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Maia LB, Maiti BK, Moura I, Moura JJG. Selenium-More than Just a Fortuitous Sulfur Substitute in Redox Biology. Molecules 2023; 29:120. [PMID: 38202704 PMCID: PMC10779653 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29010120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Living organisms use selenium mainly in the form of selenocysteine in the active site of oxidoreductases. Here, selenium's unique chemistry is believed to modulate the reaction mechanism and enhance the catalytic efficiency of specific enzymes in ways not achievable with a sulfur-containing cysteine. However, despite the fact that selenium/sulfur have different physicochemical properties, several selenoproteins have fully functional cysteine-containing homologues and some organisms do not use selenocysteine at all. In this review, selected selenocysteine-containing proteins will be discussed to showcase both situations: (i) selenium as an obligatory element for the protein's physiological function, and (ii) selenium presenting no clear advantage over sulfur (functional proteins with either selenium or sulfur). Selenium's physiological roles in antioxidant defence (to maintain cellular redox status/hinder oxidative stress), hormone metabolism, DNA synthesis, and repair (maintain genetic stability) will be also highlighted, as well as selenium's role in human health. Formate dehydrogenases, hydrogenases, glutathione peroxidases, thioredoxin reductases, and iodothyronine deiodinases will be herein featured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa B. Maia
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology | NOVA FCT, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (I.M.); (J.J.G.M.)
| | - Biplab K. Maiti
- Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, Cluster University of Jammu, Canal Road, Jammu 180001, India
| | - Isabel Moura
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology | NOVA FCT, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (I.M.); (J.J.G.M.)
| | - José J. G. Moura
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology | NOVA FCT, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (I.M.); (J.J.G.M.)
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Doraghi F, Aledavoud SP, Ghanbarlou M, Larijani B, Mahdavi M. N-Sulfenylsuccinimide/phthalimide: an alternative sulfenylating reagent in organic transformations. Beilstein J Org Chem 2023; 19:1471-1502. [PMID: 37799175 PMCID: PMC10548256 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.19.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In the field of organosulfur chemistry, sulfenylating agents are an important key in C-S bond formation strategies. Among various organosulfur precursors, N-sulfenylsuccinimide/phthalimide derivatives have shown highly electrophilic reactivity for the asymmetric synthesis of many organic compounds. Hence, in this review article, we focus on the application of these alternative sulfenylating reagents in organic transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Doraghi
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyedeh Pegah Aledavoud
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Ghanbarlou
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Bagher Larijani
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Mahdavi
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Panny L, Akrhymuk I, Bracci N, Woodson C, Flor R, Elliott I, Zhou W, Narayanan A, Campbell C, Kehn-Hall K. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus E1 protein interacts with PDIA6 and PDI inhibition reduces alphavirus production. Antiviral Res 2023; 212:105560. [PMID: 36822370 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2023.105560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus transmitted by mosquitos that can cause a febrile illness and induce severe neurological complications in humans and equine populations. Currently there are no FDA approved vaccines or antiviral treatments to combat VEEV. Proteomic techniques were utilized to create an interactome of the E1 fusion glycoprotein of VEEV. VEEV E1 interacted with a number of cellular chaperone proteins including protein disulfide isomerase family A member 6 (PDIA6). PDI inhibition through LOC14 and/or nitazoxanide treatment effectively decreased production of VEEV and other alphaviruses in vitro, including eastern equine encephalitis virus, Sindbis virus, and chikungunya virus. Decreased oxidoreductive capabilities of PDIs through LOC14 or nitazoxanide treatment impacted both early and late events in viral replication, including the production of non-infectious virions and decreased VEEV E1 disulfide bond formation. Results from this study identified PDIs as critical regulators of alphavirus replication and potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Panny
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA; Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Ivan Akrhymuk
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Nicole Bracci
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Caitlin Woodson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Rafaela Flor
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA; Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Isaac Elliott
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Weidong Zhou
- Center for Applied Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA, 20110, USA
| | - Aarthi Narayanan
- Department of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA
| | | | - Kylene Kehn-Hall
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA; Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA.
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4
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Wang NC, Chen HW, Lin TY. Association of protein disulfide isomerase family A, member 4, and inflammation in people living with HIV. Int J Infect Dis 2023; 126:79-86. [PMID: 36375691 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2022.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family members are specific endoplasmic reticulum proteins associated with inflammation, obesity, and cancer. In HIV infection, the role of PDI family A, member 4 (PDIA4), is unclear. This study aimed to clarify the association between plasma PDIA4 levels and inflammation in people living with HIV (PLWH). METHODS In this study, 287 PLWH and 74 healthy participants were enrolled. The plasma PDIA4 values, demographic data, laboratory data, and other inflammatory markers were recorded. The association between PDIA4 level and inflammatory extent was analyzed using logistic regression and Spearman rank-order correlations. Other results were analyzed using Student's t-test or chi-square test. RESULTS In PLWH, the PDIA4 levels were positively associated with the inflammatory markers, interleukin 6 (r = 0.209, p = 0.001), and tumor necrosis factor-α (r = 0.162, p = 0.01) levels, but not with high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels. Moreover, the plasma PDIA4 level of PLWH decreased after anti-viral treatment (p = 0.0001). CONCLUSION Plasma PDIA4 levels are closely associated with inflammation in PLWH and have a positive correlation with the viral load during anti-viral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning-Chi Wang
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsuan-Wei Chen
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Te-Yu Lin
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Temereanca A, Ruta S. Strategies to overcome HIV drug resistance-current and future perspectives. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1133407. [PMID: 36876064 PMCID: PMC9978142 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1133407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The availability of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) has revolutionized the course of HIV infection, suppressing HIV viremia, restoring the immune system, and improving the quality of life of HIV infected patients. However, the emergence of drug resistant and multidrug resistant strains remains an important contributor to cART failure, associated with a higher risk of HIV-disease progression and mortality. According to the latest WHO HIV Drug Resistance Report, the prevalence of acquired and transmitted HIV drug resistance in ART naive individuals has exponentially increased in the recent years, being an important obstacle in ending HIV-1 epidemic as a public health threat by 2030. The prevalence of three and four-class resistance is estimated to range from 5 to 10% in Europe and less than 3% in North America. The new drug development strategies are focused on improved safety and resistance profile within the existing antiretroviral classes, discovery of drugs with novel mechanisms of action (e.g., attachment/post-attachment inhibitors, capsid inhibitors, maturation inhibitors, nucleoside reverse transcriptase translocation inhibitors), combination therapies with improved adherence, and treatment simplification with infrequent dosing. This review highlight the current progress in the management of salvage therapy for patients with multidrug-resistant HIV-1 infection, discussing the recently approved and under development antiretroviral agents, as well as the new drug targets that are providing a new avenue for the development of therapeutic interventions in HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aura Temereanca
- Virology Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania.,Viral Emerging Diseases Department, Stefan S. Nicolau Institute of Virology, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Simona Ruta
- Virology Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania.,Viral Emerging Diseases Department, Stefan S. Nicolau Institute of Virology, Bucharest, Romania
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Functions and mechanisms of protein disulfide isomerase family in cancer emergence. Cell Biosci 2022; 12:129. [PMID: 35965326 PMCID: PMC9375924 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-022-00868-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a multi-layered organelle that is essential for the synthesis, folding, and structural maturation of almost one-third of the cellular proteome. It houses several resident proteins for these functions including the 21 members of the protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family. The signature of proteins belonging to this family is the presence of the thioredoxin domain which mediates the formation, and rearrangement of disulfide bonds of substrate proteins in the ER. This process is crucial not only for the proper folding of ER substrates but also for maintaining a balanced ER proteostasis. The inclusion of new PDI members with a wide variety of structural determinants, size and enzymatic activity has brought additional epitomes of how PDI functions. Notably, some of them do not carry the thioredoxin domain and others have roles outside the ER. This also reflects that PDIs may have specialized functions and their functions are not limited within the ER. Large-scale expression datasets of human clinical samples have identified that the expression of PDI members is elevated in pathophysiological states like cancer. Subsequent functional interrogations using structural, molecular, cellular, and animal models suggest that some PDI members support the survival, progression, and metastasis of several cancer types. Herein, we review recent research advances on PDIs, vis-à-vis their expression, functions, and molecular mechanisms in supporting cancer growth with special emphasis on the anterior gradient (AGR) subfamily. Last, we posit the relevance and therapeutic strategies in targeting the PDIs in cancer.
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Palazzo FC, Sitia R, Tempio T. Selective Secretion of KDEL-Bearing Proteins: Mechanisms and Functions. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:967875. [PMID: 35912099 PMCID: PMC9326092 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.967875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In multicellular organisms, cells must continuously exchange messages with the right meaning, intensity, and duration. Most of these messages are delivered through cognate interactions between membrane and secretory proteins. Their conformational maturation is assisted by a vast array of chaperones and enzymes, ensuring the fidelity of intercellular communication. These folding assistants reside in the early secretory compartment (ESC), a functional unit that encompasses endoplasmic reticulum (ER), intermediate compartment and cis-Golgi. Most soluble ESC residents have C-terminal KDEL-like motifs that prevent their transport beyond the Golgi. However, some accumulate in the ER, while others in downstream stations, implying different recycling rates. Moreover, it is now clear that cells can actively secrete certain ESC residents but not others. This essay discusses the physiology of their differential intracellular distribution, and the mechanisms that may ensure selectivity of release.
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Oxidative Stress Evaluation in Dogs Affected with Canine Monocytic Ehrlichiosis. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11020328. [PMID: 35204210 PMCID: PMC8868293 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11020328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The study aimed to evaluate the concentration of reactive oxidative metabolites (R-OOHs), the antioxidant barrier (OXY), and the ratio between R-OOHs and OXY (OSi) and thiol groups of plasma compounds (SHp) in in canine monocytic ehrlichiosis. Thirty dogs affected with monocytic ehrlichiosis (canine monocytic ehrlichiosis group—CME group) and ten healthy dogs (control group—CTR group) were evaluated. CME was diagnosed by the presence of clinical signs and the detection of anti-Ehlichia canis antibodies. Oxidative stress parameters of two groups were compared using the Mann–Whitney test. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Spearman rank correlation was performed to analyze oxidative stress, and hematological and biochemical variables in the CME group. All dogs affected with CME showed a wide spectrum of clinical signs such as lethargy, anorexia, fever, weight loss, lymph adenomegaly, splenomegaly, subcutaneous and mucosal petechial and ecchymosis, and vomiting. Anaemia, leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, hyperglobulinemia, hypoalbuminemia and an increase of blood urea nitrogen and creatinine are also detected. Results showed significantly lower values of SHp in the CME group than in CTR. A statistically significant difference in the number of white blood cells, platelets, and blood urea nitrogen concentration was assayed comparing to the two groups. A negative correlation between SHp and hemoglobin concentration was recorded. These preliminary results may suggest a possible function of oxidative stress in the onset of clinical signs during the course of CME.
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Oxidation and “Unconventional” Approaches to Infection. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INFECTION AND IMMUNITY 2022. [PMCID: PMC8575407 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-818731-9.00182-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Nonpharmacological approaches can be useful to control infectious diseases. Historically infection has been successfully managed with oxidation therapy methods that support the body's own innate defenses. Several modalities include ozone and hyperbaric oxygen therapy, ultraviolet blood irradiation (UBI), intravenous hydrogen peroxide, and ascorbate therapies. Oxidation therapies are virtually 100% safe, and repeatedly reported as highly and quickly effective in quelling infection (bacterial and viral) either as stand-alone therapies or adjunctive with drugs. They are directly and indirectly germicidal, and modulate the immune system via pro-oxidant signaling molecules. Oxidation therapies especially enhance oxygen delivery and metabolism, critical for all infection defenses. Ozone has remitted Ebola, COVID-19, and bacterial infections. UBI defeated most preantibiotic era infections in hospitals. Not being drug therapy, the effects of oxidation defenses, used by planetary animal life for millions of years, are not diminished by antibiotic-resistant organisms. Oxidation, depending on delivery method, can be very inexpensive and third world adaptable. This chapter summarizes the use of these key modalities, by exploring known published literature.
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Sabancı AU, Erkan Alkan P, Mujde C, Polat HU, Ornek Erguzeloglu C, Bisgin A, Ozakin C, Temel SG. Nanobubble Ozone Stored in Hyaluronic Acid Decorated Liposomes: Antibacterial, Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Effect and Biocompatibility Tests. Int J Nanomedicine 2022; 17:351-379. [PMID: 35115773 PMCID: PMC8801396 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s328090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Methods Results Conclusion
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Umit Sabancı
- Bursa Çekirge State Hospital, Orthopedics and Traumatology Clinic, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Perihan Erkan Alkan
- Bursa Uludağ University, Vocational School of Health Services, Medical Laboratory Technician Department, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Cem Mujde
- Çukurova University AGENTEM (Adana Genetic Diseases and Treatment Center), Adana, Turkey
| | - Hivda Ulbeği Polat
- TUBITAK, Marmara Research Center, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Institute, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Cemre Ornek Erguzeloglu
- Bursa Uludag University, Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Translational Medicine, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Atil Bisgin
- Çukurova University AGENTEM (Adana Genetic Diseases and Treatment Center), Adana, Turkey
- Çukurova University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Genetics, Adana, Turkey
| | - Cuneyt Ozakin
- Bursa Uludağ University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Bursa, Turkey
- Correspondence: Cuneyt Ozakin Bursa Uludağ University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Bursa, Turkey Email
| | - Sehime G Temel
- Bursa Uludag University, Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Translational Medicine, Bursa, Turkey
- Bursa Uludağ University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Genetics, Bursa, Turkey
- Bursa Uludag University, Health Sciences Institute, Department of Translational Medicine, Bursa, Turkey
- Sehime G Temel Bursa Uludağ University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Genetics, Bursa, Turkey Email
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Izumida M, Hayashi H, Smith C, Ishibashi F, Suga K, Kubo Y. Antivirus activity, but not thiolreductase activity, is conserved in interferon-gamma-inducible GILT protein in arthropod. Mol Immunol 2021; 140:240-249. [PMID: 34773863 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2021.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported that gamma-interferon inducible lysosomal thiolreductase (GILT) functions as a host defense factor against retroviruses by digesting disulfide bonds on viral envelope proteins. GILT is widely conserved even in plants and fungi as well as animals. The thiolreductase active site of mammalian GILT is composed of a CXXC amino acid motif, whereas the C-terminal cysteine residue is changed to serine in arthropods including shrimps, crabs, and flies. GILT from Penaeus monodon (PmGILT) also has the CXXS motif instead of the CXXC active site. We demonstrate here that a human GILT mutant (GILT C75S) with the CXXS motif and PmGILT significantly inhibit amphotropic murine leukemia virus vector infection in human cells without alterning its expression level and lysosomal localization, showing that the C-terminal cysteine residue of the active site is not required for the antiviral activity. We have reported that human GILT suppresses HIV-1 particle production by digestion of disulfide bonds on CD63. However, GILT C75S mutant and PmGILT did not digest CD63 disulfide bonds, and had no effect on HIV-1 virion production, suggesting that they do not have thiolreductase activity. Taken together, this study found that antiviral activity, but not thiolreductase activity, is conserved in arthropod GILT proteins. This finding provides a new insight that the common function of GILT is antiviral activity in many animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai Izumida
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Hideki Hayashi
- Medical University Research Administrator, Nagasaki University School of Medicine, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Chris Smith
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan; School of Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nagasaki University, Japan; Department of Clinical Research, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom
| | - Fumito Ishibashi
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Koushirou Suga
- Graduate School of Fisheries and Environmental Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan; Organization for Marine Science and Technology, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yoshinao Kubo
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan; Program for Nurturing Global Leaders in Tropical Medicine and Emerging Communicable Diseases, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.
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12
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Flórido M, Chiu J, Hogg PJ. Influenza A Virus Hemagglutinin Is Produced in Different Disulfide-Bonded States. Antioxid Redox Signal 2021; 35:1081-1092. [PMID: 33985344 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2021.0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Aims: Influenza A virus hemagglutinin (HA) binding to sialic acid on lung epithelial cells triggers membrane fusion and infection. Host thiol isomerases have been shown to play a role in influenza A virus infection, and we hypothesized that this role involved manipulation of disulfide bonds in HA. Results: Analysis of HA crystal structures revealed that three of the six HA disulfides occur in high-energy conformations and four of the six bonds can exist in unformed states, suggesting that the disulfide landscape of HA is generally strained and the bonds may be labile. We measured the redox state of influenza A virus HA disulfide bonds and their susceptibility to cleavage by vascular thiol isomerases. Using differential cysteine alkylation and mass spectrometry, we show that all six HA disulfide bonds exist in unformed states in ∼1 in 10 recombinant and viral surface HA molecules. Four of the six H1 and H3 HA bonds are cleaved by the vascular thiol isomerases, thioredoxin and protein disulphide isomerase, in recombinant proteins, which correlated with surface exposure of the disulfides in crystal structures. In contrast, viral surface HA disulfide bonds are impervious to five different vascular thiol isomerases. Innovation: It has been assumed that the disulfide bonds in mature HA protein are intact and inert. We show that all six HA disulfide bonds can exist in unformed states. Conclusion: These findings indicate that influenza A virus HA disulfides are naturally labile but not substrates for thiol isomerases when expressed on the viral surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Flórido
- ACRF Centenary Cancer Research Centre, The Centenary Institute, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Joyce Chiu
- ACRF Centenary Cancer Research Centre, The Centenary Institute, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Philip J Hogg
- ACRF Centenary Cancer Research Centre, The Centenary Institute, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia.,NHMRC Clinical Trials Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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Abstract
Viruses are intracellular parasites that subvert the functions of their host cells to accomplish their infection cycle. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-residing chaperone proteins are central for the achievement of different steps of the viral cycle, from entry and replication to assembly and exit. The most abundant ER chaperones are GRP78 (78-kDa glucose-regulated protein), GRP94 (94-kDa glucose-regulated protein), the carbohydrate or lectin-like chaperones calnexin (CNX) and calreticulin (CRT), the protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs), and the DNAJ chaperones. This review will focus on the pleiotropic roles of ER chaperones during viral infection. We will cover their essential role in the folding and quality control of viral proteins, notably viral glycoproteins which play a major role in host cell infection. We will also describe how viruses co-opt ER chaperones at various steps of their infectious cycle but also in order to evade immune responses and avoid apoptosis. Finally, we will discuss the different molecules targeting these chaperones and the perspectives in the development of broad-spectrum antiviral drugs.
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14
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Mahmood F, Xu R, Awan MUN, Song Y, Han Q, Xia X, Zhang J. PDIA3: Structure, functions and its potential role in viral infections. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 143:112110. [PMID: 34474345 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The catalysis of disulphide (SS) bonds is the most important characteristic of protein disulphide isomerase (PDI) family. Catalysis occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum, which contains many proteins, most of which are secretory in nature and that have at least one s-s bond. Protein disulphide isomerase A3 (PDIA3) is a member of the PDI family that acts as a chaperone. PDIA3 is highly expressed in response to cellular stress, and also intercept the apoptotic cellular death related to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and protein misfolding. PDIA3 expression is elevated in almost 70% of cancers and its expression has been linked with overall low cell invasiveness, survival and metastasis. Viral diseases present a significant public health threat. The presence of PDIA3 on the cell surface helps different viruses to enter the cells and also helps in replication. Therefore, inhibitors of PDIA3 have great potential to interfere with viral infections. In this review, we summarize what is known about the basic structure, functions and role of PDIA3 in viral infections. The review will inspire studies of pathogenic mechanisms and drug targeting to counter viral diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faisal Mahmood
- Molecular Medicine Research Centre of Yunnan Province, Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, 727 Jingming South Road, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Ruixian Xu
- Molecular Medicine Research Centre of Yunnan Province, Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, 727 Jingming South Road, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Maher Un Nisa Awan
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, Kunming University of Science and Technology, 727 Jingming South Road, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Yuzhu Song
- Molecular Medicine Research Centre of Yunnan Province, Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, 727 Jingming South Road, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Qinqin Han
- Molecular Medicine Research Centre of Yunnan Province, Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, 727 Jingming South Road, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Xueshan Xia
- Molecular Medicine Research Centre of Yunnan Province, Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, 727 Jingming South Road, Kunming 650500, China.
| | - Jinyang Zhang
- Molecular Medicine Research Centre of Yunnan Province, Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, 727 Jingming South Road, Kunming 650500, China.
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15
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Aykac K, Ozsurekci Y, Yayla BCC, Gurlevik SL, Oygar PD, Bolu NB, Tasar MA, Erdinc FS, Ertem GT, Neselioglu S, Erel O, Cengiz AB, Ceyhan M. Oxidant and antioxidant balance in patients with COVID-19. Pediatr Pulmonol 2021; 56:2803-2810. [PMID: 34265172 PMCID: PMC8441878 DOI: 10.1002/ppul.25549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A crucial balance exists between oxidant and antioxidant mechanisms in the functional immune system. We aimed to evaluate the contributions of balance between these systems to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a devastating pandemic caused by viral infection. METHOD We analyzed serum oxidant and antioxidant stress parameters according to the clinical and demographic characteristics of children and adults with COVID-19 and compared them against the values of healthy controls. Serum native thiol (NT), total thiol (TT), disulfide, total antioxidant status, total oxidant status, and ischemia-modified albumin levels were evaluated and compared between groups. RESULTS A total of 79 children and 74 adults were evaluated in the present study, including 46 children and 40 adults with COVID-19, 33 healthy children, and 34 healthy adults. TT, NT, and disulfide levels were significantly lower in the adult COVID-19 group than in all other groups (p = .001, p = .001, and p = .005, respectively). Additionally, TT and NT levels were significantly lower in both pediatric and adult COVID-19 cases with severe disease course than mild/moderate course. TT and NT levels were identified as predictors for the diagnosis of the adult COVID-19 cases and as independent predictors for disease severity in both children and adults with COVID-19. CONCLUSION Parameters that reveal the oxidant and antioxidant capacity, including TT and NT, appear to be good candidates for the accurate prediction of the clinical course among patients with COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kubra Aykac
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Ankara Training and Research Hospital, University of Health Science, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Yasemin Ozsurekci
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Burcu Ceylan Cura Yayla
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Ankara Training and Research Hospital, University of Health Science, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sibel Lacinel Gurlevik
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Pembe Derin Oygar
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nuriye Boduc Bolu
- Department of Pediatric Diseases, Ankara Training and Research Hospital, University of Health Science, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Medine Aysin Tasar
- Department of Pediatric Diseases, Ankara Training and Research Hospital, University of Health Science, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Fatma Sebnem Erdinc
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ankara Training and Research Hospital, University of Health Science, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Gulay Tuncer Ertem
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Ankara Training and Research Hospital, University of Health Science, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Salim Neselioglu
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Yildirim Beyazit University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ozcan Erel
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Yildirim Beyazit University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ali Bülent Cengiz
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Ceyhan
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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16
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Ang CG, Carter E, Haftl A, Zhang S, Rashad AA, Kutzler M, Abrams CF, Chaiken IM. Peptide Triazole Thiol Irreversibly Inactivates Metastable HIV-1 Env by Accessing Conformational Triggers Intrinsic to Virus-Cell Entry. Microorganisms 2021; 9:1286. [PMID: 34204725 PMCID: PMC8231586 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
KR13, a peptide triazole thiol previously established to inhibit HIV-1 infection and cause virus lysis, was evaluated by flow cytometry against JRFL Env-presenting cells to characterize induced Env and membrane transformations leading to irreversible inactivation. Transiently transfected HEK293T cells were preloaded with calcein dye, treated with KR13 or its thiol-blocked analogue KR13b, fixed, and stained for gp120 (35O22), MPER (10E8), 6-helix-bundle (NC-1), immunodominant loop (50-69), and fusion peptide (VRC34.01). KR13 induced dose-dependent transformations of Env and membrane characterized by transient poration, MPER exposure, and 6-helix-bundle formation (analogous to native fusion events), but also reduced immunodominant loop and fusion peptide exposure. Using a fusion peptide mutant (V504E), we found that KR13 transformation does not require functional fusion peptide for poration. In contrast, simultaneous treatment with fusion inhibitor T20 alongside KR13 prevented membrane poration and MPER exposure, showing that these events require 6-helix-bundle formation. Based on these results, we formulated a model for PTT-induced Env transformation portraying how, in the absence of CD4/co-receptor signaling, PTT may provide alternate means of perturbing the metastable Env-membrane complex, and inducing fusion-like transformation. In turn, the results show that such transformations are intrinsic to Env and can be diverted for irreversible inactivation of the protein complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Gotuaco Ang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA; (E.C.); (A.H.); (S.Z.); (A.A.R.)
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Erik Carter
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA; (E.C.); (A.H.); (S.Z.); (A.A.R.)
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA;
| | - Ann Haftl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA; (E.C.); (A.H.); (S.Z.); (A.A.R.)
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Shiyu Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA; (E.C.); (A.H.); (S.Z.); (A.A.R.)
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
| | - Adel A. Rashad
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA; (E.C.); (A.H.); (S.Z.); (A.A.R.)
| | - Michele Kutzler
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA;
| | - Cameron F. Abrams
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, College of Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA;
| | - Irwin M. Chaiken
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA; (E.C.); (A.H.); (S.Z.); (A.A.R.)
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17
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Manček‐Keber M, Hafner‐Bratkovič I, Lainšček D, Benčina M, Govednik T, Orehek S, Plaper T, Jazbec V, Bergant V, Grass V, Pichlmair A, Jerala R. Disruption of disulfides within RBD of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein prevents fusion and represents a target for viral entry inhibition by registered drugs. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21651. [PMID: 34004056 PMCID: PMC8206760 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100560r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic imposed a large burden on health and society. Therapeutics targeting different components and processes of the viral infection replication cycle are being investigated, particularly to repurpose already approved drugs. Spike protein is an important target for both vaccines and therapeutics. Insights into the mechanisms of spike-ACE2 binding and cell fusion could support the identification of compounds with inhibitory effects. Here, we demonstrate that the integrity of disulfide bonds within the receptor-binding domain (RBD) plays an important role in the membrane fusion process although their disruption does not prevent binding of spike protein to ACE2. Several reducing agents and thiol-reactive compounds are able to inhibit viral entry. N-acetyl cysteine amide, L-ascorbic acid, JTT-705, and auranofin prevented syncytia formation, viral entry into cells, and infection in a mouse model, supporting disulfides of the RBD as a therapeutically relevant target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateja Manček‐Keber
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Centre of Excellence EN‐FISTLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Iva Hafner‐Bratkovič
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Centre of Excellence EN‐FISTLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Duško Lainšček
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Centre of Excellence EN‐FISTLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Mojca Benčina
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Centre of Excellence EN‐FISTLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Tea Govednik
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Graduate School of BiomedicineUniversity of LjubljanaLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Sara Orehek
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Graduate School of BiomedicineUniversity of LjubljanaLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Tjaša Plaper
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Graduate School of BiomedicineUniversity of LjubljanaLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Vid Jazbec
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Graduate School of BiomedicineUniversity of LjubljanaLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Valter Bergant
- Immunopathology of Virus Infections LaboratoryInstitute of VirologyTechnical University of MunichMunichGermany
| | - Vincent Grass
- Immunopathology of Virus Infections LaboratoryInstitute of VirologyTechnical University of MunichMunichGermany
| | - Andreas Pichlmair
- Immunopathology of Virus Infections LaboratoryInstitute of VirologyTechnical University of MunichMunichGermany
| | - Roman Jerala
- Department of Synthetic Biology and ImmunologyNational Institute of ChemistryLjubljanaSlovenia
- Centre of Excellence EN‐FISTLjubljanaSlovenia
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18
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Lorenzen I, Eble JA, Hanschmann EM. Thiol switches in membrane proteins - Extracellular redox regulation in cell biology. Biol Chem 2020; 402:253-269. [PMID: 33108336 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2020-0266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Redox-mediated signal transduction depends on the enzymatic production of second messengers such as hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfite, as well as specific, reversible redox modifications of cysteine-residues in proteins. So-called thiol switches induce for instance conformational changes in specific proteins that regulate cellular pathways e.g., cell metabolism, proliferation, migration, gene expression and inflammation. Reduction, oxidation and disulfide isomerization are controlled by oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin family, including thioredoxins, glutaredoxins, peroxiredoxins and protein dsisulfide isomerases. These proteins are located in different cellular compartments, interact with substrates and catalyze specific reactions. Interestingly, some of these proteins are released by cells. Their extracellular functions and generally extracellular redox control have been widely underestimated. Here, we give an insight into extracellular redox signaling, extracellular thiol switches and their regulation by secreted oxidoreductases and thiol-isomerases, a topic whose importance has been scarcely studied so far, likely due to methodological limitations. We focus on the secreted redox proteins and characterized thiol switches in the ectodomains of membrane proteins, such as integrins and the metalloprotease ADAM17, which are among the best-characterized proteins and discuss their underlying mechanisms and biological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inken Lorenzen
- Centre of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Structural Biology, Christian-Albrecht University of Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, D-24118Kiel, Germany
| | - Johannes A Eble
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, University of Münster, Waldeyerstr. 15, D-48149Münster, Germany
| | - Eva-Maria Hanschmann
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Life Science Center, Merowingerplatz 1a, D-40225Düsseldorf, Germany
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19
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Suhail S, Zajac J, Fossum C, Lowater H, McCracken C, Severson N, Laatsch B, Narkiewicz-Jodko A, Johnson B, Liebau J, Bhattacharyya S, Hati S. Role of Oxidative Stress on SARS-CoV (SARS) and SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Infection: A Review. Protein J 2020; 39:644-656. [PMID: 33106987 PMCID: PMC7587547 DOI: 10.1007/s10930-020-09935-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has resulted in a global pandemic and is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Several studies have suggested that a precise disulfide-thiol balance is crucial for viral entry and fusion into the host cell and that oxidative stress generated from free radicals can affect this balance. Here, we reviewed the current knowledge about the role of oxidative stress on SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 infections. We focused on the impact of antioxidants, like NADPH and glutathione, and redox proteins, such as thioredoxin and protein disulfide isomerase, that maintain the disulfide-thiol balance in the cell. The possible influence of these biomolecules on the binding of viral protein with the host cell angiotensin-converting enzyme II receptor protein as well as on the severity of COVID-19 infection was discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanzay Suhail
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Jonathan Zajac
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Carl Fossum
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Harrison Lowater
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Cailin McCracken
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Nathaniel Severson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Bethany Laatsch
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Alex Narkiewicz-Jodko
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Benjamin Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Jessica Liebau
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Sudeep Bhattacharyya
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA
| | - Sanchita Hati
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, USA.
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20
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Tanaka LY, Oliveira PVS, Laurindo FRM. Peri/Epicellular Thiol Oxidoreductases as Mediators of Extracellular Redox Signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal 2020; 33:280-307. [PMID: 31910038 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2019.8012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Supracellular redox networks regulating cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) and organ system architecture merge with structural and functional (catalytic or allosteric) properties of disulfide bonds. This review addresses emerging evidence that exported thiol oxidoreductases (TORs), such as thioredoxin, protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs), quiescin sulfhydryl oxidases (QSOX)1, and peroxiredoxins, composing a peri/epicellular (pec)TOR pool, mediate relevant signaling. pecTOR functions depend mainly on kinetic and spatial regulation of thiol-disulfide exchange reactions governed by redox potentials, which are modulated by exported intracellular low-molecular-weight thiols, together conferring signal specificity. Recent Advances: pecTOR redox-modulates several targets including integrins, ECM proteins, surface molecules, and plasma components, although clear-cut documentation of direct effects is lacking in many cases. TOR catalytic pathways, displaying common patterns, culminate in substrate thiol reduction, oxidation, or isomerization. Peroxiredoxins act as redox/peroxide sensors, contrary to PDIs, which are likely substrate-targeted redox modulators. Emerging evidence suggests important pecTOR roles in patho(physio)logical processes, including blood coagulation, vascular remodeling, mechanosensing, endothelial function, immune responses, and inflammation. Critical Issues: Effects of pecPDIs supporting thrombosis/platelet activation have been well documented and reached the clinical arena. Roles of pecPDIA1 in vascular remodeling/mechanosensing are also emerging. Extracellular thioredoxin and pecPDIs redox-regulate immunoinflammation. Routes of TOR externalization remain elusive and appear to involve Golgi-independent routes. pecTORs are particularly accessible drug targets. Future Directions: Further understanding mechanisms of thiol redox reactions and developing assays for assessing pecTOR redox activities remain important research avenues. Also, addressing pecTORs as disease markers and achieving more efficient/specific drugs for pecTOR modulation are major perspectives for diagnostic/therapeutic improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Y Tanaka
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, LIM-64 (Translational Cardiovascular Biology), Instituto do Coracao (InCor), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Percillia V S Oliveira
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, LIM-64 (Translational Cardiovascular Biology), Instituto do Coracao (InCor), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francisco R M Laurindo
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, LIM-64 (Translational Cardiovascular Biology), Instituto do Coracao (InCor), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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21
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Ang CG, Hossain MA, Rajpara M, Bach H, Acharya K, Dick A, Rashad AA, Kutzler M, Abrams CF, Chaiken I. Metastable HIV-1 Surface Protein Env Sensitizes Cell Membranes to Transformation and Poration by Dual-Acting Virucidal Entry Inhibitors. Biochemistry 2020; 59:818-828. [PMID: 31942789 PMCID: PMC7362902 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.9b01008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Dual-acting virucidal entry inhibitors (DAVEIs) have previously been shown to cause irreversible inactivation of HIV-1 Env-presenting pseudovirus by lytic membrane transformation. This study examined whether this transformation could be generalized to include membranes of Env-presenting cells. Flow cytometry was used to analyze HEK293T cells transiently transfected with increasing amounts of DNA encoding JRFL Env, loaded with calcein dye, and treated with serial dilutions of microvirin (Q831K/M83R)-DAVEI. Comparing calcein retention against intact Env expression (via Ab 35O22) on individual cells revealed effects proportional to Env expression. "Low-Env" cells experienced transient poration and calcein leakage, while "high-Env" cells were killed. The cell-killing effect was confirmed with an independent mitochondrial activity-based cell viability assay, showing dose-dependent cytotoxicity in response to DAVEI treatment. Transfection with increasing quantities of Env DNA showed further shifts toward "High-Env" expression and cytotoxicity, further reinforcing the Env dependence of the observed effect. Controls with unlinked DAVEI components showed no effect on calcein leakage or cell viability, confirming a requirement for covalently linked DAVEI compounds to achieve Env transformation. These data demonstrate that the metastability of Env is an intrinsic property of the transmembrane protein complex and can be perturbed to cause membrane disruption in both virus and cell contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles G Ang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Md Alamgir Hossain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
| | - Marg Rajpara
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
| | - Harry Bach
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Kriti Acharya
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
| | - Alexej Dick
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
| | - Adel A Rashad
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
| | - Michele Kutzler
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
| | - Cameron F Abrams
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, College of Engineering , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19104 , United States
| | - Irwin Chaiken
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine , Drexel University , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 19102 , United States
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22
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Angrisano F, Sala KA, Tapanelli S, Christophides GK, Blagborough AM. Male-Specific Protein Disulphide Isomerase Function is Essential for Plasmodium Transmission and a Vulnerable Target for Intervention. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18300. [PMID: 31797966 PMCID: PMC6892906 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54613-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibiting transmission of Plasmodium is an essential strategy in malaria eradication, and the biological process of gamete fusion during fertilization is a proven target for this approach. Lack of knowledge of the mechanisms underlying fertilization have been a hindrance in the development of transmission-blocking interventions. Here we describe a protein disulphide isomerase essential for malarial transmission (PDI-Trans/PBANKA_0820300) to the mosquito. We show that PDI-Trans activity is male-specific, surface-expressed, essential for fertilization/transmission, and exhibits disulphide isomerase activity which is up-regulated post-gamete activation. We demonstrate that PDI-Trans is a viable anti-malarial drug and vaccine target blocking malarial transmission with the use of PDI inhibitor bacitracin (98.21%/92.48% reduction in intensity/prevalence), and anti-PDI-Trans antibodies (66.22%/33.16% reduction in intensity/prevalence). To our knowledge, these results provide the first evidence that PDI function is essential for malarial transmission, and emphasize the potential of anti-PDI agents to act as anti-malarials, facilitating the future development of novel transmission-blocking interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Angrisano
- Division of Microbiology and Parasitology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, United Kingdom
| | - Katarzyna A Sala
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Sofia Tapanelli
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - George K Christophides
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew M Blagborough
- Division of Microbiology and Parasitology, Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, United Kingdom. .,Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.
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23
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Lundberg M, Mattsson Å, Reiser K, Holmgren A, Curbo S. Inhibition of the thioredoxin system by PX-12 (1-methylpropyl 2-imidazolyl disulfide) impedes HIV-1 infection in TZM-bl cells. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5656. [PMID: 30948772 PMCID: PMC6449384 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42068-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) entry is initiated by the binding between the viral envelope glycoprotein gp120 and the host receptor CD4, and followed by reduction of structural disulfides of gp120 and CD4. The host thioredoxin-1 (Trx1) efficiently reduces disulfides of gp120 and CD4 in vitro, and recently CD4-dependent HIV-1 entry was shown to be inhibited by anti-Trx1-antibodies, indicating a central role for Trx1. 1-methylpropyl-2-imidazolyl disulfide (PX-12) is a reversible inhibitor of the Trx1 system that may also cause a slow irreversible thioalkylation of Trx1. It was developed as an antitumor agent, however, the current study aimed to determine if it also has an anti-HIV-1 effect. We show that PX-12 has anti-HIV-1(IIIB) activity in TZM-bl cells, in fact, no virus was detected inside the cells in the presence of 10 µM PX-12. Moreover, PX-12 inhibited the enzymatic activity of Trx1 and the Trx1-dependent disulfide reduction of gp120. Microtubule polymerization and formation of acetylated microtubules were also inhibited, activities shown to be required for HIV-1 life cycle propagation. In conclusion, our data strengthens the notion that the early steps of the HIV-1 life cycle depends on the Trx1 system and indicate that the Trx1 system may be a rational drug target for HIV-1 treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Lundberg
- Department of Clinical Science and Education, Södersjukhuset, Internal medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Åse Mattsson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kathrin Reiser
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Arne Holmgren
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sophie Curbo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Microbiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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24
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Christensen S, McMahon RM, Martin JL, Huston WM. Life inside and out: making and breaking protein disulfide bonds in Chlamydia. Crit Rev Microbiol 2019; 45:33-50. [PMID: 30663449 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2018.1538933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Disulphide bonds are widely used among all domains of life to provide structural stability to proteins and to regulate enzyme activity. Chlamydia spp. are obligate intracellular bacteria that are especially dependent on the formation and degradation of protein disulphide bonds. Members of the genus Chlamydia have a unique biphasic developmental cycle alternating between two distinct cell types; the extracellular infectious elementary body (EB) and the intracellular replicating reticulate body. The proteins in the envelope of the EB are heavily cross-linked with disulphides and this is known to be critical for this infectious phase. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of what is known about the redox state of chlamydial envelope proteins throughout the developmental cycle. We focus especially on the factors responsible for degradation and formation of disulphide bonds in Chlamydia and how this system compares with redox regulation in other organisms. Focussing on the unique biology of Chlamydia enables us to provide important insights into how specialized suites of disulphide bond (Dsb) proteins cater for specific bacterial environments and lifecycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Signe Christensen
- a Division of Chemistry and Structural Biology , Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland , St. Lucia , QLD , Australia.,b Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University , Nathan , QLD , Australia
| | - Róisín M McMahon
- b Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University , Nathan , QLD , Australia
| | - Jennifer L Martin
- b Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University , Nathan , QLD , Australia
| | - Wilhelmina M Huston
- c School of Life Sciences , University of Technology Sydney , Ultimo , NSW , Australia
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25
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Benedikter BJ, Weseler AR, Wouters EFM, Savelkoul PHM, Rohde GGU, Stassen FRM. Redox-dependent thiol modifications: implications for the release of extracellular vesicles. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:2321-2337. [PMID: 29594387 PMCID: PMC5986851 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2806-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including microvesicles and exosomes, are emerging as important regulators of homeostasis and pathophysiology. During pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant conditions, EV release is induced. As EVs released under such conditions often exert pro-inflammatory and procoagulant effects, they may actively promote the pathogenesis of chronic diseases. There is evidence that thiol group-containing antioxidants can prevent EV induction by pro-inflammatory and oxidative stimuli, likely by protecting protein thiols of the EV-secreting cells from oxidation. As the redox state of protein thiols greatly impacts three-dimensional protein structure and, consequently, function, redox modifications of protein thiols may directly modulate EV release in response to changes in the cell's redox environment. In this review article, we discuss targets of redox-dependent thiol modifications that are known or expected to be involved in the regulation of EV release, namely redox-sensitive calcium channels, N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor, protein disulfide isomerase, phospholipid flippases, actin filaments, calpains and cell surface-exposed thiols. Thiol protection is proposed as a strategy for preventing detrimental changes in EV signaling in response to inflammation and oxidative stress. Identification of the thiol-containing proteins that modulate EV release in pro-oxidant environments could provide a rationale for broad application of thiol group-containing antioxidants in chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birke J Benedikter
- Department of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Antje R Weseler
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Emiel F M Wouters
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Paul H M Savelkoul
- Department of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, P.O. Box 7057, 1007 MB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gernot G U Rohde
- Medical Clinic I, Department of Respiratory Medicine, Goethe University Hospital, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Frank R M Stassen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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26
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Schaefer K, Webb NE, Pang M, Hernandez-Davies JE, Lee KP, Gonzalez P, Douglass MV, Lee B, Baum LG. Galectin-9 binds to O-glycans on protein disulfide isomerase. Glycobiology 2018; 27:878-887. [PMID: 28810662 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwx065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Changes in the T cell surface redox environment regulate critical cell functions, such as cell migration, viral entry and cytokine production. Cell surface protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) contributes to the regulation of T cell surface redox status. Cell surface PDI can be released into the extracellular milieu or can be internalized by T cells. We have found that galectin-9, a soluble lectin expressed by T cells, endothelial cells and dendritic cells, binds to and retains PDI on the cell surface. While endogenous galectin-9 is not required for basal cell surface PDI expression, exogenous galectin-9 mediated retention of cell surface PDI shifted the disulfide/thiol equilibrium on the T cell surface. O-glycans on PDI are required for galectin-9 binding, and PDI recognition appears to be specific for galectin-9, as galectin-1 and galectin-3 do not bind PDI. Galectin-9 is widely expressed by immune and endothelial cells in inflamed tissues, suggesting that T cells would be exposed to abundant galectin-9, in cis and in trans, in infectious or autoimmune conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicholas E Webb
- Department of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Mabel Pang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
| | | | | | | | | | - Benhur Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine, Mount Sinai, New York, USA
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27
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Kim Y, Chang KO. Protein disulfide isomerases as potential therapeutic targets for influenza A and B viruses. Virus Res 2018; 247:26-33. [PMID: 29382552 PMCID: PMC5831498 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 01/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Seasonal flu as well as potential pandemic flu outbreaks continuously underscores the importance of the preventive and therapeutic measures against influenza viruses. During screening of natural and synthetic small molecules against influenza A and B virus, we identified juniferdin as a highly effective inhibitor against both viruses in cells. Since juniferdin is known to inhibit protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs), multiple PDI inhibitors were tested against these viruses. Among PDI inhibitors, 16F16, PACMA31, isoquercetin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate or nitazoxanide significantly reduced the replication of influenza A and B viruses in MDCK and A549 cells. Furthermore, siRNAs specific to three PDI family members (PDI1, PDIA3 or PDIA4) also significantly reduced the replication of influenza A and B viruses in cells. These results suggest that PDIs may serve as excellent targets for the development of new anti-influenza drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunjeong Kim
- Department of Pathobiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA
| | - Kyeong-Ok Chang
- Department of Pathobiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66506, USA.
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28
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Kubo Y, Izumida M, Yashima Y, Yoshii-Kamiyama H, Tanaka Y, Yasui K, Hayashi H, Matsuyama T. Gamma-interferon-inducible, lysosome/endosome-localized thiolreductase, GILT, has anti-retroviral activity and its expression is counteracted by HIV-1. Oncotarget 2018; 7:71255-71273. [PMID: 27655726 PMCID: PMC5342076 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.12104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism by which type II interferon (IFN) inhibits virus replications remains to be identified. Murine leukemia virus (MLV) replication was significantly restricted by γ-IFN, but not human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication. Because MLV enters host cells via endosomes, we speculated that certain cellular factors among γ-IFN-induced, endosome-localized proteins inhibit MLV replication. We found that γ-IFN-inducible lysosomal thiolreductase (GILT) significantly restricts HIV-1 replication as well as MLV replication by its thiolreductase activity. GILT silencing enhanced replication-defective HIV-1 vector infection and virion production in γ-IFN-treated cells, although γ-IFN did not inhibit HIV-1 replication. This result showed that GILT is required for the anti-viral activity of γ-IFN. Interestingly, GILT protein level was increased by γ-IFN in uninfected cells and env-deleted HIV-1-infected cells, but not in full-length HIV-1-infected cells. γ-IFN-induced transcription from the γ-IFN-activation sequence was attenuated by the HIV-1 Env protein. These results suggested that the γ-IFN cannot restrict HIV-1 replication due to the inhibition of γ-IFN signaling by HIV-1 Env. Finally, we found that 4,4′-dithiodipyridine (4-PDS), which inhibits S-S bond formation at acidic pH, significantly suppresses HIV-1 vector infection and virion production, like GILT. In conclusion, this study showed that GILT functions as a host restriction factor against the retroviruses, and a GILT mimic, 4-PDS, is the leading compound for the development of novel concept of anti-viral agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinao Kubo
- Division of Cytokine Signaling, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.,Department of AIDS Research, Institute of Tropical Medicine, G-COE, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Mai Izumida
- Division of Cytokine Signaling, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yuka Yashima
- Division of Cytokine Signaling, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Haruka Yoshii-Kamiyama
- Division of Cytokine Signaling, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.,Department of AIDS Research, Institute of Tropical Medicine, G-COE, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yuetsu Tanaka
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Yasui
- Division of Cytokine Signaling, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Hideki Hayashi
- Division of Cytokine Signaling, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Toshifumi Matsuyama
- Division of Cytokine Signaling, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.,Present address: Department of Gastroenterology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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29
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Redundancy of protein disulfide isomerases in the catalysis of the inactivating disulfide switch in A Disintegrin and Metalloprotease 17. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1103. [PMID: 29348576 PMCID: PMC5773583 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19429-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A Disintegrin and Metalloprotease 17 (ADAM17) can cause the fast release of growth factors and inflammatory mediators from the cell surface. Its activity has to be turned on which occurs by various stimuli. The active form can be inactivated by a structural change in its ectodomain, related to the pattern of the formed disulphide bridges. The switch-off is executed by protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs) that catalyze an isomerization of two disulfide bridges and thereby cause a disulfide switch. We demonstrate that the integrity of the CGHC-motif within the active site of PDIs is indispensable. In particular, no major variation is apparent in the activities of the two catalytic domains of PDIA6. The affinities between PDIA1, PDIA3, PDIA6 and the targeted domain of ADAM17 are all in the nanomolar range and display no significant differences. The redundancy between PDIs and their disulfide switch activity in ectodomains of transmembrane proteins found in vitro appears to be a basic characteristic. However, different PDIs might be required in vivo for disulfide switches in different tissues and under different cellular and physiological situations.
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30
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Schäfer M, Granato DC, Krossa S, Bartels AK, Yokoo S, Düsterhöft S, Koudelka T, Scheidig AJ, Tholey A, Paes Leme AF, Grötzinger J, Lorenzen I. GRP78 protects a disintegrin and metalloprotease 17 against protein-disulfide isomerase A6 catalyzed inactivation. FEBS Lett 2017; 591:3567-3587. [PMID: 28949004 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The shedding of ectodomains is a crucial mechanism in many physiological and pathological events. A disintegrin and metalloprotease-17 (ADAM17) is a key sheddase involved in essential processes, such as development, regeneration, and immune defense. ADAM17 exists in two conformations which differ in their disulfide connection in the membrane-proximal domain (MPD). Protein-disulfide isomerases (PDIs) on the cell surface convert the open MPD into a rigid closed form, which corresponds to inactive ADAM17. ADAM17 is expressed in its open activatable form in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and consequently must be protected against ER-resident PDI activity. Here, we show that the chaperone 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) protects the MPD against PDI-dependent disulfide-bond isomerization by binding to this domain and, thereby, preventing ADAM17 inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Schäfer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Daniela C Granato
- Laboratório de Espectrometria de Massas, Laboratório Nacional de Biociências, LNBio, CNPEM, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Sebastian Krossa
- Department of Structural Biology, Institute of Zoology, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Sami Yokoo
- Laboratório de Espectrometria de Massas, Laboratório Nacional de Biociências, LNBio, CNPEM, Campinas, Brazil
| | | | - Tomas Koudelka
- Division of Systematic Proteome Research, Institute for Experimental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Axel J Scheidig
- Department of Structural Biology, Institute of Zoology, Kiel, Germany
| | - Andreas Tholey
- Division of Systematic Proteome Research, Institute for Experimental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Adriana F Paes Leme
- Laboratório de Espectrometria de Massas, Laboratório Nacional de Biociências, LNBio, CNPEM, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Joachim Grötzinger
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Inken Lorenzen
- Institute of Biochemistry, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Structural Biology, Institute of Zoology, Kiel, Germany
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31
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Araujo TLS, Zeidler JD, Oliveira PVS, Dias MH, Armelin HA, Laurindo FRM. Protein disulfide isomerase externalization in endothelial cells follows classical and unconventional routes. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 103:199-208. [PMID: 28034831 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular protein disulfide isomerase (PDIA1) pool mediates thrombosis and vascular remodeling, however its externalization mechanisms remain unclear. We performed systematic pharmacological screening of secretory pathways affecting extracellular PDIA1 in endothelial cells (EC). We identified cell-surface (csPDIA1) and secreted non-particulated PDIA1 pools in EC. Such Golgi bypass also occurred for secreted PDIA1 in EC at baseline or after PMA, thrombin or ATP stimulation. Inhibitors of Type I, II and III unconventional routes, secretory lysosomes and recycling endosomes, including syntaxin-12 deletion, did not impair EC PDIA1 externalization. This suggests predominantly Golgi-independent unconventional secretory route(s), which were GRASP55-independent. Also, these data reinforce a vesicular-type traffic for PDIA1. We further showed that PDIA1 traffic is ATP-independent, while actin or tubulin cytoskeletal disruption markedly increased EC PDIA1 secretion. Clathrin inhibition enhanced extracellular soluble PDIA1, suggesting dynamic cycling. Externalized PDIA1 represents <2% of intracellular PDIA1. PDIA1 was robustly secreted by physiological levels of arterial laminar shear in EC and supported alpha 5 integrin thiol oxidation. Such results help clarify signaling and homeostatic mechanisms involved in multiple (patho)physiological extracellular PDIA1 functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaís L S Araujo
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Julianna D Zeidler
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Percíllia V S Oliveira
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil
| | - Matheus H Dias
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil; Laboratório Especial de Ciclo Celular (LECC), Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling - CeTICS-Cepid, Instituto Butantan, Brazil
| | - Hugo A Armelin
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil; Laboratório Especial de Ciclo Celular (LECC), Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling - CeTICS-Cepid, Instituto Butantan, Brazil
| | - Francisco R M Laurindo
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine, São Paulo 05403-000, Brazil.
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32
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Soares Moretti AI, Martins Laurindo FR. Protein disulfide isomerases: Redox connections in and out of the endoplasmic reticulum. Arch Biochem Biophys 2016; 617:106-119. [PMID: 27889386 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerases are thiol oxidoreductase chaperones from thioredoxin superfamily. As redox folding catalysts from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), their roles in ER-related redox homeostasis and signaling are well-studied. PDIA1 exerts thiol oxidation/reduction and isomerization, plus chaperone effects. Also, substantial evidence indicates that PDIs regulate thiol-disulfide switches in other cell locations such as cell surface and possibly cytosol. Subcellular PDI translocation routes remain unclear and seem Golgi-independent. The list of signaling and structural proteins reportedly regulated by PDIs keeps growing, via thiol switches involving oxidation, reduction and isomerization, S-(de)nytrosylation, (de)glutathyonylation and protein oligomerization. PDIA1 is required for agonist-triggered Nox NADPH oxidase activation and cell migration in vascular cells and macrophages, while PDIA1-dependent cytoskeletal regulation appears a converging pathway. Extracellularly, PDIs crucially regulate thiol redox signaling of thrombosis/platelet activation, e.g., integrins, and PDIA1 supports expansive caliber remodeling during injury repair via matrix/cytoskeletal organization. Some proteins display regulatory PDI-like motifs. PDI effects are orchestrated by expression levels or post-translational modifications. PDI is redox-sensitive, although probably not a mass-effect redox sensor due to kinetic constraints. Rather, the "all-in-one" organization of its peculiar redox/chaperone properties likely provide PDIs with precision and versatility in redox signaling, making them promising therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Iochabel Soares Moretti
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo, School of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil
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33
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Liu X, Hu D, Jiang Z, Zhuang J, Xu Y, Guo X, Thayumanavan S. Multi-Stimuli-Responsive Amphiphilic Assemblies through Simple Postpolymerization Modifications. Macromolecules 2016; 49:6186-6192. [PMID: 29353939 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
A strategy to construct different stimuli responsive polymers from post polymerization modifications of a single polymer scaffold via thiol-disulfide exchange has been developed. Here, we report on a random copolymer that enables the design and syntheses of a series of dual or multi-stimuli responsive nanoassemblies using a simple post-polymerization modification step. The reactive functional group involves a side chain monopyridyl disulfide unit, which rapidly and quantitatively reacts with various thiols under mild conditions. Independent and concurrent incorporation of physical, chemical or biologically responsive properties have been demonstrated. We envision that this strategy may open up opportunities to simplify the synthesis of multi-functional polymers with broad implications in a variety of biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaochi Liu
- State-Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China.,Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Ameherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Ding Hu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Ameherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Ziwen Jiang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Ameherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Jiaming Zhuang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Ameherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Yisheng Xu
- State-Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xuhong Guo
- State-Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - S Thayumanavan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Ameherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
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34
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Moreno LY, Guerrero CA, Acosta O. Interacciones de las proteínas disulfuro isomerasa y de choque térmico Hsc70 con proteínas estructurales recombinantes purificadas de rotavirus. REVISTA COLOMBIANA DE BIOTECNOLOGÍA 2016. [DOI: 10.15446/rev.colomb.biote.v18n1.57714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
<p>Introducción. La entrada de rotavirus a las células parece estar mediado por interacciones secuenciales entre las proteínas estructurales virales y algunas moléculas de la superficie celular. Sin embargo, los mecanismos por los cuales el rotavirus infecta la célula diana aún no se comprenden bien. Existe alguna evidencia que muestra que las proteínas estructurales de rotavirus VP5* y VP8* interactúan con algunas moléculas de la superficie celular. La disponibilidad de las proteínas estructurales de rotavirus recombinantes en cantidad suficiente se ha convertido en un aspecto importante para la identificación de las interacciones específicas de los receptores virus-célula durante los eventos tempranos del proceso infeccioso. Objetivo. El propósito del presente trabajo es realizar un análisis de las interacciones entre las proteínas estructurales de rotavirus recombinante VP5*, VP8* y VP6, y las proteínas celulares Hsc70 y PDI utilizando sus versiones recombinantes purificadas. Materiales y métodos. Las proteínas recombinantes de rotavirus VP5* y VP8* y las proteínas recombinantes celulares Hsc70 y PDI se expresaron en E. BL21 (DE3), mientras que VP6 se expresó en células MA104 con virus vaccinia recombinante transfectada. La interacción entre el rotavirus y las proteínas celulares se estudió mediante ELISA, co-inmunoprecipitación y SDS-PAGE/ Western. Resultados. Las condiciones óptimas para la expresión de proteínas recombinantes se determinaron y se generaron anticuerpos contra ellas. Los resultados sugirieron que las proteínas virales rVP5* y rVP6 interactúan con Hsc70 y PDI in vitro. También se encontró que éstas proteínas virales recombinantes interactúan con Hsc70 en las balsas lipídicas (“Rafts”) en un cultivo celular. El tratamiento de las células, ya sea con DLP o rVP6 produjo significativamente la inhibición de la infección por rotavirus. Conclusión. Los resultados permiten concluir que rVP5 * y rVP6 interactúan con Hsc70 y PDI durante el proceso de la infección por rotavirus.</p>
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35
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Owen GR, Channell JA, Forsyth VT, Haertlein M, Mitchell EP, Capovilla A, Papathanasopoulos M, Cerutti NM. Human CD4 Metastability Is a Function of the Allosteric Disulfide Bond in Domain 2. Biochemistry 2016; 55:2227-37. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gavin R. Owen
- HIV
Pathogenesis Research Unit, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology,
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7
York Road, Parktown, 2193, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Jennifer A. Channell
- Faculty
of Natural Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
- Life
Sciences Group, Institut Laue-Langevin, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38042, Grenoble, France
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38042, Grenoble, France
| | - V. Trevor Forsyth
- Faculty
of Natural Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
- Life
Sciences Group, Institut Laue-Langevin, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38042, Grenoble, France
| | - Michael Haertlein
- Life
Sciences Group, Institut Laue-Langevin, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38042, Grenoble, France
| | - Edward P. Mitchell
- Faculty
of Natural Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, United Kingdom
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38042, Grenoble, France
| | - Alexio Capovilla
- HIV
Pathogenesis Research Unit, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology,
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7
York Road, Parktown, 2193, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Maria Papathanasopoulos
- HIV
Pathogenesis Research Unit, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology,
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7
York Road, Parktown, 2193, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nichole M. Cerutti
- HIV
Pathogenesis Research Unit, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology,
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7
York Road, Parktown, 2193, Johannesburg, South Africa
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An ERp57-mediated disulphide exchange promotes the interaction between Burkholderia cenocepacia and epithelial respiratory cells. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21140. [PMID: 26879174 PMCID: PMC4754759 DOI: 10.1038/srep21140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that extracellular glutathione reduces the ability of the Cystic Fibrosis pathogen Burkholderia cenocepacia to infect primary or immortalized epithelial respiratory cells. We report here that the adhesion and invasion ability of B. cenocepacia is limited also by thiol-oxidizing and disulphide-reducing agents and by protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) inhibitors. PDI inhibitors also reduce the proinflammatory response elicited by cells in response to Burkholderia. These findings indicate that a membrane-associated PDI catalyzes thiol/disulphide exchange reactions which favor bacterial infection. The combined use of selective PDI inhibitors, RNA silencing and specific antibodies identified ERp57 as a major PDI involved in the interaction between B. cenocepacia and epithelial cells. This study contributes to the elucidation of the Burkholderia pathogenic mechanisms by showing that this microorganism exploits a membrane-associated host protein to infect epithelial cells and identifies ERp57 as a putative pharmacological target for the treatment of Burkholderia lung infections.
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Kar M, Vernon Shih YR, Velez DO, Cabrales P, Varghese S. Poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels with cell cleavable groups for autonomous cell delivery. Biomaterials 2015; 77:186-97. [PMID: 26606444 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cell-responsive hydrogels hold tremendous potential as cell delivery devices in regenerative medicine. In this study, we developed a hydrogel-based cell delivery vehicle, in which the encapsulated cell cargo control its own release from the vehicle in a protease-independent manner. Specifically, we have synthesized a modified poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogel that undergoes degradation responding to cell-secreted molecules by incorporating disulfide moieties onto the backbone of the hydrogel precursor. Our results show the disulfide-modified PEG hydrogels disintegrate seamlessly into solution in presence of cells without any external stimuli. The rate of hydrogel degradation, which ranges from hours to months, is found to be dependent upon the type of encapsulated cells, cell number, and fraction of disulfide moieties present in the hydrogel backbone. The differentiation potential of human mesenchymal stem cells released from the hydrogels is maintained in vitro. The in vivo analysis of these cell-laden hydrogels, through a dorsal window chamber and intramuscular implantation, demonstrated autonomous release of cells to the host environment. The hydrogel-mediated implantation of cells resulted in higher cell retention within the host tissue when compared to that without a biomaterial support. Biomaterials that function as a shield to protect cell cargos and assist their delivery in response to signals from the encapsulated cells could have a wide utility in cell transplantation and could improve the therapeutic outcomes of cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mrityunjoy Kar
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Yu-Ru Vernon Shih
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Daniel Ortiz Velez
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Pedro Cabrales
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Shyni Varghese
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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Mathys L, Balzarini J. The role of cellular oxidoreductases in viral entry and virus infection-associated oxidative stress: potential therapeutic applications. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2015; 20:123-43. [PMID: 26178644 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2015.1068760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cellular oxidoreductases catalyze thiol/disulfide exchange reactions in susceptible proteins and contribute to the cellular defense against oxidative stress. Oxidoreductases and oxidative stress are also involved in viral infections. In this overview, different aspects of the role of cellular oxidoreductases and oxidative stress during viral infections are discussed from a chemotherapeutic viewpoint. AREAS COVERED Entry of enveloped viruses into their target cells is triggered by the interaction of viral envelope glycoproteins with cellular (co)receptor(s) and depends on obligatory conformational changes in these viral envelope glycoproteins and/or cellular receptors. For some viruses, these conformational changes are mediated by cell surface-associated cellular oxidoreductases, which mediate disulfide bridge reductions in viral envelope glycoprotein(s). Therefore, targeting these oxidoreductases using oxidoreductase inhibitors might yield an interesting strategy to block viral entry of these viruses. Furthermore, since viral infections are often associated with systemic oxidative stress, contributing to disease progression, the enhancement of the cellular antioxidant defense systems might have potential as an adjuvant antiviral strategy, slowing down disease progression. EXPERT OPINION Promising antiviral data were obtained for both strategies. However, potential pitfalls have also been identified for these strategies, indicating that it is important to carefully assess the benefits versus risks of these antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leen Mathys
- a 1 Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven , Minderbroedersstraat 10 blok x - bus 1030, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Balzarini
- b 2 Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven , Minderbroedersstraat 10 blok x - bus 1030, Leuven, Belgium +32 16 3 37352 ; +32 16 3 37340 ;
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Kanizsai S, Ongrádi J, Aradi J, Nagy K. Thiolated pyrimidine nucleotides may interfere thiol groups concentrated at lipid rafts of HIV-1 infected cells. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung 2014; 61:447-58. [PMID: 25496973 DOI: 10.1556/amicr.61.2014.4.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Upon HIV infection, cells become activated and cell surface thiols are present in increased number. Earlier we demonstrated in vitro anti-HIV effect of thiolated pyrimidine nucleotide UD29, which interferes thiol function. To further analyse the redox processes required for HIV-1 entry and infection, toxicity assays were performed using HIV-1 infected monolayer HeLaCD4-LTR/ β-gal cells and suspension H9 T cells treated with several thiolated nucleotide derivatives of UD29. Selective cytotoxicity of thiolated pyrimidines on HIV-1 infected cells were observed. Results indicate that thiolated pyrimidine derivates may interfere with -SH (thiol) groups concentrated in lipid rafts of cell membrane and interacts HIV-1 infected (activated) cells resulting in a selective cytotoxicity of HIV-1 infected cells, and reducing HIV-1 entry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szilvia Kanizsai
- 1 Semmelweis University Institute of Medical Microbiology Budapest Hungary
| | - Joseph Ongrádi
- 1 Semmelweis University Institute of Medical Microbiology Budapest Hungary
| | - János Aradi
- 2 Debrecen University Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Debrecen Hungary
| | - Károly Nagy
- 1 Semmelweis University Institute of Medical Microbiology Budapest Hungary
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Pan S, Chen HH, Correia C, Dai H, Witt TA, Kleppe LS, Burnett JC, Simari RD. Cell surface protein disulfide isomerase regulates natriuretic peptide generation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate. PLoS One 2014; 9:e112986. [PMID: 25419565 PMCID: PMC4242536 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale The family of natriuretic peptides (NPs), including atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), exert important and diverse actions for cardiovascular and renal homeostasis. The autocrine and paracrine functions of the NPs are primarily mediated through the cellular membrane bound guanylyl cyclase-linked receptors GC-A (NPR-A) and GC-B (NPR-B). As the ligands and receptors each contain disulfide bonds, a regulatory role for the cell surface protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) was investigated. Objective We utilized complementary in vitro and in vivo models to determine the potential role of PDI in regulating the ability of the NPs to generate its second messenger, cyclic guanosine monophosphate. Methods and Results Inhibition of PDI attenuated the ability of ANP, BNP and CNP to generate cGMP in human mesangial cells (HMCs), human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), and human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs), each of which were shown to express PDI. In LLC-PK1 cells, where PDI expression was undetectable by immunoblotting, PDI inhibition had a minimal effect on cGMP generation. Addition of PDI to cultured LLC-PK1 cells increased intracellular cGMP generation mediated by ANP. Inhibition of PDI in vivo attenuated NP-mediated generation of cGMP by ANP. Surface Plasmon Resonance demonstrated modest and differential binding of the natriuretic peptides with immobilized PDI in a cell free system. However, PDI was shown to co-localize on the surface of cells with GC-A and GC-B by co-immunoprecpitation and immunohistochemistry. Conclusion These data demonstrate for the first time that cell surface PDI expression and function regulate the capacity of natriuretic peptides to generate cGMP through interaction with their receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuchong Pan
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Horng H. Chen
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Cristina Correia
- Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Haiming Dai
- Division of Oncology Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Tyra A. Witt
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Laurel S. Kleppe
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - John C. Burnett
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
| | - Robert D. Simari
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Understanding isoform- and context-specific subcellular Nox reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase compartmentalization allows relevant functional inferences. This review addresses the interplay between Nox NADPH oxidases and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), an increasingly evident player in redox pathophysiology given its role in redox protein folding and stress responses. RECENT ADVANCES Catalytic/regulatory transmembrane subunits are synthesized in the ER and their processing includes folding, N-glycosylation, heme insertion, p22phox heterodimerization, as shown for phagocyte Nox2. Dual oxidase (Duox) maturation also involves the regulation by ER-resident Duoxa2. The ER is the activation site for some isoforms, typically Nox4, but potentially other isoforms. Such location influences redox/Nox-mediated calcium signaling regulation via ER targets, such as sarcoendoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase (SERCA). Growing evidence suggests that Noxes are integral signaling elements of the unfolded protein response during ER stress, with Nox4 playing a dual prosurvival/proapoptotic role in this setting, whereas Nox2 enhances proapoptotic signaling. ER chaperones such as protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) closely interact with Noxes. PDI supports growth factor-dependent Nox1 activation and mRNA expression, as well as migration in smooth muscle cells, and PDI overexpression induces acute spontaneous Nox activation. CRITICAL ISSUES Mechanisms of PDI effects include possible support of complex formation and RhoGTPase activation. In phagocytes, PDI supports phagocytosis, Nox activation, and redox-dependent interactions with p47phox. Together, the results implicate PDI as possible Nox organizer. FUTURE DIRECTIONS We propose that convergence between Noxes and ER may have evolutive roots given ER-related functional contexts, which paved Nox evolution, namely calcium signaling and pathogen killing. Overall, the interplay between Noxes and the ER may provide relevant insights in Nox-related (patho)physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco R M Laurindo
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine , São Paulo, Brazil
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Cerutti N, Killick M, Jugnarain V, Papathanasopoulos M, Capovilla A. Disulfide reduction in CD4 domain 1 or 2 is essential for interaction with HIV glycoprotein 120 (gp120), which impairs thioredoxin-driven CD4 dimerization. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:10455-10465. [PMID: 24550395 PMCID: PMC4036167 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.539353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human CD4 is a membrane-bound glycoprotein expressed on the surface of certain leukocytes, where it plays a key role in the activation of immunostimulatory T cells and acts as the primary receptor for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) glycoprotein (gp120). Although growing evidence suggests that redox exchange reactions involving CD4 disulfides, potentially catalyzed by cell surface-secreted oxidoreductases such as thioredoxin (Trx) and protein disulfide isomerase, play an essential role in regulating the activity of CD4, their mechanism(s) and biological utility remain incompletely understood. To gain more insights in this regard, we generated a panel of recombinant 2-domain CD4 proteins (2dCD4), including wild-type and Cys/Ala variants, and used these to show that while protein disulfide isomerase has little capacity for 2dCD4 reduction, Trx reduces 2dCD4 highly efficiently, catalyzing the formation of conformationally distinct monomeric 2dCD4 isomers, and a stable, disulfide-linked 2dCD4 dimer. Moreover, we show that HIV gp120 is incapable of binding a fully oxidized, monomeric 2dCD4 in which both domain 1 and 2 disulfides are intact, but binds robustly to reduced counterparts that are the ostensible products of Trx-mediated isomerization. Finally, we demonstrate that Trx-driven dimerization of CD4, a process believed to be critical for the establishment of functional MHCII-TCR-CD4 antigen presentation complexes, is impaired when CD4 is bound to gp120. These observations reinforce the importance of cell surface redox activity for HIV entry and posit the intriguing possibility that one of the many pathogenic effects of HIV may be related to gp120-mediated inhibition of oxidoreductive CD4 isomerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nichole Cerutti
- HIV Pathogenesis Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology, University of Witwatersrand Medical School, 7 York Road Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Mark Killick
- HIV Pathogenesis Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology, University of Witwatersrand Medical School, 7 York Road Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Vinesh Jugnarain
- HIV Pathogenesis Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology, University of Witwatersrand Medical School, 7 York Road Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Maria Papathanasopoulos
- HIV Pathogenesis Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology, University of Witwatersrand Medical School, 7 York Road Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Alexio Capovilla
- HIV Pathogenesis Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine and Haematology, University of Witwatersrand Medical School, 7 York Road Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa.
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Lasecka L, Baron MD. The nairovirus nairobi sheep disease virus/ganjam virus induces the translocation of protein disulphide isomerase-like oxidoreductases from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cell surface and the extracellular space. PLoS One 2014; 9:e94656. [PMID: 24714576 PMCID: PMC3979861 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Nairobi sheep disease virus (NSDV) of the genus Nairovirus causes a haemorrhagic gastroenteritis in sheep and goats with mortality up to 90%; the virus is found in East and Central Africa, and in India, where the virus is called Ganjam virus. NSDV is closely related to the human pathogen Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus, which also causes a haemorrhagic disease. As with other nairoviruses, replication of NSDV takes place in the cytoplasm and the new virus particles bud into the Golgi apparatus; however, the effect of viral replication on cellular compartments has not been studied extensively. We have found that the overall structure of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment and the Golgi were unaffected by infection with NSDV. However, we observed that NSDV infection led to the loss of protein disulphide isomerase (PDI), an oxidoreductase present in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and which assists during protein folding, from the ER. Further investigation showed that NSDV-infected cells have high levels of PDI at their surface, and PDI is also secreted into the culture medium of infected cells. Another chaperone from the PDI family, ERp57, was found to be similarly affected. Analysis of infected cells and expression of individual viral glycoproteins indicated that the NSDV PreGn glycoprotein is involved in redistribution of these soluble ER oxidoreductases. It has been suggested that extracellular PDI can activate integrins and tissue factor, which are involved respectively in pro-inflammatory responses and disseminated intravascular coagulation, both of which manifest in many viral haemorrhagic fevers. The discovery of enhanced PDI secretion from NSDV-infected cells may be an important finding for understanding the mechanisms underlying the pathogenicity of haemorrhagic nairoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Lasecka
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Michael D. Baron
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, United Kingdom
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Protein disulfide isomerase: a promising target for cancer therapy. Drug Discov Today 2014; 19:222-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2013.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Zhou Z, Liu H, Gu G, Wang G, Wu W, Zhang C, Ren J. Immunoproteomic to identify antigens in the intestinal mucosa of Crohn's disease patients. PLoS One 2013; 8:e81662. [PMID: 24358121 PMCID: PMC3864798 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0081662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Incidences of Crohn disease (CD) have increased significantly in the last decade. Immunoproteomics are a promising method to identify biomarkers of different diseases. In the present study, we used immunoproteomics to study proteins of intestinal mucosal lesions and neighboring normal intestinal mucosa of 8 CD patients. Reactive proteins were validated by Western blotting. Approximately 50 protein spots localized in the 4 to 7 pI range were detected on two-dimensional electrophoresis gels, and 6 differentially expressed protein spots between 10 and 100 kDa were identified. Reactive proteins were identified as prohibitin, calreticulin, apolipoprotein A-I, intelectin-1, protein disulfide isomerase, and glutathione s-transferase Pi. Western blotting was conducted on the intestinal mucosa of another 4 CD patients to validate the reactive proteins. We found that intestinal mucosal lesions had high levels of prohibitin expression. Glutathione s-transferase expression was detected in 100% of the intestinal mucosa examined. Thus, we report 6 autoantigens of CD, including 3 new and 3 previously reported autoantigens. Intelectin-1, protein disulfide isomerase, and glutathione-s-transferases may be used as biomarkers for CD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Zhou
- Department of General Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui, Hefei, P.R. China
| | - Haiyan Liu
- Department of Critical Care, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui, Hefei, P.R. China
| | - Guosheng Gu
- Research Institute of General Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Gefei Wang
- Research Institute of General Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, P.R. China
| | - Wenyong Wu
- Department of General Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui, Hefei, P.R. China
| | - Changle Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Anhui, Hefei, P.R. China
| | - Jianan Ren
- Research Institute of General Surgery, Jinling Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, P.R. China
- * E-mail:
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Qiu J, Ashkenazi A, Liu S, Shai Y. Structural and functional properties of the membranotropic HIV-1 glycoprotein gp41 loop region are modulated by its intrinsic hydrophobic core. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:29143-50. [PMID: 23960077 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.496646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The gp41 disulfide loop region switches from a soluble state to a membrane-bound state during the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope-mediated membrane fusion process. The loop possesses a hydrophobic core at the center of the region with an unusual basic residue (Lys-601). Furthermore, two loop core mutations, K601A and L602A, are found to inhibit HIV-1 infectivity while keeping wild type-like levels of the envelope, implying that they exert an inhibitory effect on gp41 during the membrane fusion event. Here, we investigated the mode of action of these mutations on the loop region. We show that the K601A mutation, but not the L602A mutation, abolished the binding of a loop-specific monoclonal antibody to a loop domain peptide. Additionally, the K601A, but not the L602A, impaired disulfide bond formation in the peptides. This was correlated with changes in the circular dichroism spectrum imposed by the K601A mutation. In the membrane, however, the L602A, but not the K601A, reduced the lipid mixing ability of the loop peptides, which was correlated with decreased α-helical content of the L602A mutant. The results suggest that the Lys-601 residue provides a moderate hydrophobicity level within the gp41 loop core that contributes to the proper structure and function of the loop inside and outside the membrane. Because basic residues are found between the loop Cys residues of several lentiviral fusion proteins, the findings may contribute to understanding the fusion mechanism of other viruses as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayin Qiu
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 76100 Israel and
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47
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Opposing influence of intracellular and membrane thiols on the toxicity of reducible polycations. Biomaterials 2013; 34:8843-50. [PMID: 23948163 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.07.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Toxicity of polycations has been recognized since their first use in gene delivery. Bioreducible polycations attract attention because of their improved safety due to selective intracellular degradation by glutathione (GSH). Here we present a systematic study of the toxicity of bioreducible poly(amido amine)s (PAA). PAA with increasing content of disulfide bonds were synthesized by Michael addition. Toxicity of PAA was evaluated in two cell lines with different innate levels of intracellular GSH. Increasing the content of disulfide bonds decreased the toxicity of PAA, with more significant decrease observed in cells with high GSH. Depleting intracellular GSH by diethyl maleate resulted in increased toxicity of bioreducible PAA. In contrast, increasing the GSH concentrations by growing cells in hypoxic conditions resulted in further decreased toxicity compared with cells grown in normoxic conditions. The presence of exofacial plasma membrane thiols selectively increased toxicity of bioreducible PAA while having no effect on non-degradable controls. These results improve our understanding of the cellular mechanisms of polycation toxicity. They also shed light on the opposing effects of different cellular thiol pools on the toxicity of bioreducible polycations.
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48
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Neutrophils Turn Plasma Proteins into Weapons against HIV-1. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66073. [PMID: 23840401 PMCID: PMC3694086 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
As a consequence of innate immune activation granulocytes and macrophages produce hypochlorite/hypochlorous acid (HOCl) via secretion of myeloperoxidase (MPO) to the outside of the cells, where HOCl immediately reacts with proteins. Most proteins that become altered by this system do not belong to the invading microorganism but to the host. While there is no doubt that the myeloperoxidase system is capable of directly inactivating HIV-1, we hypothesized that it may have an additional indirect mode of action. We show in this article that HOCl is able to chemically alter proteins and thus turn them into Idea-Ps (Idea-P = immune defence-altered protein), potent amyloid-like and SH-groups capturing antiviral weapons against HIV-1. HOCl-altered plasma proteins (Idea-PP) have the capacity to bind efficiently and with high affinity to the HIV-1 envelope protein gp120, and to its receptor CD4 as well as to the protein disulfide isomerase (PDI). Idea-PP was able to inhibit viral infection and replication in a cell culture system as shown by reduced number of infected cells and of syncytia, resulting in reduction of viral capsid protein p24 in the culture supernatant. The unmodified plasma protein fraction had no effect. HOCl-altered isolated proteins antithrombin III and human serum albumin, taken as representative examples of the whole pool of plasma proteins, were both able to exert the same activity of binding to gp120 and inhibition of viral proliferation. These data offer an opportunity to improve the understanding of the intricacies of host-pathogen interactions and allow the generation of the following hypothetical scheme: natural immune defense mechanisms generate by posttranslational modification of plasma proteins a potent virucidal weapon that immobilizes the virus as well as inhibits viral fusion and thus entry into the host cells. Furthermore simulation of this mechanism in vitro might provide an interesting new therapeutic approach against microorganisms.
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Dihazi H, Dihazi GH, Bibi A, Eltoweissy M, Mueller CA, Asif AR, Rubel D, Vasko R, Mueller GA. Secretion of ERP57 is important for extracellular matrix accumulation and progression of renal fibrosis, and is an early sign of disease onset. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:3649-63. [PMID: 23781031 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.125088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Renal fibrosis is characterized by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM), which compromises organ function by replacing normal organ tissue. The molecular mechanisms leading to renal fibrosis are not fully understood. Here we demonstrated that TGFβ1, AGT or PDGF stimulation of renal cells resulted in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress followed by activation of the protective unfolded protein response pathway and a high secretory level of protein disulfide isomerase ERP57 (also known as PDIA3). The TGFβ1-induced impairment of ER function could be reversed by treatment with BMP7, suggesting a specific involvement in renal fibrosis. A clear correlation between the degree of fibrosis, ER stress and the level of ERP57 could be seen in fibrosis animal models and in biopsies of renal fibrosis patients. Protein interaction studies revealed that secreted ERP57 exhibits a strong interaction with ECM proteins. Knockdown of ERP57 or antibody-targeted inhibition of the secreted form significantly impaired the secretion and accumulation of ECM. Moreover, ERP57 was excreted in the early stages of chronic kidney disease, and its level in urine correlated with the degree of renal fibrosis, suggesting that the secretion of ERP57 represents one of the first signs of renal fibrosis onset and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassan Dihazi
- Department of Nephrology and Rheumatology, Georg-August University Goettingen, Robert-Koch-Strasse 40, 37075 Goettingen, Germany.
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50
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Abstract
Protein action in nature is largely controlled by the level of expression and by post-translational modifications. Post-translational modifications result in a proteome that is at least two orders of magnitude more diverse than the genome. There are three basic types of post-translational modifications: covalent modification of an amino acid side chain, hydrolytic cleavage or isomerization of a peptide bond, and reductive cleavage of a disulfide bond. This review addresses the modification of disulfide bonds. Protein disulfide bonds perform either a structural or a functional role, and there are two types of functional disulfide: the catalytic and allosteric bonds. The allosteric disulfide bonds control the function of the mature protein in which they reside by triggering a change when they are cleaved. The change can be in ligand binding, substrate hydrolysis, proteolysis, or oligomer formation. The allosteric disulfides are cleaved by oxidoreductases or by thiol/disulfide exchange, and the configurations of the disulfides and the secondary structures that they link share some recurring features. How these bonds are being identified using bioinformatics and experimental screens and what the future holds for this field of research are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina M Cook
- Lowy Cancer Research Centre and Prince of Wales Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW2052, Australia
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