chile in different animal species and humans are summarized through a bibliographic review of the literature. The research on domestic canines and horses stands out in terms of their number in the country, with prevalences between 12.0% and 59.1% in dogs and from 23.3% to 65.4% in equids. Studies have been performed on domestic felines in recent years with frequencies ranging from 3.0% to 25.2%, as well as on wild animals (mainly in mammals). In pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats, the information is scarce, with little updated research dating back several decades and variable prevalence rates, which are generally high, except for in sheep. Leptospirosis is a disease of varied etiology in terms of infecting species, serovars and serogroups, which influences its epidemiology, and its prevalence is variable in different animals. An increase in the awareness given to this pathology in human and veterinary public health is required, as well as more scientific studies in Chile, to update the existing knowledge.

Feline Susceptibility to Leptospirosis and Presence of Immunosuppressive Co-Morbidities: First European Report of L. interrogans Serogroup Australis Sequence Type 24 in a Cat and Survey of Leptospira Exposure in Outdoor Cats

Leptospirosis is one of the most widespread zoonotic diseases and can infect both humans and animals worldwide. The role of the cat as a susceptible host and potential environmental reservoir of Leptospira is still not well understood, due to the lack of obvious clinical signs associated with Leptospira spp. infection in this species. This study aims to describe the first European detection of Leptospira interrogans serogroup Australis ST 24 in a young outdoor cat with a severe comorbidity (feline panleukopenia virus). In addition, the results of a preliminary study conducted in 2014-2016 are presented (RC IZSVE 16/12), which reports an investigation of Leptospira exposure of outdoor cats in Northeast Italy by means of serological investigation and molecular evaluation of urine. The animals included in the survey are part of samples collected during active and passive surveillance (diagnostic samples). The study reported a seroprevalence of 10.5% among outdoor cats and the serogroups identified were Grippotyphosa, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Bratislava, Canicola and Ballum. Symptomatic cats reported high MAT titres (ranging from 1:800 to 1:1600) towards antigens belonging to the serovars Grippotyphosa (1:800), Bratislava (1:1600), Icterohaemorrhagiae (1:200) and Copenhageni (1:200-1:800). In one subject, urine tested positive for Leptospira PCR. Cats with high antibody titres for Leptospira and/or positivity on molecular test suffered from immunosuppressive comorbidities (feline immunodeficiency virus and feline leukaemia virus; feline herpesvirus and lymphoma; hyperthyroidism). The overall prevalence of serum antibodies against Leptospira found in free-ranging cats (10.53%, 95% CI: 4.35-16.70%) and the identification of L. interrogans ST 24 in a young cat with immunosuppressive disease (feline panleukopenia virus) suggest the possibility of natural resistance to clinical leptospirosis in healthy cats. In a One Health perspective, further studies are needed to better define the pathogenesis of leptospirosis in cats and their epidemiological role as environmental sentinels or possible carriers of pathogenic Leptospira.

Vector-borne and other pathogens of potential relevance disseminated by relocated cats

Large populations of unowned cats constitute an animal welfare, ecological, societal and public health issue worldwide. Their relocation and homing are currently carried out in many parts of the world with the intention of relieving suffering and social problems, while contributing to ethical and humane population control in these cat populations. An understanding of an individual cat’s lifestyle and disease status by veterinary team professionals and those working with cat charities can help to prevent severe cat stress and the spread of feline pathogens, especially vector-borne pathogens, which can be overlooked in cats. In this article, we discuss the issue of relocation and homing of unowned cats from a global perspective. We also review zoonotic and non-zoonotic infectious agents of cats and give a list of practical recommendations for veterinary team professionals dealing with homing cats. Finally, we present a consensus statement consolidated at the 15th Symposium of the Companion Vector-Borne Diseases (CVBD) World Forum in 2020, ultimately to help veterinary team professionals understand the problem and the role they have in helping to prevent and manage vector-borne and other pathogens in relocated cats.

Graphical Abstract

Leptospira spp. Prevalence in Cats from Southern Italy with Evaluation of Risk Factors for Exposure and Clinical Findings in Infected Cats

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease, but feline leptospirosis is rarely reported. This study aimed at investigating Leptospira spp. prevalence in cats from southern Italy, evaluating risk factors, clinical findings and laboratory data associated with infection. The serum of 112 cats was investigated by microscopic agglutination test (MAT), detecting anti-Leptospira antibodies against 14 pathogenic serovars. Blood and urine samples were tested by a real-time polymerase chain reaction targeting the lipL32 gene of pathogenic Leptospira. Antibodies against serovars Poi, Bratislava, Arborea, Ballum, Pomona and Lora were detected in 15.3% (17/111) of cats (titers range: 20-320). Leptospira spp. DNA was found in 3% (4/109) of blood and 9% (10/111) of urine samples. The spring season was the only risk factor for urinary Leptospira DNA shedding. Laboratory abnormalities significantly associated and/or correlated with Leptospira spp. positivity were anemia, monocytosis, neutrophilia, eosinopenia, increased alanine aminotransferase activity, hypoalbuminemia and hyperglobulinemia. In the investigated areas, cats are frequently infected by Leptospira spp. and can represent an additional reservoir or sentinel for a risk of infection. Moreover, some laboratory changes could be compatible with a pathogenic effect of Leptospira spp. in the feline host.

Canine leptospirosis in Canada, test-positive proportion and risk factors (2009 to 2018): A cross-sectional study

Over the past decade, there has been an apparent increased frequency and widened distribution of canine leptospirosis in Canada, however, this has been minimally investigated. Availability and clinical uptake of Leptospira polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based testing of dogs in Canada may provide important insight into the epidemiology of this canine and zoonotic infectious disease. Study objectives were to evaluate clinical canine Leptospira PCR test results from a large commercial laboratory to determine temporal and spatial distribution in Canada and identify dog, geographic and temporal risk factors for test-positive dogs. This cross-sectional study analyzed data obtained from IDEXX Laboratories, Inc. on 10,437 canine Leptospira PCR tests (blood and/or urine) submitted by Canada-based veterinarians (July 2009 to May 2018). Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify risk factors for test-positive dogs. Test-positive proportion varied widely annually (4.8–14.0%) and by location. Provinces with the highest test-positive proportion over the study period were Nova Scotia (18.5%) and Ontario (9.6%), with the prairie provinces (Manitoba and Alberta combined) having the lowest proportion (1.0%); the northern territories could not be evaluated due to limited testing. In the final model, dog age, sex, breed, month, and year test performed, and location (urban/rural, province) of the practice submitting the sample were significant predictors of a positive Leptospira PCR test. Dogs less than one year of age (OR = 2.1; 95% CI: 1.6–2.9), male sex (OR = 1.3; 1.1–1.5), toy breed (OR = 3.3; 2.5–4.4), and samples submitted from an urban practice (OR = 1.3; 1.0–1.8) had the greatest odds of a positive Leptospira PCR test as compared to referent groups. Significant two-way interactions between province-month and year-month highlight the complex spatial and temporal influences on leptospirosis occurrence in this region. Our work suggests a high incidence of canine leptospirosis regionally within Canada. Identifiable dog and location factors may assist in future targeted prevention efforts.

Leptospirosis in rats and livestock in Bantul and Gunungkidul district, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Background and Aim:

The animal reservoir of leptospirosis is comprised of both domestic and wild mammals, with rats known as the most important in the spread of the disease. The occurrence of this reservoir in residential areas increases the potential for leptospirosis transmission. This study aimed to investigate the type of reservoirs and estimate the prevalence of leptospirosis in rats and livestock animals in Bantul and Gunungkidul districts, Special Region of Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia.

Materials and Methods:

This research utilized a cross-sectional study design. Rat trapping and livestock (cattle, goat, and sheep) blood surveys were conducted at four locations in each district. Samples of rat renal and livestock blood serum were examined using the polymerase chain reaction technique to determine the presence of Leptospira bacteria. The data were analyzed descriptively by describing the species of rats trapped, the types of cattle, and the prevalence of Leptospira in the sample.

Results:

The rat species infected with Leptospira in Bantul district consisted of Rattus tanezumi 4.8% (3/63); Rattus norvegicus 12.5% (2/16); Bandicota indica 28.6% (2/7); and Bandicota bengalensis 50.0% (1/2). No rats were found to be positive for Leptospira in Gunungkidul district. The prevalence of Leptospira in cattle was 63.64% (7/11) in Bantul district and 50.00% (8/16) in Gunungkidul district. In goats and sheep, the prevalence of Leptospira was 22.22% (2/9) in Bantul district and 45.16% (14/31) in Gunungkidul district.

Conclusion:

The potential exists for transmission of leptospirosis from rats and cattle in Bantul and Gunungkidul Districts. It is necessary to increase leptospirosis awareness. Community education, especially for livestock farmers, needs to be improved to prevent the transmission of leptospirosis from livestock.

Clinical disease and treatment of Leptospira kirschneri sv Grippotyphosa in a Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae)

CASE DESCRIPTION

A 12-year-old sexually intact male zoo-managed Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) was evaluated for a 3-day history of vomiting, hyporexia, and lethargy. Radiographs were supportive of gastrointestinal obstruction, and an exploratory laparotomy was performed.

CLINICAL FINDINGS

Diffuse tan foci were present on the liver parenchyma, and the tiger became icteric throughout the procedure. Hepatic histopathology and immunohistochemistry resulted in a diagnosis of leptospirosis. Serum microagglutination testing for Leptospira spp antibody titers were positive for L kirschneri serovar Grippotyphosa, rising from 1:400 to 1:3,200 in 2 days.

TREATMENT AND OUTCOME

The tiger was treated with antimicrobials, ursodiol, and mirtazapine, and increased biosecurity measures were instituted. Free-ranging wildlife on grounds were trapped, euthanized, and submitted for necropsy to screen for disease vectors. The tiger's urine was intermittently opportunistically collected from the enclosure and remained PCR assay negative for Leptospira spp until being positive once again on day 595. Although the tiger was without clinical signs at that time, antimicrobial therapy and increased biosecurity protocols were instituted a second time until urinary Leptospira shedding was confirmed to have stopped. By 1,071 days after initial presentation, the tiger remained nonclinical, with no additional urinary shedding episodes.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

While domestic and nondomestic free-ranging felids have been reported as subclinical Leptospira spp carriers, this report indicates the clinical importance of leptospirosis when a tiger presents with generalized gastrointestinal signs and icterus. Due to the zoonotic potential, biosecurity measures are necessary. This patient had a clinically successful outcome with antimicrobial therapy and supportive care.

Seroepidemiological investigation of animal leptospirosis and molecular characterization of the first Leptospira strain isolated from Fernando de Noronha archipelago, Brazil

Leptospirosis has been widely reported in insular environments worldwide, characterizing a major public health threat. Although low-genetic biodiversity is expected in these regions, the introduction of domestic and synanthropic mammals may contribute to the wider diversity of leptospiral strains in insular settings. This study proposes a large-scale seroepidemiological investigation of Leptospira infection in animals from Fernando de Noronha archipelago and describes the characterization of the first leptospiral strain ever isolated from an insular setting in Brazil. A total of 1,265 blood samples from domestic (n = 682), synanthropic (n = 133) and wild (n = 450) animals were collected between 2007 and 2014, totalling 12 species. The presence of anti-Leptospira spp. antibodies was investigated by the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), and kidney samples from 20 synanthropic rodents were collected for the isolation of Leptospira spp. The leptospires recovered were further characterized by serogrouping with polyclonal antibodies, whole-genome sequencing and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). The MAT results revealed the presence of agglutinins in 90 samples (7.1%) and the most frequently found serogroup was Icterohaemorrhagiae (n = 57) in practically all species included. Viable leptospires were recovered from one brown rat, and characterization revealed that the isolate belongs to L. interrogans serogroup Pyrogenes. The results suggest that synanthropic rodents might play an important role in leptospiral infection among wildlife and domestic species in the archipelago.

Molecular and serological epidemiology of Leptospira infection in cats in Okinawa Island, Japan

Leptospirosis is a zoonosis caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp. Cats have been reported to be infected with Leptospira spp. and shed the bacteria in the urine. However, the importance of cats as an infection source for humans remains unclear. In this study, Leptospira infection in cats in Okinawa Prefecture, Japan, where leptospirosis is endemic, was investigated by leptospiral antibody and DNA detection using microscopic agglutination test and nested PCR, respectively. Moreover, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and whole genome sequencing (WGS) were conducted on the Leptospira borgpetersenii serogroup Javanica isolated from cats, black rats, a mongoose, and humans. Anti-Leptospira antibodies were detected in 16.6% (40/241) of the cats tested, and the predominant reactive serogroup was Javanica. The leptospiral flaB gene was detected in 7.1% (3/42) of cat urine samples, and their sequences were identical and identified as L. borgpetersenii. MLST and WGS revealed the genetic relatedness of L. borgpetersenii serogroup Javanica isolates. This study indicated that most seropositive cats had antibodies against the serogroup Javanica and that cats excreted L. borgpetersenii in the urine after infection. Further, genetic relatedness between cat and human isolates suggests that cats may be a maintenance host for L. borgpetersenii serogroup Javanica and a source for human infection.

Seroprevalence of leptospirosis in an endemic mixed urban and semi-urban setting-A community-based study in the district of Colombo, Sri Lanka

Leptospirosis is endemic in Sri Lanka. There is a need for updated seroprevalence studies in endemic areas, to improve the understanding of disease dynamics, risk factors, control methods, and for clinical diagnosis. The cut-off titres for the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) for diagnosis of acute leptospirosis depend on community seroprevalence, and can vary based on locality and serovar. This study aimed to identify the seroprevalence, geographical determinants, and associations of seropositivity of leptospirosis in the district of Colombo in Sri Lanka, and to determine diagnostic cut-off titres for MAT in the community studied. This study utilized a stratified cluster sampling model in the Colombo district of Sri Lanka, to sample individuals living in urban and semi-urban areas. Serovar specific MAT titres were measured on recruited individuals using a panel of saprophytic (Leptospira biflexa) and 11 pathogenic Leptospira spp. serovars. Associations between environmental risk factors and MAT positivity were examined, with location mapping using GIS software. A total of 810 individuals were included. The mean age was 51.71 years (SD 14.02) with male predominance (60%). A total of 429 (53%) tested positive at a titer of 1/40 or more for the saprophytic Leptospira biflexa serovar Patoc. Pathogenic serovar MAT was positive at a titer of 1/40 or more for at least one serovar in 269 (33.2%) individuals. From the perspective of screening for clinical disease, serovar-specific cut-off titres of 1/80 for Leptospira spp. serovars Hebdomadis, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Pomona, Ratnapura and Patoc, 1/160 for serovars Pyrogenes and Cynopteri, and 1/40 for other serovars were determined, based on the 75th quartile MAT titre for each serovar. Serovar Pyrogenes (15.9%) had the highest seroprevalence, with serovars Ratnapura, Bankinang and Australis accounting for 9.9%, 9.6% and 9.3% respectively. When the proposed new cut-offs were applied, Bankinang(9.6%) Australis(9.3%), Pyrogenes(6.9%) and Ratnapura(6.9%) were the most prevalent serovars. No significant differences in seroprevalence or serovar patterns were noted between urban and semi-urban settings. Individuals seropositive for Australis, Ratnapura and Icterohaemorrhagiae were clustered around main water bodies as well as around smaller tributaries and paddy fields. Those positive for the serovar Pyrogenes were clustered around inland tributaries, smaller water sources and paddy fields. Associations of MAT positivity included high risk occupational exposure, environmental exposure including exposure to floods, bathing in rivers and lakes, using well-water for bathing, contact with stagnant water, propensity to skin injuries, presence of rats in the vicinity, and proximity to water sources. For pathogenic serovars, high-risk occupational exposure remained statistically significant following adjustment for other factors (adjusted OR = 2.408, CI 1.711 to 3.388; p<0.0001; Nagelkerke R2 = 0.546). High risk occupational exposure was determined to be independently associated with seropositivity. Baseline community MAT titres vary according to serovar, and presumably the locality. Testing against saprophytic serovars is unreliable. Thus, diagnostic MAT titre cut-offs should be determined based on region and serovar, and the use of a single diagnostic MAT cut-off for all populations is likely to result in false negatives.

Leptospira Detection in Cats in Spain by Serology and Molecular Techniques

Leptospirosis is the most neglected widespread zoonosis worldwide. In Spain, leptospirosis reports in people and animals have increased lately. Cats can become infected with Leptospira, as well as be chronic carriers. The aim of this study was to determine serological antibody prevalence against Leptospira sp., blood DNA, and shedding of DNA from pathogenic Leptospira species in the urine of cats in Spain. Microagglutination tests (MAT) and blood and urine TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed. Leptospira antibodies were detected in 10/244 cats; with 4.1% positive results (95% confidence interval (CI): 2.1-7.18%). Titers ranged from 1:20 to 1:320 (serovars Ballum; Bataviae; Bratislava; Cynopteri; Grippotyphosa Mandemakers; Grippotyphosa Moskva; Pomona; and Proechimys). The most common serovar was Cynopteri. Blood samples from 1/89 cats amplified for Leptospira DNA (1.12%; 95% CI: 0.05-5.41%). Urine samples from 4/232 cats amplified for Leptospira DNA (1.72%; 95% CI: 0.55-4.10%). In conclusion free-roaming cats in Spain can shed pathogenic Leptospira DNA in their urine and may be a source of human infection. Serovars not previously described in cats in Spain were detected; suggesting the presence of at least 4 different species of pathogenic leptospires in the country (L. borgpetersenii; L. interrogans; L. kirschneri; and L. noguchii).