Chemistry, distribution, and metabolism of tomato carotenoids and their impact on human health

Lycopene supplementation reduces inflammatory, histopathological and DNA damage in an acute lung injury rabbit model

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of lycopene supplementation on inflammation, lung histopathology and systemic DNA damage in an experimentally induced lung injury model, ventilated by conventional mechanical ventilation and high-frequency oscillatory ventilation, compared with a control group.

METHODS

Fifty-five rabbits sampled by convenience were supplemented with 10mg/kg lycopene for 21 days prior to the experiment. Lung injury was induced by tracheal infusion of warm saline. The rabbits were randomly assigned to the control group and subjected to protective conventional mechanical ventilation (n = 5) without supplementation or the experimental group that was subjected to acute lung injury and provided conventional mechanical ventilation and high-frequency oscillatory ventilation with and without lycopene supplementation (n = 10 rabbits in each group). Lung oxidative stress and the inflammatory response were assessed based on the number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, DNA damage and pulmonary histological damage.

RESULTS

A significant worsening of oxygenation and a decrease in static lung compliance was noted in all groups after pulmonary injury induction (partial pressure of oxygen before 451.86 ± 68.54 and after 71 ± 19.27, p < 0.05). After 4 hours, the high-frequency oscillatory ventilation groups with and without lycopene supplementation as well as the group receiving protective conventional mechanical ventilation with lycopene supplementation showed significant oxygenation improvement compared with the protective conventional mechanical ventilation group without supplementation (partial pressure of oxygen of the group with mechanical ventilation without lycopene of 102 ± 42, of the group that received conventional protective mechanical ventilation with lycopene supplementation of 362 ± 38, of the high-frequency group without lycopene supplementation of 420 ± 28 and of the high-frequency group with lycopene supplementation of 422 ± 25; p < 0.05). Compared with rabbits not receiving supplementation, those in the groups that received protective conventional mechanical ventilation with lycopene supplementation and high-frequency oscillatory ventilation with lycopene supplementation had significantly less inflammation as well as less histological injury (p < 0.05). Compared with rabbits subjected to protective conventional mechanical ventilation, significantly lower DNA damage was observed in rabbits supplemented with lycopene (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Lycopene supplementation reduces inflammatory and histopathological lung injuries, regardless of the associated ventilatory mode. In addition, lycopene improved oxygenation and reduced DNA damage when protective conventional mechanical ventilation was used.

Relative Uptake of Tomato Carotenoids by In Vitro Intestinal and Prostate Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND

Consumption of tomatoes and tomato carotenoids is associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer. Prostate tissue accumulates tomato carotenoids, including lycopene, β-carotene, and phytoene. Phytoene accumulation is relatively greater in the prostate than that of lycopene, but the metabolic determinants of tissue carotenoid profiles are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to determine if differences in stability, cellular uptake, and clearance of phytoene compared with lycopene or β-carotene by prostate and intestinal cells may explain differences in observed tissue carotenoid profiles.

METHODS

Gene and protein expression for carotenoid metabolism in prostate cell lines were analyzed by qRT-PCR and Western blot, respectively. Uptake, efflux, and clearance of phytoene, lycopene, or β-carotene by prostate cell [LNCaP (Lymph Node Carcinoma of the Prostate cell line), RWPE-1 (a human prostate epithelial cell line), and PC-3 (aprostate cancer cell line)] and absorptive enterocyte (Caco-2) cultures were compared. The effect of scavenger receptor class B member 1 (SCARB1) inhibition on carotenoid uptake by LNCaP, RWPE-1, and Caco-2 cells was tested.

RESULTS

SCARB1 was expressed across prostate cell lines. Lycopene, phytoene, and β-carotene uptakes were similar in LNCaP and PC-3 cells, whereas RWPE-1 cells absorbed a smaller portion of the phytoene dose than lycopene or β-carotene doses. The clearance rates of carotenoids from LNCaP cells did not differ. Intestinal cell uptake of phytoene was greatest, followed by β-carotene and lycopene. SCARBI inhibitor treatment did not significantly reduce the uptake or efflux of carotenoids by LNCaP or Caco-2 cells at the dose concentration provided.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this study suggests that greater bioavailability at the point of the intestine and greater stability of phytoene are determinants of the relative enrichment of phytoene in prostate tissue.

Lutein protects senescent ciliary muscle against oxidative stress through the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway

BACKGROUND

Aging-induced decline in ciliary muscle function is an important factor in visual accommodative deficits in elderly adults. With this study, we provide an innovative investigation of the interaction between ciliary muscle aging and oxidative stress.

METHODS

Tricolor guinea pigs were used for the experiments in vivo and primary guinea pig ciliary smooth muscle cells were used for the experiments in vitro.

RESULTS

We enriched for genes associated with muscle-aging-lutein relationship using bioinformatics, including Nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) gene family, Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) gene family, NAD(P)H: Quinone Oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1). After gavage to aged guinea pigs, lutein reduced Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and P21 levels in senescent ciliary muscle; lutein decreased refractive error and restored accommodation of the eye. In addition, lutein increased GPx, SOD, and Catalase (CAT) levels in serum; lutein increased GPx and CAT levels in ciliary bodies. Lutein regulated the expression of proteins such as Nrf2, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1), and downstream proteins in senescent ciliary bodies. Similarly, guinea pig ciliary muscle cell senescence was associated with oxidative stress. In vitro, 100 μM lutein reversed the damage caused by 800 μM H2O2; it reduced Senescence-Associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-Gal) and ROS activites, cell apoptosis and cell migration. Also, lutein increased the expression of smooth muscle contractile proteins. Lutein also increased the expression of Nrf2, GPx2, NQO1 and HO-1, decreased the expression of Keap1. A reduction in Nrf2 activity led to a reduction in the ability of lutein to activate antioxidant enzymes in the cells, thus reducing its inhibitory effect on cell senescence.

CONCLUSION

lutein improved resistance to oxidative stress in senescent ciliary muscle in vivo and in vitro by regulating the Keap1/Nrf2/Antioxidant Response Element pathway. We have innovatively demonstrated the molecular pharmacological mechanism by which lutein reverse age-related ciliary muscle systolic and diastolic deficits.

Carotenoid Supplementation for Alleviating the Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by, among other things, dementia and a decline in cognitive performance. In AD, dementia has neurodegenerative features and starts with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Research indicates that apoptosis and neuronal loss occur in AD, in which oxidative stress plays an important role. Therefore, reducing oxidative stress with antioxidants is a natural strategy to prevent and slow down the progression of AD. Carotenoids are natural pigments commonly found in fruits and vegetables. They include lipophilic carotenes, such as lycopene, α- and β-carotenes, and more polar xanthophylls, for example, lutein, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin. Carotenoids can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and scavenge free radicals, especially singlet oxygen, which helps prevent the peroxidation of lipids abundant in the brain. As a result, carotenoids have neuroprotective potential. Numerous in vivo and in vitro studies, as well as randomized controlled trials, have mostly confirmed that carotenoids can help prevent neurodegeneration and alleviate cognitive impairment in AD. While carotenoids have not been officially approved as an AD therapy, they are indicated in the diet recommended for AD, including the consumption of products rich in carotenoids. This review summarizes the latest research findings supporting the potential use of carotenoids in preventing and alleviating AD symptoms. A literature review suggests that a diet rich in carotenoids should be promoted to avoid cognitive decline in AD. One of the goals of the food industry should be to encourage the enrichment of food products with functional substances, such as carotenoids, which may reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.

Accentuation of the browning characteristics and functional properties of aged tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum cv.)

Moisture-assisted aging technology (MAAT) is a green process that improves browning characteristics and functionalities. This study investigated the physicochemical and functional characteristics of aged tomatoes. MAAT modulated carotenoids biotransformation from esterified to free form (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy 1738, 2851, and 2922 cm-1) and generated primary and secondary oxidation volatiles, such as 4-terpineol, α-terpineol, and γ-terpineol (Headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass), which contributed woody and clove odors. Total flavonoids and α-glucosidase activity inhibitory were significantly increased from 1207.729 to 2318.204 mg RE/100 g DW and 77.703% to 86.851%, respectively. We discovered different synthesis pathways of 5-HMF and furfural under different water activities; this breakthrough may set furfural as an important factor in quality control of MAAT products in the future. Thus, MAAT can modulate the chemical form of tomato carotenoids, improve functionalities, and generate unique woody odor volatiles. These results may be applied to health food development in the food industry.

Carotenoid metabolites, their tissue and blood concentrations in humans and further bioactivity via retinoid receptor-mediated signalling

Many epidemiological studies have emphasised the relation between carotenoid dietary intake and their circulating concentrations and beneficial health effects, such as lower risk of cardiometabolic diseases and cancer. However, there is dispute as to whether the attributed health benefits are due to native carotenoids or whether they are instead induced by their metabolites. Several categories of metabolites have been reported, most notably involving (a) modifications at the cyclohexenyl ring or the polyene chain, such as epoxides and geometric isomers, (b) excentric cleavage metabolites with alcohol-, aldehyde- or carboxylic acid-functional groups or (c) centric cleaved metabolites with additional hydroxyl, aldehyde or carboxyl functionalities, not counting their potential phase-II glucuronidated / sulphated derivatives. Of special interest are the apo-carotenoids, which originate in the intestine and other tissues from carotenoid cleavage by β-carotene oxygenases 1/2 in a symmetrical / non-symmetrical fashion. These are more water soluble and more electrophilic and, therefore, putative candidates for interactions with transcription factors such as NF-kB and Nrf2, as well as ligands for RAR-RXR nuclear receptor interactions. In this review, we discuss in vivo detected apo-carotenoids, their reported tissue concentrations, and potential associated health effects, focusing exclusively on the human situation and based on quantified / semi-quantified carotenoid metabolites proven to be present in humans.

Fate of Amadori compounds in processing and digestion of multi-ingredients tomato based sauces and their effect on other microconstituents

Amadori compounds (ACs), the first stable products of Maillard reaction, are detected in various products of fruits and vegetables, and show an antioxidant activity which can be related to beneficial effects in human health. In order to optimize the nutritional quality of a multi-ingredient tomato sauce (tomato puree - onion - olive oil - dried pepper), the fate of ACs during processing (drying, heating) and gastrointestinal digestion of a model meal was assessed as well as that of other microconstituents, i.e. carotenoids, phenolic compounds and capsaicinoids. The drying at 50 °C of fresh pepper induced the formation and accumulation of ACs after 6 days. During the heat treatment by microwave of multi-ingredient tomato sauce, Maillard reaction occurs in presence of dried pepper and the content in ACs in the tomato-based sauces increased (+33% to + 53%) depending of quantities of dried pepper added. The bioaccessibility of total ACs was 24-31% in duodenal phase and 18-22% in jejunal phase. Individual ACs have shown variable bioaccessibility, e.g. very high for Fru-Arg (50.8% to 71.3%), and very low for Fru-Met (1.8% to 2.2%). The kinetic monitoring of ACs in digestion medium showed that ACs are not stable (-46% in gastric phase, -49 % in intestinal phase) which indicated their potential degradation in the digestive tract. The presence of ACs in the multi-ingredients tomato sauces had no effect on the content of the other bioactive compounds monitored in the study and even promoted the bioaccessibility of total lycopene (+30%) but decreased the bioaccessibility of total phenolic compounds.

Pharmacological potentials of lycopene against aging and aging-related disorders: A review

Aging and aging-related chronic disorders are one of the principal causes of death worldwide. The prevalence of these disorders is increasing gradually and globally. Considering this unwavering acceleration of the global burden, seeking alternatives to traditional medication to prevent the risk of aging disorders is needed. Among them, lycopene, a carotenoid, is abundant in many fruits and vegetables, including tomatoes, grapefruits, and watermelons, and it has a unique chemical structure to be a potent antioxidant compound. This nutraceutical also possesses several anti-aging actions, including combating aging biomarkers and ameliorating several chronic disorders. However, no systematic evaluation has yet been carried out that can comprehensively elucidate the effectiveness of lycopene in halting the course of aging and the emergence of chronic diseases linked to aging. This review, therefore, incorporates previous pre-clinical, clinical, and epidemiological studies on lycopene to understand its potency in treating aging disorders and its role as a mimic of caloric restriction. Lycopene-rich foods are found to prevent or attenuate aging disorders in various research. Based on the evidence, this review suggests the clinical application of lycopene to improve human health and alleviate the prevalence of aging and aging disorders.

Marker assisted early generation identification of root knot disease resistant orange tomato segregants with multiple desirable alleles

Enhanced bioavailability of cis-isomers of lycopene, accumulated in orange-fruited tangerine mutant has broadened the scope of nutritional enrichment in tomato. At the same time, advancements in the field of marker assisted selection (MAS) have made the stacking of multiple desirable alleles through molecular breeding to develop superior tomato genotypes possible. Here we report seedling stage MAS from 146 F2 plants, to identify 3 superior performing, root knot disease resistant orange-fruited segregants. In the selected segregants, fruit weight ranged from 39.2 to 54.6 g, pericarp thickness ranged from 4.56 to 6.05 mm and total soluble solid content ranged from 3.65 to 4.87° Brix. Presence of parental diversity allowed identification of the other desirable alleles of the genes governing late blight and mosaic disease resistance, growth habit (determinate and indeterminate) as well as fruit elongation and firmness. Resistance to root knot disease of the selected 3 segregants was also validated through a unique method employing in vitro rooted stem cuttings subjected to artificial inoculation, where the resistant parent and the selected segregants developed no galls in comparison to ~ 24 galls developed in the susceptible parent. The selected segregants form the base for development of multiple disease resistant, nutritionally enriched orange-fruited determinate/indeterminate tomato lines with superior fruit quality. The study also highlights the utility of early generation MAS for detailed characterization of segregants, through which multiple desirable alleles can be precisely targeted and fixed to develop superior tomato genotypes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-023-01361-1.

Waste and by-products as sources of lycopene, phytoene, and phytofluene - Integrative review with bibliometric analysis

Food loss and waste are severe social, economic, and environmental issues. An example is the incorrect handling of waste or by-products used to obtain bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids. This review aimed to present a comprehensive overview of research on lycopene, phytoene, and phytofluene obtained from waste and by-products. In this study, an integrative literature approach was coupled with bibliometric analysis to provide a broad perspective of the topic. PRISMA guidelines were used to search studies in the Web of Science database systematically. Articles were included if (1) employed waste or by-products to obtain lycopene, phytoene, and phytofluene or (2) performed applications of the carotenoids previously extracted from waste sources. Two hundred and four articles were included in the study, and the prevalent theme was research on the recovery of lycopene from tomato processing. However, the scarcity of studies on colorless carotenoids (phytoene and phytofluene) was evidenced, although these are generally associated with lycopene. Different technologies were used to extract lycopene from plant matrices, with a clear current trend toward choosing environmentally friendly alternatives. Microbial production of carotenoids from various wastes is a highly competitive alternative to conventional processes. The results described here can guide future forays into the subject, especially regarding research on phytoene and phytofluene, potential and untapped sources of carotenoids from waste and by-products, and in choosing more efficient, safe, and environmentally sustainable extraction protocols.

Oxidative Stress and Natural Antioxidants in Osteoporosis: Novel Preventive and Therapeutic Approaches

This review reports in detail the cellular and molecular mechanisms which regulate the bone remodeling process in relation to oxidative stress (OS), inflammatory factors, and estrogen deficiency. OS is considered an important pathogenic factor of osteoporosis, inducing osteocyte apoptosis and varying levels of specific factors, such as receptor activator κB ligand (RANKL), sclerostin, and, according to recent evidence, fibroblast growth factor 23, with consequent impairment of bone remodeling and high bone resorption. Bone loss increases the risk of fragility fractures, and the most commonly used treatments are antiresorptive drugs, followed by anabolic drugs or those with a double effect. In addition, recent data show that natural antioxidants contained in the diet are efficient in preventing and reducing the negative effects of OS on bone remodeling and osteocytes through the involvement of sirtuin type 1 enzyme. Indeed, osteocytes and some of their molecular factors are considered potential biological targets on which antioxidants can act to prevent and reduce bone loss, as well as to promote bone anabolic and regenerative processes by restoring physiological bone remodeling. Several data suggest including antioxidants in novel therapeutic approaches to develop better management strategies for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis and OS-related bone diseases. In particular, anthocyanins, as well as resveratrol, lycopene, oleuropein, some vitamins, and thiol antioxidants, could have protective and therapeutic anti-osteoporotic effects.

The Interindividual Variability of Phytofluene Bioavailability is Associated with a Combination of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms

SCOPE

Phytofluene is a colorless carotenoid with potential health benefits that displays a higher bioavailability compared to carotenoids such as lutein, β-carotene or lycopene. Several studies suggest its bioavailability displays an elevated interindividual variability. The aim of this work is to investigate whether a combination of SNPs is associated with this variability.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Thirty-seven healthy adult males consume a test meal that provides phytofluene from a tomato puree. Phytofluene concentrations are measured at fast and in chylomicrons at regular time intervals after meal intake. Identification of the combination of SNPs that best explained the interindividual variability of the phytofluene response is assessed by partial least squares regression. There is a large interindividual variability in the phytofluene response, with CV = 88%. Phytofluene bioavailability is positively correlated with fasting plasma phytofluene concentration (r = 0.57; p = 2 × 10^-4 ). A robust partial least squares regression model comprising 14 SNPs near or within 11 genes (ABCA1-rs2487059, rs2515629, and rs4149316, APOC1-rs445925, CD36-rs3211881, ELOVL5-rs6941533, FABP1-rs10185660, FADS3-rs1000778, ISX-rs130461, and rs17748559, LIPC-rs17240713, LPL-rs7005359, LYPLAL1-rs1351472, SETD7-rs11936429) explains 51% (adjusted R² ) of the interindividual variability in phytofluene bioavailability.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reports a combination of SNPs that is associated with a significant part of the interindividual variability of phytofluene bioavailability in a healthy male adult population.

Mechanisms Underlying Neurodegenerative Disorders and Potential Neuroprotective Activity of Agrifood By-Products

Neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by progressive loss in selected areas of the nervous system, are becoming increasingly prevalent worldwide due to an aging population. Despite their diverse clinical manifestations, neurodegenerative diseases are multifactorial disorders with standard features and mechanisms such as abnormal protein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation. As there are no effective treatments to counteract neurodegenerative diseases, increasing interest has been directed to the potential neuroprotective activities of plant-derived compounds found abundantly in food and in agrifood by-products. Food waste has an extremely negative impact on the environment, and recycling is needed to promote their disposal and overcome this problem. Many studies have been carried out to develop green and effective strategies to extract bioactive compounds from food by-products, such as peel, leaves, seeds, bran, kernel, pomace, and oil cake, and to investigate their biological activity. In this review, we focused on the potential neuroprotective activity of agrifood wastes obtained by common products widely produced and consumed in Italy, such as grapes, coffee, tomatoes, olives, chestnuts, onions, apples, and pomegranates.

Effects of Lycopene Attenuating Injuries in Ischemia and Reperfusion

Tissue and organ ischemia can lead to cell trauma, tissue necrosis, irreversible damage, and death. While intended to reverse ischemia, reperfusion can further aggravate an ischemic injury (ischemia-reperfusion injury, I/R injury) through a range of pathologic processes. An I/R injury to one organ can also harm other organs, leading to systemic multiorgan failure. A type of carotenoid, lycopene, has been shown to treat and prevent many diseases (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, male infertility, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disease), making it a hot research topic in health care. Some recent researches have suggested that lycopene can evidently ameliorate ischemic and I/R injuries to many organs, but few clinical studies are available. Therefore, it is essential to review the effects of lycopene on ischemic and I/R injuries to different organs, which may help further research into its potential clinical applications.

Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease

Carotenes are fat-soluble pigments found in a variety of foods, the majority of which are fruits and vegetables. They may have antioxidant biological properties due to their chemical makeup and relationship to cellular membranes. And over 700 carotenoids have been found, with—carotene, lutein, lycopene, and zeaxanthin is the most significant antioxidant food pigments. Their capacity to absorb lipid peroxides, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrous oxide is likely linked to their anti-oxidative properties (NO). The daily requirements for carotenoids are also discussed in this chapter. Heart disease is still a prominent source of sickness and mortality in modern societies. Natural antioxidants contained in fruits and vegetables, such as lycopene, a-carotene, and B-carotene, may help prevent CVD by reducing oxidative stress, which is a major factor in the disease’s progression. Numerous epidemiological studies have backed up the idea that antioxidants might be utilized to prevent and perhaps treat cardiovascular illnesses at a low cost. Supplements containing carotenoids are also available, and their effectiveness has been proven. This article provides an overview of carotenoids’ chemistry, including uptake, transport, availability, metabolism, and antioxidant activity, including its involvement with disease prevention, notably cardiovascular disease.

Tomatoes: An Extensive Review of the Associated Health Impacts of Tomatoes and Factors That Can Affect Their Cultivation

Simple Summary

The research outlined in this review paper discusses potential health benefits associated with a diet enriched with tomatoes and tomato products. This includes details of previous studies investigating the anticancer properties of tomatoes, protection against cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and diabetes, maintenance of a healthy gut microbiome, and improved skin health, fertility, immune response, and exercise recovery. The specific parts of a tomato fruit that contribute these health benefits are also outlined. The potential disadvantages to a tomato-rich diet are detailed, especially the consumption of supplements that contain compounds found in tomatoes, such as lycopene. This review also discusses how the cultivation of tomato plants can affect the nutritional value of the fruit harvested. Different environmental growing conditions such as light intensity, growing media, and temperature are explained in terms of the impact they have on the quality of fruit, its nutrient content, and hence the potential health benefits acquired from eating the fruit.

Abstract

This review outlines the health benefits associated with the regular consumption of tomatoes and tomato products. The first section provides a detailed account of the horticultural techniques that can impact the quality of the fruit and its nutritional properties, including water availability, light intensity, temperature, and growing media. The next section provides information on the components of tomato that are likely to contribute to its health effects. The review then details some of the health benefits associated with tomato consumption, including anticancer properties, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and skin health. This review also discusses the impact tomatoes can have on the gut microbiome and associated health benefits, including reducing the risk of inflammatory bowel diseases. Other health benefits of eating tomatoes are also discussed in relation to effects on diabetes, the immune response, exercise recovery, and fertility. Finally, this review also addresses the negative effects that can occur as a result of overconsumption of tomato products and lycopene supplements.

Are Processed Tomato Products as Nutritious as Fresh Tomatoes? Scoping Review on the Effects of Industrial Processing on Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds in Tomatoes

Tomatoes are the second most consumed vegetable in the United States. In 2017, American people consumed 9.2 kg of tomatoes from a fresh market and 33.2 kg of processed tomato products per capita. One commonly asked question by consumers and the nutrition community is "Are processed tomato products as nutritious as fresh tomatoes?" This review addresses this question by summarizing the current understandings on the effects of industrial processing on the nutrients and bioactive compounds of tomatoes. Twelve original research papers were found to study the effects of different industrial processing methods on the nutrients and/or bioactive compounds in tomato products. The data suggested that different processing methods had different effects on different compounds in tomatoes. However, currently available data are still limited, and the existing data are often inconsistent. The USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Legacy was utilized to estimate nutrient contents from raw tomatoes and processed tomato products. In addition, several other important factors specifically related to the industrial processing of tomatoes were also discussed. To conclude, there is no simple "yes" or "no" answer to the question "Are processed tomato products as nutritious as fresh tomatoes?" Many factors must be considered when comparing the nutritious value between fresh tomatoes and processed tomato products. At this point, we do not have sufficient data to fully understand all of the factors and their impacts.

Lycopene attenuates oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis by modulating Nrf2/NF-κB balance in sulfamethoxazole-induced neurotoxicity in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon Idella)

All drugs that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) may lead to mental state changes, including the widely used anti-infective drug sulfamethoxazole (SMZ). Herein, we investigated whether lycopene (LYC) could ameliorate SMZ-induced brain injury and the postulated mechanisms involved. A total of 120 grass carps were exposed under SMZ (0.3 μg/L, waterborne) or LYC (10 mg/kg fish weight, diet) or their combination for 30 days. Firstly, brain injury induced by SMZ exposure was suggested by the damage of BBB (decreases of Claudins, Occludin and Zonula Occludens), and the decrease of neurotransmitter activity (AChE). Through inducing oxidative stress (elevations of malondialdehyde and 8-hydroxy-2 deoxyguanosine, inhibition of glutathione), SMZ increased the intra-nuclear level of NF-κB and its target genes (TNF-α and interleukins), creating an inflammatory microenvironment. As a positive feed-back mechanism, apoptosis begins with activation of pro-death proteins (Bax/Bcl-2) and activation of caspases (caspase-9 and caspase-3). Meanwhile, a compensatory upregulation of constitutive Nrf2 and its downstream antioxidative gene expression (NAD(P)H Quinone Dehydrogenase 1 and Heme oxygenase 1) and accelerated autophagy (increases of autophagy-related genes and p62 inhibition) were activated as a defense mechanism. Intriguingly, under SMZ stress, LYC co-administration decreased NF-κB/apoptosis cascades and restored Nrf2/autophagy levels. The neuroprotective roles of LYC make this natural compound a valuable agent for prevention SMZ stress in environment. This study suggests that LYC might be developed as a potential candidate for alleviating environmental SMZ stress in aquaculture.

Lycopene: A Natural Arsenal in the War against Oxidative Stress and Cardiovascular Diseases

Lycopene is a bioactive red pigment found in plants, especially in red fruits and vegetables, including tomato, pink guava, papaya, pink grapefruit, and watermelon. Several research reports have advocated its positive impact on human health and physiology. For humans, lycopene is an essential substance obtained from dietary sources to fulfil the body requirements. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing oxidative stress and downstream complications include one of the major health concerns worldwide. In recent years, oxidative stress and its counter strategies have attracted biomedical research in order to manage the emerging health issues. Lycopene has been reported to directly interact with ROS, which can help to prevent chronic diseases, including diabetes and neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases. In this context, the present review article was written to provide an accumulative account of protective and ameliorative effects of lycopene on coronary artery disease (CAD) and hypertension, which are the leading causes of death worldwide. Lycopene is a potent antioxidant that fights ROS and, subsequently, complications. It reduces blood pressure via inhibiting the angiotensin-converting enzyme and regulating nitrous oxide bioavailability. It plays an important role in lowering of LDL (low-density lipoproteins) and improving HDL (high-density lipoproteins) levels to minimize atherosclerosis, which protects the onset of coronary artery disease and hypertension. Various studies have advocated that lycopene exhibited a combating competence in the treatment of these diseases. Owing to all the antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-hypertensive properties, lycopene provides a potential nutraceutical with a protective and curing ability against coronary artery disease and hypertension.

Assessment of Food Sources and the Intake of the Colourless Carotenoids Phytoene and Phytofluene in Spain

Phytoene (PT) and phytofluene (PTF), colorless carotenoids, have largely been ignored in food science studies, food technology, and nutrition. However, they are present in commonly consumed foods and may have health-promotion effects and possible uses as cosmetics. The goal of this study is to assess the most important food sources of PT and PTF and their dietary intakes in a representative sample of the adult Spanish population. A total of 62 food samples were analyzed (58 fruit and vegetables; seven items with different varieties/color) and carotenoid data of four foods (three fruits and one processed food) were compiled. PT concentration was higher than that of PTF in all the foods analyzed. The highest PT content was found in carrot, apricot, commercial tomato juice, and orange (7.3, 2.8, 2.0, and 1.1 mg/100 g, respectively). The highest PTF level was detected in carrots, commercial tomato sauce and canned tomato, apricot, and orange juice (1.7, 1.2, 1.0, 0.6, and 0.04 mg/100 g, respectively). The daily intakes of PT and PTF were 1.89 and 0.47 mg/person/day, respectively. The major contributors to the dietary intake of PT (98%) and PTF (73%) were: carrot, tomato, orange/orange juice, apricot, and watermelon. PT and PTF are mainly supplied by vegetables (81% and 69%, respectively). Considering the color of the edible part of the foods analyzed (fruit, vegetables, sauces, and beverages), the major contributor to the daily intake of PT and PTF (about 98%) were of red/orange color.

Biochemical composition of tomato fruits of various colors

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is an economically important and widely cultivated vegetable crop that is consumed both fresh and processed. The nutritional value of tomato fruits is related to the content of carotenoids, polyphenols, sugars, organic acids, minerals and vitamins. Currently, there is a growing interest in the qualitative and quantitative increase in the content of health-promoting compounds in tomato fruits. VIR Lycopersicon (Tourn.) Mill. genetic resources collection includes 7678 accessions of one cultivated and nine wild species, which in turn provides ample opportunities for searching for information on the variability of the content of biologically active substances and searching for sources with a high content of them in the gene pool. Our work presents the results of the study of 70 accessions of cultivated and wild tomato on the main biochemical characteristics: the content of dry matter, ascorbic acid, sugars, carotenoids, chlorophylls and anthocyanins. As the basis for the selection of accessions for the study, accessions with various colors of fruits, including new accessions with varying content of anthocyanin, were taken. As a result of this study, the amplitude of variability in the content of dry matter (3.72–8.88 and 9.62–11.33 %), sugars (1.50–5.65 and 2.20–2.70 %), ascorbic acid (12.40–35.56 and 23.62– 28.14 mg/100 g), titratable acidity (0.14–0.46 and 0.33–0.48 %), chlorophylls (0.14–5.11 and 2.95–4.57 mg/100 g), carotenoids (0.97–99.86 and 1.03–10.06 mg/100 g) and anthocyanins (3.00–588.86 and 84.31–152.71 mg/100 g) in the fruits of cultivated and wild tomatoes, respectively, was determined. We have determined correlations between the content of dry matter and monosaccharides (r = 0.40, p ≤ 0.05), total sugars (r = 0.37, p ≤ 0.05) and ascorbic acid (r = 0.32, p ≤ 0.05); the content of ascorbic acid and carotenoids (r = 0.25, p ≤ 0.05). A high dependence of the content of chlorophyll a and b among themselves (r = 0.89, p ≤ 0.05), as well as between the content of chlorophyll b and anthocyanins (r = 0.47, p ≤ 0.05), the content of β-carotene (r = 0.26, p ≤ 0.05) and the content of monosaccharides (r = –0.29, p ≤ 0.05) has been noted. We have identif ied tomato accessions with a high content of individual chemical substances, as well as with a complex of traits that can be used as sources in breeding for a high content of dry matter, sugars, ascorbic acid, pigments and anthocyanins.

Lycopene alleviates western diet-induced elevations in anthropometrical indices of obesity, adipose lipids, and other nutritional parameters

Objective: Given the unrelenting surge in the prevalence of obesity and the intensified efforts aimed at elucidating underlying mechanisms and proffering effective treatments, this study investigated the effects of lycopene on various anthropometrical indices of obesity. Methods: Thirty female Wistar rats were equally divided into two groups and fed either control diet or Western diet. After eight weeks, obese rats (fed Western diet) were divided into three groups (n=5); obese control received the vehicle, while the other two received lycopene (0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg body weight, respectively). Normal rats were grouped into three (n=5) and treated similarly. This treatment lasted for another two weeks, in addition to their respective diets. Afterwards, anthropometrical indices were taken. Results: The weight gain, adiposity index, abdominal and thoracic circumference, body mass index, and Lee index were significantly increased (p<0.05) in the obese rats compared to the normal control, by 108.3%, 102.1%, 81.5%, 97.6%, 47.4%, and 13.9%, respectively. The obese rats had significantly (p<0.05) higher adipose tissue lipid contents, daily feed (37.4%) and energy intake (66.0%), daily weight gain (108.3%), and feed efficiency (25.5%) compared to control. However, the treatment of obese rats with lycopene occasioned a dose-dependent reduction in the elevated anthropometrical and nutritional parameters. In addition, lycopene elicited significant reductions (p<0.05), ranging from 16-54%, in the adipose lipid contents. Conclusion: The data presented here illustrate the positive effects of lycopene on indices of obesity and other anthropometric parameters in obese female rats.

Lycopene Inhibits Toll-Like Receptor 4-Mediated Expression of Inflammatory Cytokines in House Dust Mite-Stimulated Respiratory Epithelial Cells

House dust mites (HDM) are critical factors in airway inflammation. They activate respiratory epithelial cells to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activate Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). ROS induce the expression of inflammatory cytokines in respiratory epithelial cells. Lycopene is a potent antioxidant nutrient with anti-inflammatory activity. The present study aimed to investigate whether HDM induce intracellular and mitochondrial ROS production, TLR4 activation, and pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (IL-6 and IL-8) in respiratory epithelial A549 cells. Additionally, we examined whether lycopene inhibits HDM-induced alterations in A549 cells. The treatment of A549 cells with HDM activated TLR4, induced the expression of IL-6 and IL-8, and increased intracellular and mitochondrial ROS levels. TAK242, a TLR4 inhibitor, suppressed both HDM-induced ROS production and cytokine expression. Furthermore, lycopene inhibited the HDM-induced TLR4 activation and cytokine expression, along with reducing the intracellular and mitochondrial ROS levels in HDM-treated cells. These results collectively indicated that the HDM induced TLR4 activation and increased intracellular and mitochondrial ROS levels, thus resulting in the induction of cytokine expression in respiratory epithelial cells. The antioxidant lycopene could inhibit HDM-induced cytokine expression, possibly by suppressing TLR4 activation and reducing the intracellular and mitochondrial ROS levels in respiratory epithelial cells.

Skin colour, carotenogenesis and chlorophyll degradation mutant alleles: genetic orchestration behind the fruit colour variation in tomato

The genetics underlying the fruit colour variation in tomato is an interesting area of both basic and applied research in plant biology. There are several factors, like phytohormones, environmental signals and epistatic interactions between genes, which modulate the ripe fruit colour in tomato. However, three aspects: genetic regulation of skin pigmentation, carotenoid biosynthesis and ripening-associated chlorophyll degradation in tomato fruits are of pivotal importance. Different genes along with their mutant alleles governing the aforementioned characters have been characterized in detail. Moreover, the interaction of these mutant alleles has been explored, which has paved the way for developing novel tomato genotypes with unique fruit colour and beneficial phytonutrient composition. In this article, we review the genes and the corresponding mutant alleles underlying the variation in tomato skin pigmentation, carotenoid biosynthesis and ripening-associated chlorophyll degradation. The possibility of generating novel fruit colour-variants using different combinations of these mutant alleles is documented. Furthermore, the involvement of some other mutant alleles (like those governing purple fruit colour and high fruit pigmentation), not belonging to the aforementioned three categories, are discussed in brief. The simplified representation of the assembled information in this article should not only help a broad range of readers in their basic understanding of this complex phenomenon but also trigger them for further exploration of the same. The article would be useful for genetic characterization of fruit colour-variants and molecular breeding for fruit colour improvement in tomato using the well-characterized mutant alleles.

Carotenoid status in type 2 diabetes patients with and without retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the leading causes of blindness. Carotenoids are plant-derived pigments required for general health and particularly for vision. In this study, we evaluated the dietary intake and blood carotenoid levels of type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients with and without DR. A cross-sectional case-control study was conducted among 151 age-matched controls and 344 T2D patients, of which 194 had DR and 150 had no DR (NDR). After a complete ophthalmic examination, the demographic, anthropometric and clinical profiles were obtained. Carotenoids in the plasma were measured by HPLC and dietary intakes were obtained using a food frequency questionnaire. The mean plasma levels of carotenoids (except γ-carotene) were significantly lower in the DR group compared to the Control and NDR groups. The dietary intakes of zeaxanthin, lycopene, α-carotene and β-carotene were significantly lower in the NDR group compared to the Control group, and were further lower in the DR group compared to the NDR group. Plasma carotenoid levels were significantly inversely associated with the duration of diabetes, RBS and HbA1c but positively associated with HDL. This study demonstrated decreased plasma levels and lower dietary intakes of carotenoids in DR subjects.

Lycopene Inhibits Oxidative Stress-Mediated Inflammatory Responses in Ethanol/Palmitoleic Acid-Stimulated Pancreatic Acinar AR42J Cells

High alcohol intake results in the accumulation of non-oxidative ethanol metabolites such as fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) in the pancreas. High FAEE concentrations mediate pancreatic acinar cell injury and are associated with alcoholic pancreatitis. Treatment with ethanol and the fatty acid palmitoleic acid (EtOH/POA) increased the levels of palmitoleic acid ethyl ester and induced zymogen activation and cytokine expression in pancreatic acinar cells. EtOH/POA induces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and pancreatic acinar cell injury. Lycopene, a bright-red carotenoid, is a potent antioxidant due to its high number of conjugated double bands. This study aimed to investigate whether lycopene inhibits the EtOH/POA-induced increase in ROS production, zymogen activation, and expression of the inflammatory cytokine IL-6 in EtOH/POA-stimulated pancreatic acinar AR42J cells. EtOH/POA increased the ROS levels, NADPH oxidase and NF-κB activities, zymogen activation, IL-6 expression, and mitochondrial dysfunction, which were inhibited by lycopene. The antioxidant N-acetylcysteine and NADPH oxidase 1 inhibitor ML171 suppressed the EtOH/POA-induced increases in ROS production, NF-κB activation, zymogen activation, and IL-6 expression. Therefore, lycopene inhibits EtOH/POA-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, zymogen activation, and IL-6 expression by suppressing NADPH oxidase-mediated ROS production in pancreatic acinar cells.

A narrative review on the potential of tomato and lycopene for the prevention of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias

Oxidative stress is a major factor in aging and is implicated in the pathogenesis of tumors, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer Disease (AD). Bioactive constituents of tomato as polyphenols and carotenoids, among which lycopene (LYC) are effective in reducing markers of oxidative stress, and appear to have a protective modulator role on the pathogenetic mechanisms, cognitive symptoms and behavioral manifestations of these diseases in cell cultures and animal models. Epidemiological evidence indicates a consistent association between the intake of tomatoes and reduced cardiovascular and neoplastic risk. LYC deficiency is common in elders and AD patients and it is strongly predictive of mortality and poor cardiovascular (CV) outcomes. Dietary intake of tomatoes seems to be more effective than tomato/LYC supplementation. Limited evidence from human intervention trials suggests that increasing tomato intake, besides improving CV markers, enhances cognitive performances. In this narrative review, we analyze the existing evidence on the beneficial effects of tomatoes on AD-related processes or risk factors. Results support the development of promising nutritional strategies to increase the levels of tomato consumption for the prevention or treatment of AD and other dementias. Extensive well-structured research, however, is mandatory to confirm the neuroprotective effects of tomato/LYC in humans.

Improving the bioavailability of oil-soluble vitamins by optimizing food matrix effects: A review

The potency of oil-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E and K) in fortified foods can be improved by understanding how food matrices impact their bioavailability. In this review, the major food matrix effects influencing the bioavailability of oil-soluble vitamins are highlighted: oil content, oil composition, particle size, interfacial properties, and food additives. Droplet size and aggregation state in the human gut impact vitamin bioavailability by modulating lipid digestion, vitamin release, and vitamin solubilization. Vitamins in small isolated oil droplets typically have a higher bioavailability than those in large or aggregated ones. Emulsifiers, stabilizers, or texture modifiers can therefore affect bioavailability by influencing droplet size or aggregation. The dimensions of the hydrophobic domains in mixed micelles depends on lipid type: if the domains are too small, vitamin bioavailability is low. Overall, this review highlights the importance of carefully designing food matrices to improve vitamin bioavailability.

Effects of three cooking methods on content changes and absorption efficiencies of carotenoids in maize

Maize is a staple source of certain carotenoids for the human diet, but food processing is an important factor affecting the carotenoid content and absorption. In this study, we investigated the content changes of carotenoids in maize under three cooking methods (boiling kernels, preparing porridge and preparing tortilla). Also, using the in vitro digestion model, we assessed the effects of the cooking methods on carotenoid absorption efficiencies (digestion stability, micellization efficiency and bioaccessibility). The results indicated that the carotenoid content obviously increased in the boiled kernels, but its carotenoid bioaccessibility was the lowest compared to that of porridge and tortilla. Tortilla presented the highest digestion stability of β-carotene (309 ± 63%) and bioaccessibility of xanthophylls (22.4 ± 0.5% for lutein and 18.5 ± 1.0% for zeaxanthin) among the three cooked products during in vitro digestion. The contents of carotenoids in the porridge were all the lowest among the three cooked products; however, the low concentration level of xanthophylls reduced the competitive effect on β-carotene micellization, which increased the bioaccessibility of β-carotene to 52.1 ± 5.0%. Additionally, the content of xanthophylls (lutein + zeaxanthin) in digesta significantly and positively correlated with the β-carotene content in digesta, whereas it negatively correlated with the micellization of β-carotene. This correlation between the xanthophylls and β-carotene was not affected by the cooking methods. These results together suggest that tortilla and porridge are better dietary choices for the intake of xanthophylls and β-carotene, respectively, among maize-based foods. Furthermore, the absorption of β-carotene was influenced by the content of xanthophylls whatever the cooking method.

Leptin and Nutrition in Gestational Diabetes

Leptin is highly expressed in the placenta, mainly by trophoblastic cells, where it has an important autocrine trophic effect. Moreover, increased leptin levels are found in the most frequent pathology of pregnancy: gestational diabetes, where leptin may mediate the increased size of the placenta and the fetus, which becomes macrosomic. In fact, leptin mediates the increased protein synthesis, as observed in trophoblasts from gestational diabetic subjects. In addition, leptin seems to facilitate nutrients transport to the fetus in gestational diabetes by increasing the expression of the glycerol transporter aquaporin-9. The high plasma leptin levels found in gestational diabetes may be potentiated by leptin resistance at a central level, and obesity-associated inflammation plays a role in this leptin resistance. Therefore, the importance of anti-inflammatory nutrients to modify the pathology of pregnancy is clear. In fact, nutritional intervention is the first-line approach for the treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus. However, more nutritional intervention studies with nutraceuticals, such as polyphenols or polyunsaturated fatty acids, or nutritional supplementation with micronutrients or probiotics in pregnant women, are needed in order to achieve a high level of evidence. In this context, the Mediterranean diet has been recently found to reduce the risk of gestational diabetes in a multicenter randomized trial. This review will focus on the impact of maternal obesity on placental inflammation and nutrients transport, considering the mechanisms by which leptin may influence maternal and fetal health in this setting, as well as its role in pregnancy pathologies.

Impact of onions in tomato-based sauces on isomerization and bioaccessibility of colorless carotenes: phytoene and phytofluene

Onions as an interesting ingredient have been proved to promote Z-isomerization of lycopene and increase bioaccessibility of total-lycopene. Phytoene (PT) and phytofluene (PTF), the precursors of lycopene, are colorless carotenes, which are attracting much attention and are also abundant in tomatoes. Therefore, onions might also affect the distribution and bioaccessibility of PT and PTF isomers during heating tomato (hot-break and cold-break purees)-onion-extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) sauces. The addition of onions (or diallyl disulfide present in onions) into tomato purees did not cause degradation of PT or PTF; however it favored E/Z-isomerization of PT and PTF by reducing the proportions of their natural Z-isomers (Z-15-PT and Z2,3-PTF) and decreased the bioaccessibility of total-PT and total-PTF. Simultaneously, a complex picture was obtained for the effect of onions on the bioaccessibility of individual PT and PTF isomers, depending on the precise isomer. Bioaccessibility of PT and PTF isomers in tomato-based sauces decreased in the order: 15-Z-PT > all-E-PT; Z2,3-PTF > all-E-PTF > Z4 or Z5-PTF; total-PT > total-PTF. E-isomerization of PT and PTF enhanced by onions during heating tomato-onion purees decreased their bioaccessibility.

Rat intestinal homogenate and pancreatic juice can induce the Z-isomerization of all-E-lycopene in vitro

Lycopene is one of the carotenoids often consumed by humans in their diet. Although lycopene exists mainly in the form of the all E-isomer in foods, the considerable quantity of its Z-isomers is found in the human plasma and liver. This observation suggested that the lycopene all-E-isomer was converted into Z-isomers in the human body. In this study, the Z-isomerization of the all-E-isomer was induced in vitro by the pancreatic juice and small intestinal homogenate of male rats under the conditions of 37 °C, pH = 7.5, nitrogen and darkness, as well as shaking. After 2 hours, the proportion of the all E-isomer decreased to 25% and Z-isomer amounts increased relatively. The converted products were identified as 5, 9, and 11 Z-isomers by electronic absorption spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). The observations from this experiment suggested that the Z-isomerization site of the lycopene all E-isomer was located in the small intestinal wall of the rat.

Lycopene protects against central and peripheral neuropathy by inhibiting oxaliplatin-induced ATF-6 pathway, apoptosis, inflammation and oxidative stress in brains and sciatic tissues of rats

The fact that oxaliplatin (OXL), a platinum-based chemotherapeutic drug, causes severe neuropathy greatly limits its clinical use. This study investigated the effects of lycopene, a potent antioxidant, on OXL-induced central and peripheral neuropathy. In this study, 30 min after oral administration of LY at a dose of 2 mg/kg b.w./day and 4 mg/kg b.w./day on 1 st, 2nd, 4th and 5th days, rats were given 4 mg/kg b.w./day of OXL intraperitoneally. It was detected that LY decreased OXL-induced lipid peroxidation and increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and the levels of glutathione (GSH) in brain tissue. LY showed anti-inflammatory effects by decreasing levels of mitogen-activated protein kinase-14 (MAPK14), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in brain and sciatic tissue. It was determined that OXL-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) decreased because LY administration reduced the expressions of activating transcription factor-6 (ATF6), glucose-regulated protein-78 (GRP78), RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR)-like ER kinase and inositol-requiring enzyme-1 (IRE1). LY administration also reduced the damage of OXL-induced brain and sciatic tissue by increasing NCAM levels and decreasing GFAP levels. It was determined that caspase-3 immunopositivity markedly decreased by OXL and LY in combination. It was also observed that LY provided neuronal protection by increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, which decreased with OXL administration in sciatic tissue. The results demonstrate that LY can be beneficial in ameliorating OXL-induced central and peripheral nerve injuries by showing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties in the brain and sciatic tissue.

Imaging lutein and zeaxanthin in the human retina with confocal resonance Raman microscopy

Lutein and zeaxanthin are xanthophyll carotenoids that are highly concentrated in the human macula, where they protect the eye from oxidative damage and improve visual performance. Distinguishing lutein from zeaxanthin in images of the human retina in vivo or in donor eye tissues has been challenging because no available technology has been able to reliably differentiate between these two carotenoids, which differ only in the position of one C = C bond. Here, we report the differential distributions of lutein and zeaxanthin in human donor retinas mapped with confocal resonance Raman microscopy. Zeaxanthin is highly concentrated in the fovea, extending from the inner to the outer limiting membranes, with especially high concentrations in the outer plexiform layer, while lutein is much more diffuse at relatively lower concentration. Our results imply that zeaxanthin may play a more important role than lutein in human macular health and disease.

Grown to be Blue-Antioxidant Properties and Health Effects of Colored Vegetables. Part II: Leafy, Fruit, and Other Vegetables

The current trend for substituting synthetic compounds with natural ones in the design and production of functional and healthy foods has increased the research interest about natural colorants. Although coloring agents from plant origin are already used in the food and beverage industry, the market and consumer demands for novel and diverse food products are increasing and new plant sources are explored. Fresh vegetables are considered a good source of such compounds, especially when considering the great color diversity that exists among the various species or even the cultivars within the same species. In the present review we aim to present the most common species of colored vegetables, focusing on leafy and fruit vegetables, as well as on vegetables where other plant parts are commercially used, with special attention to blue color. The compounds that are responsible for the uncommon colors will be also presented and their beneficial health effects and antioxidant properties will be unraveled.

Possible mechanisms of lycopene amelioration of learning and memory impairment in rats with vascular dementia

Oxidative stress is involved in the pathogenesis of vascular dementia. Studies have shown that lycopene can significantly inhibit oxidative stress; therefore, we hypothesized that lycopene can reduce the level of oxidative stress in vascular dementia. A vascular dementia model was established by permanent bilateral ligation of common carotid arteries. The dosage groups were treated with lycopene (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) every other day for 2 months. Rats without bilateral carotid artery ligation were prepared as a sham group. To test the ability of learning and memory, the Morris water maze was used to detect the average escape latency and the change of search strategy. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was used to observe changes of hippocampal neurons. The levels of oxidative stress factors, superoxide dismutase and malondialdehyde, were measured in the hippocampus by biochemical detection. The levels of reactive oxygen species in the hippocampus were observed by dihydroethidium staining. The distribution and expression of oxidative stress related protein, neuron-restrictive silencer factor, in hippocampal neurons were detected by immunofluorescence histochemistry and western blot assays. After 2 months of drug administration, (1) in the model group, the average escape latency was longer than that of the sham group, and the proportion of straight and tend tactics was lower than that of the sham group, and the hippocampal neurons were irregularly arranged and the cytoplasm was hyperchromatic. (2) The levels of reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde in the hippocampus of the model group rats were increased, and the activity of superoxide dismutase was decreased. (3) Lycopene (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) intervention improved the above changes, and the lycopene 100 mg/kg group showed the most significant improvement effect. (4) Neuron-restrictive silencer factor expression in the hippocampus was lower in the sham group and the lycopene 100 mg/kg group than in the model group. (5) The above data indicate that lycopene 100 mg/kg could protect against the learning-memory ability impairment of vascular dementia rats. The protective mechanism was achieved by inhibiting oxidative stress in the hippocampus. The experiment was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Fujian Medical University, China (approval No. 2014-025) in June 2014.

Obesity and Insulin Resistance Are Inversely Associated with Serum and Adipose Tissue Carotenoid Concentrations in Adults

BACKGROUND

Low tissue concentrations of carotenoids have been suggested to contribute to insulin resistance in obesity.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the study were to 1) evaluate the relations of adipose tissue and serum carotenoids with body fat, abdominal fat distribution, muscle, adipose tissue and liver insulin resistance, and dietary intake; 2) evaluate the relations and distributions of carotenoids detected in adipose tissue and serum; and 3) compare serum carotenoids and retinol concentrations in subjects with and without obesity.

METHODS

Post hoc analysis of serum and adipose tissue carotenoids in individuals [n = 80; 31 men, 49 women; age (mean ± SEM): 51.4 ± 1.1 y] who participated in 2 separate studies conducted at the Clinical Research Facility at the Garvan Institute of Medical Research (Sydney) between 2008 and 2013. Retinol, α-carotene, β-carotene, ζ-carotene, lutein, lycopene, phytoene, and phytofluene were measured using HPLC. Body composition was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Insulin resistance was measured by 2-step hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps with deuterated glucose (n = 64), and subcutaneous and visceral abdominal volume and liver and pancreatic fat by MRI (n = 60). Periumbilical subcutaneous fat biopsy was performed and carotenoids and retinol measured in the tissue (n = 16).

RESULTS

We found that ζ-carotene, phytoene, and phytofluene were stored in considerable amounts in adipose tissue (25% of adipose tissue carotenoids). Carotenoid concentrations in adipose tissue and serum correlated significantly, but they followed different distributions: ζ-carotene was 3-fold higher in adipose tissue compared with serum, while lutein and lycopene made up 20% and 21% of serum carotenoids compared with 2% and 12% of adipose tissue carotenoids, respectively. Liver (P ≤ 0.028) and adipose tissue (P = 0.023), but not muscle (P ≥ 0.16), insulin resistance correlated inversely with many of the serum carotenoids.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple serum and adipose tissue carotenoids are associated with favorable metabolic traits, including insulin sensitivity in liver and adipose tissue in humans.

A new variety of purple tomato as a rich source of bioactive carotenoids and its potential health benefits

Carotenoid-rich fractions (CRF) from pulp and peel of a new variety of purple tomato were investigated in comparison to a Red Cherry variety regarding carotenoids characterization, antioxidant capacity, and inhibition of proliferation of four tumor cell lines. CRF from peel of Purple tomato contains lutein, lycopene, and β-carotene up to 6, 1.5, and 2.5 times more than that of Red Cherry and it exhibited the highest antioxidant activity at 400 μg/mL, reaching 82% and 97% in DPPH and ABTS^•+ assays, respectively. Besides that, the Purple peel showed the highest scavenging lipoperoxides capacity as well as displayed the highest ferric reducing antioxidant power compared to the other CRF. In turn, the Red Cherry pulp CRF showed the highest antiproliferative activity against four tumor cell lines (MCF-7, NCI-H460, HeLa, and HepG2) at non-toxic concentrations. High concentration of neurosporene, and lycopene in Red Cherry pulp CRF show to be related to the good antiproliferative activity found on it. Therefore, this new variety of nutrient-rich purple tomato could be explored as well as the commercial variety Red Cherry, since both are good sources of dietary carotenoids with health-promoting properties.

Effects of exogenous lipids and cold acclimation on lycopene production and fatty acid composition in Blakeslea trispora

Exogenous lipids serving as stimulators to improve lycopene production in Blakeslea trispora have been widely reported. However, the selection basis of exogenous lipids and their effects on intracellular lipids are not very clear. In this study, five plant oils with different fatty acid compositions were selected to investigate their effects on lycopene production, fatty acid composition and the desaturation degree of intracellular lipids. Among the oils, soybean oil, with a fatty acid composition similar to that of mycelium, exhibited the best stimulating effect on lycopene formation (improvement of 82.1%). The plant oils enhanced the total content of intracellular lipids and the desaturation degree of reserve lipids due to the alteration of fatty acid composition, especially in neutral lipids. Lycopene production was increased with the improved desaturation degree of intracellular lipids, which may be attributed to the enhancement of storage capacity for lycopene in storage lipid, thus reducing the feedback regulation of free lycopene. In addition, the increase of the desaturation degree of reserve lipids through temperature-changing fermentation also enhanced lycopene production. The present study could serve as a basis for a better understanding of the relationship between the fatty acid composition of reserve lipids and lycopene production.

Relation of Fruits and Vegetables with Major Cardiometabolic Risk Factors, Markers of Oxidation, and Inflammation

Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are considered to be the leading cause of death worldwide. Inadequate fruit and vegetable intake have been recognized as a risk factor for almost all NCDs (type 2 diabetes mellitus, cancer, and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases). The main aim of this review is to examine the possible protective effect that fruit and vegetable consumption or their bioactive compounds may have on the development of NCDs such as atherosclerosis. The accumulated evidence on the protective effects of adequate consumption of fruits and vegetables in some cases, or the lack of evidence in others, are summarized in the present review. The main conclusion of this review is that well-designed, large-scale, long-term studies are needed to truly understand the role fruit and vegetable consumption or their bioactive compounds have in atherosclerosis.

Identified trans-splicing of YELLOW-FRUITED TOMATO 2 encoding the PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 protein alters fruit color by map-based cloning, functional complementation and RACE

Found a trans-splicing of PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 alters tomato fruit color by map-based cloning, functional complementation and RACE providing an insight into fruit color development. Color is an important fruit quality trait and a major determinant of the economic value of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Fruit color inheritance in a yellow-fruited cherry tomato (cv. No. 22), named yellow-fruited tomato 2 (yft2), was shown to be controlled by a single recessive gene, YFT2. The YFT2 gene was mapped in a 95.7 kb region on chromosome 3, and the candidate gene, PHYTOENE SYNTHASE 1 (PSY1), was confirmed by functional complementation analysis. Constitutive over expression of PSY1 in yft2 increased the accumulation of carotenoids and resulted in a red fruit color, while no causal mutation was detected in the YFT2 allele of yft2, compared with red-fruited SL1995 cherry tomato or cultivated variety (cv. M82). Expression of YFT2 3' region in yft2 was significantly lower than in SL1995, and further studies revealed a difference in YFT2 post-transcriptional processing in yft2 compared with SL1995 and cv. M82, resulting in a longer YFT2 transcript. The alternatively trans-spliced allele of YFT2 in yft2 is predicted to encode a novel LT-YFT2 protein of 432 amino acid (AA) residues, compared to the 412 AA YFT2 protein of SL1995. The trans-spliced event also resulted in significantly down regulated expression of YFT2 in yft2 tomato, and the YFT2 allele suppressed expression of the downstream genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway and carotenoids synthesis by a mechanism of the feed-forward regulation. In conclusion, we found that trans-splicing of YFT2 alters tomato fruit color, providing new insights into fruit color development.

The Mediterranean Diet as source of bioactive compounds with multi-targeting anti-cancer profile

Many bioactive agents have been extracted from plants or belong to functional foods and have been considered in the treatment of serious and multifactorial diseases, such as cancer. In particular, this review is focused on the anti-cancer properties owned by several natural products typically from the Mediterranean area. In some regions of the South of Italy, a lower cancer incidence has been observed. There is increasing evidence that adherence to a Mediterranean dietary pattern correlates with reduced risk of several cancer types. This could be mainly attributed to the typical lifestyle aspects of the Mediterranean diet, such as high consumption of fruit and vegetables. In this review, the main natural products of the Mediterranean area are discussed, with particular attention on their anti-cancer properties endowed with multi-target profiles.

Testicular toxicity of gentamicin in adult rats: Ameliorative effect of lycopene

The current study was aimed to investigate the ameliorative effect of lycopene against gentamicin-induced testicular toxicity in adult rat testes. Pretreatment with lycopene (4 mg/kg/day) significantly prevented the decrease in the absolute testes weight and relative testes weight and the reduction in sperm count, motility, viability, and daily sperm production in gentamicin (100 mg/kg/day)-treated rats. Gentamicin significantly decreased the level of serum testosterone and testicular lactate dehydrogenase-X and G6PDH activities but a marked increase was observed upon pretreatment with lycopene. Testicular caspase-3 and -9 activities were significantly increased but lycopene showed significant protection from gentamicin-induced apoptosis. Oxidative stress was induced by gentamicin treatment as evidenced by increased hydrogen peroxide level and lipid peroxidation and decreased the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase activities and glutathione content. These alterations were effectively prevented by lycopene pretreatment. Histopathological examination showed loss of spermatogenesis and morphological abnormalities of the testis after treatment with gentamycin. These abnormalities were effectively normalized by pretreatment with lycopene. In conclusion, gentamicin decreases rat testes weight and inhibits spermatogenesis. It induces oxidative stress and apoptosis by possible mitochondrial dysfunction. These data provide insight into the mode of action of gentamicin-induced testicular toxicity and the beneficial role provided by lycopene to restore the suppressed spermatogenesis.