Antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic activities of aqueous extract of Hericium erinaceus in experimental diabetic rats

Use of herbal medication in the perioperative period: Potential adverse drug interactions

Use of herbal medications and supplements has experienced immense growth over the last two decades, with retail sales in the USA exceeding $13 billion in 2021. Since the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994 reduced FDA oversight, these products have become less regulated. Data from 2012 shows 18% of U.S. adults used non-vitamin, non-mineral natural products. Prevalence varies regionally, with higher use in Western states. Among preoperative patients, the most commonly used herbal medications included garlic, ginseng, ginkgo, St. John's wort, and echinacea. However, 50-70% of surgical patients fail to disclose their use of herbal medications to their physicians, and most fail to discontinue them preoperatively. Since herbal medications can interact with anesthetic medications administered during surgery, the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) and the American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (AANA) recommend stopping herbal medications 1-2 weeks before elective surgical procedures. Potential adverse drug effects related to preoperative use of herbal medications involve the coagulation system (e.g., increasing the risk of perioperative bleeding), the cardiovascular system (e.g., arrhythmias, hypotension, hypertension), the central nervous system (e.g., sedation, confusion, seizures), pulmonary (e.g., coughing, bronchospasm), renal (e.g., diuresis) and endocrine-metabolic (e.g., hepatic dysfunction, altered metabolism of anesthetic drugs). During the preoperative evaluation, anesthesiologists should inquire about the use of herbal medications to anticipate potential adverse drug interactions during the perioperative period.

What are the 100 most cited fungal genera?

The global diversity of fungi has been estimated between 2 to 11 million species, of which only about 155 000 have been named. Most fungi are invisible to the unaided eye, but they represent a major component of biodiversity on our planet, and play essential ecological roles, supporting life as we know it. Although approximately 20 000 fungal genera are presently recognised, the ecology of most remains undetermined. Despite all this diversity, the mycological community actively researches some fungal genera more commonly than others. This poses an interesting question: why have some fungal genera impacted mycology and related fields more than others? To address this issue, we conducted a bibliometric analysis to identify the top 100 most cited fungal genera. A thorough database search of the Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed was performed to establish which genera are most cited. The most cited 10 genera are Saccharomyces, Candida, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Botrytis, Pichia, Cryptococcus and Alternaria. Case studies are presented for the 100 most cited genera with general background, notes on their ecology and economic significance and important research advances. This paper provides a historic overview of scientific research of these genera and the prospect for further research. Citation: Bhunjun CS, Chen YJ, Phukhamsakda C, Boekhout T, Groenewald JZ, McKenzie EHC, Francisco EC, Frisvad JC, Groenewald M, Hurdeal VG, Luangsa-ard J, Perrone G, Visagie CM, Bai FY, Błaszkowski J, Braun U, de Souza FA, de Queiroz MB, Dutta AK, Gonkhom D, Goto BT, Guarnaccia V, Hagen F, Houbraken J, Lachance MA, Li JJ, Luo KY, Magurno F, Mongkolsamrit S, Robert V, Roy N, Tibpromma S, Wanasinghe DN, Wang DQ, Wei DP, Zhao CL, Aiphuk W, Ajayi-Oyetunde O, Arantes TD, Araujo JC, Begerow D, Bakhshi M, Barbosa RN, Behrens FH, Bensch K, Bezerra JDP, Bilański P, Bradley CA, Bubner B, Burgess TI, Buyck B, Čadež N, Cai L, Calaça FJS, Campbell LJ, Chaverri P, Chen YY, Chethana KWT, Coetzee B, Costa MM, Chen Q, Custódio FA, Dai YC, Damm U, de Azevedo Santiago ALCM, De Miccolis Angelini RM, Dijksterhuis J, Dissanayake AJ, Doilom M, Dong W, Alvarez-Duarte E, Fischer M, Gajanayake AJ, Gené J, Gomdola D, Gomes AAM, Hausner G, He MQ, Hou L, Iturrieta-González I, Jami F, Jankowiak R, Jayawardena RS, Kandemir H, Kiss L, Kobmoo N, Kowalski T, Landi L, Lin CG, Liu JK, Liu XB, Loizides M, Luangharn T, Maharachchikumbura SSN, Makhathini Mkhwanazi GJ, Manawasinghe IS, Marin-Felix Y, McTaggart AR, Moreau PA, Morozova OV, Mostert L, Osiewacz HD, Pem D, Phookamsak R, Pollastro S, Pordel A, Poyntner C, Phillips AJL, Phonemany M, Promputtha I, Rathnayaka AR, Rodrigues AM, Romanazzi G, Rothmann L, Salgado-Salazar C, Sandoval-Denis M, Saupe SJ, Scholler M, Scott P, Shivas RG, Silar P, Souza-Motta CM, Silva-Filho AGS, Spies CFJ, Stchigel AM, Sterflinger K, Summerbell RC, Svetasheva TY, Takamatsu S, Theelen B, Theodoro RC, Thines M, Thongklang N, Torres R, Turchetti B, van den Brule T, Wang XW, Wartchow F, Welti S, Wijesinghe SN, Wu F, Xu R, Yang ZL, Yilmaz N, Yurkov A, Zhao L, Zhao RL, Zhou N, Hyde KD, Crous PW (2024). What are the 100 most cited fungal genera? Studies in Mycology 108: 1-411. doi: 10.3114/sim.2024.108.01.

ALSUntangled #73: Lion's Mane

Lion's Mane (Hericium erinaceus) has historically been used as traditional medicine in Asia and Europe for its potential benefits in fighting infection and cancer. It has gained interest in the neurodegenerative disease field because of its mechanisms of action; these include anti-inflammation, neuroprotection, and promoting neurite growth demonstrated in various cell and animal models. A very small, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients with mild cognitive impairment showed a temporary improvement in cognitive function; this finding has yet to be replicated. However, there have been no studies in ALS cell or animal models or in humans with ALS. Lion's Mane appears safe and inexpensive when consumed in powder or capsule, but one anaphylactic case was reported after a patient consumed fresh Lion's Mane mushroom. Currently, we do not have enough information to support the use of Lion's Mane for treating ALS. We support further research in ALS disease models and clinical trials to study its efficacy.

Sirtuin dysregulation in Parkinson's disease: Implications of acetylation and deacetylation processes

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition that primarily affects motor function and is caused by a gradual decline of dopaminergic neurons in the brain's substantia pars compacta (Snpc) region. Multiple molecular pathways are involved in the pathogenesis, which results in impaired cellular functions and neuronal degeneration. However, the role of sirtuins, a type of NAD+-dependent deacetylase, in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease has recently been investigated. Sirtuins are essential for preserving cellular homeostasis because they control a number of biological processes, such as metabolism, apoptosis, and DNA repair. This review shed lights on the dysregulation of sirtuin activity in PD, highlighting the role that acetylation and deacetylation processes play in the development of the disease. Key regulators of protein acetylation, sirtuins have been found to be involved in the aberrant acetylation of vital substrates linked to PD pathology when their balance is out of balance. The hallmark characteristics of PD such as neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction have all been linked to the dysregulation of sirtuin expression and activity. Furthermore, we have also explored how the modulators of sirtuins can be a promising therapeutic intervention in the treatment of PD.

Neurotrophic and Neuroprotective Effects of Hericium erinaceus

Hericium erinaceus is a valuable mushroom known for its strong bioactive properties. It shows promising potential as an excellent neuroprotective agent, capable of stimulating nerve growth factor release, regulating inflammatory processes, reducing oxidative stress, and safeguarding nerve cells from apoptosis. The active compounds in the mushroom, such as erinacines and hericenones, have been the subject of research, providing evidence of their neuroprotective effects. Further research and standardization processes for dietary supplements focused on H. erinaceus are essential to ensuring effectiveness and safety in protecting the nervous system. Advancements in isolation and characterization techniques, along with improved access to pure analytical standards, will play a critical role in achieving standardized, high-quality dietary supplements based on H. erinaceus. The aim of this study is to analyze the protective and nourishing effects of H. erinaceus on the nervous system and present the most up-to-date research findings related to this topic.

Structural characterization of Hericium erinaceus polysaccharides and the mechanism of anti-T2DM by modulating the gut microbiota and metabolites

A low molecular weight polysaccharides of HEP-1, with molecular weights of 1.67 × 10⁴ Da and composition of →6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →3)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, β-D-Glcp-(1→ and →3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, was isolated and characterized from the fruiting body of Hericium erinaceus. The results indicated that HEP-1 showed potential effects against T2DM-induced imbalance of glucose and lipid metabolism by promoting the serum glucose uptake by hepatic glycogen synthesis via activating the IRS/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, and inhibiting fatty acid synthesis and reducing hepatic lipid accumulation via activating the AMPK/SREBP-1c signaling pathways. Besides, HEP-1 promoted the production of beneficial bacteria in the gut, and increased the beneficial metabolites in liver through the gut-liver axis, consequently, resisting the occurrence of T2DM.

Antioxidative Activities of Micronized Solid-State Cultivated Hericium erinaceus Rich in Erinacine A against MPTP-Induced Damages

The Lion's mane mushroom (Hericium erinaceus, HE) is a traditional medical mushroom with high nutritional and economic value. HE possesses anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, immunomodulating, neurotrophic, and neuroprotective activities. The present study evaluated the protection and antioxidative activities of micronized mycelium of HE (HEM) in mice treated with 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPTP). HEM was cultivated via solid-state fermentation and micronized using cell wall-breaking technology to increase its bioavailability when ingested. Erinacine A, the bioactive compound in the HEM, played a pivotal role in antioxidant defense. We found that micronized HEM could recover the dopamine level in the mice striatum in a dose-dependent manner that had been greatly reduced during MPTP treatment. Moreover, the malondialdehyde (MDA) and carbonyl levels were reduced in the livers and brains of the MPTP + HEM-treated groups compared with the MPTP group. Additionally, antioxidant enzyme activities, including catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), and glutathione reductase (GRd), were elevated after the administration of HEM in MPTP-treated mice in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, our data indicate that HEM cultivated via solid-state fermentation and processed with cell wall-breaking technology showed an excellent antioxidant efficacy.

Leaky Gut and the Ingredients That Help Treat It: A Review

The human body is in daily contact with potentially toxic and infectious substances in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The GIT has the most significant load of antigens. The GIT can protect the intestinal integrity by allowing the passage of beneficial agents and blocking the path of harmful substances. Under normal conditions, a healthy intestinal barrier prevents toxic elements from entering the blood stream. However, factors such as stress, an unhealthy diet, excessive alcohol, antibiotics, and drug consumption can compromise the composition of the intestinal microbiota and the homeostasis of the intestinal barrier function of the intestine, leading to increased intestinal permeability. Intestinal hyperpermeability can allow the entry of harmful agents through the junctions of the intestinal epithelium, which pass into the bloodstream and affect various organs and systems. Thus, leaky gut syndrome and intestinal barrier dysfunction are associated with intestinal diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome, as well as extra-intestinal diseases, including heart diseases, obesity, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and celiac disease. Given the relationship between intestinal permeability and numerous conditions, it is convenient to seek an excellent strategy to avoid or reduce the increase in intestinal permeability. The impact of dietary nutrients on barrier function can be crucial for designing new strategies for patients with the pathogenesis of leaky gut-related diseases associated with epithelial barrier dysfunctions. In this review article, the role of functional ingredients is suggested as mediators of leaky gut-related disorders.

The Monkey Head Mushroom and Memory Enhancement in Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder, and no effective treatments are available to treat this disorder. Therefore, researchers have been investigating Hericium erinaceus, or the monkey head mushroom, an edible medicinal mushroom, as a possible treatment for AD. In this narrative review, we evaluated six preclinical and three clinical studies of the therapeutic effects of Hericium erinaceus on AD. Preclinical trials have successfully demonstrated that extracts and bioactive compounds of Hericium erinaceus have potential beneficial effects in ameliorating cognitive functioning and behavioral deficits in animal models of AD. A limited number of clinical studies have been conducted and several clinical trials are ongoing, which have thus far shown analogous outcomes to the preclinical studies. Nonetheless, future research on Hericium erinaceus needs to focus on elucidating the specific neuroprotective mechanisms and the target sites in AD. Additionally, standardized treatment parameters and universal regulatory systems need to be established to further ensure treatment safety and efficacy. In conclusion, Hericium erinaceus has therapeutic potential and may facilitate memory enhancement in patients with AD.

Hericium erinaceus Mycelium Ameliorates In Vivo Progression of Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is an age-related disorder that affects the joints and causes functional disability. Hericium erinaceus is a large edible mushroom with several known medicinal functions. However, the therapeutic effects of H. erinaceus in OA are unknown. In this study, data from Sprague-Dawley rats with knee OA induced by anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) indicated that H. erinaceus mycelium improves ACLT-induced weight-bearing asymmetry and minimizes pain. ACLT-induced increases in articular cartilage degradation and bone erosion were significantly reduced by treatment with H. erinaceus mycelium. In addition, H. erinaceus mycelium reduced the synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α in OA cartilage and synovium. H. erinaceus mycelium shows promise as a functional food in the treatment of OA.

The Antioxidant Properties of Mushroom Polysaccharides can Potentially Mitigate Oxidative Stress, Beta-Cell Dysfunction and Insulin Resistance

Diabetes mellitus is a prevalent metabolic and endocrine illness affecting people all over the world and is of serious health and financial concern. Antidiabetic medicine delivered through pharmacotherapy, including synthetic antidiabetic drugs, are known to have several negative effects. Fortunately, several natural polysaccharides have antidiabetic properties, and the use of these polysaccharides as adjuncts to conventional therapy is becoming more common, particularly in underdeveloped nations. Oxidative stress has a critical role in the development of diabetes mellitus (DM). The review of current literature presented here focusses, therefore, on the antioxidant properties of mushroom polysaccharides used in the management of diabetic complications, and discusses whether these antioxidant properties contribute to the deactivation of the oxidative stress-related signalling pathways, and to the amelioration of β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. In this study, we conducted a systematic review of the relevant information concerning the antioxidant and antidiabetic effects of mushrooms from electronic databases, such as PubMed, Scopus or Google Scholar, for the period 1994 to 2021. In total, 104 different polysaccharides from mushrooms have been found to have antidiabetic effects. Most of the literature on mushroom polysaccharides has demonstrated the beneficial effects of these polysaccharides on reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) levels. This review discuss the effects of these polysaccharides on hyperglycemia and other alternative antioxidant therapies for diabetic complications through their applications and limits, in order to gain a better understanding of how they can be used to treat DM. Preclinical and phytochemical investigations have found that most of the active polysaccharides extracted from mushrooms have antioxidant activity, reducing oxidative stress and preventing the development of DM. Further research is necessary to confirm whether mushroom polysaccharides can effectively alleviate hyperglycemia, and the mechanisms by which they do this, and to investigate whether these polysaccharides might be utilized as a complementary therapy for the prevention and management of DM in the future.

Effects of alcoholic extract of Terminalia Chebula dried fruit on blood biochemical profile in diabetic rats

Background

A considerable amount of attention has been recently paid to the discovery of effective natural antidiabetic drugs. Terminalia chebula is considered as the mother of herbs, with reported antidiabetic activity. This study aims to evaluate the renal and hepatic protective profile of its antidiabetic therapeutic doses.

Methods

To achieve the aim of the study, a total of 66 adult male rats of Sprague-Dawley species weighing about 180-200 g (weighed using a digital scale) were used. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) was induced in using streptozotocin (STZ), rats were given a 5% dextrose solution for the next 24 h. Subjects received oral treatment of Terminalia chebula ethanolic extract at different doses (200, 400, and 600 mg/kg body weight) for 28 days. Measurements of fasting blood glucose level, change in body weight, lipid profile, serum liver enzymes, serum renal parameter, and histopathology of liver and kidney were carried out.

Results

Higher doses of Terminalia chebula (600 mg/Kg) were shown to have a potential therapeutic effect as well as the most prominent antidiabetic, antilipidemic activity, hepatoprotective and renoprotective profiles when compared to lower doses.

Conclusion

The use of Terminalia chebula alone or in combination with conventional antidiabetic drugs may be beneficial as a new advent therapy for diabetes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40200-021-00951-8.

Characterization and Heterologous Expression of UDP-Glucose 4-Epimerase From a Hericium erinaceus Mutant with High Polysaccharide Production

Hericium erinaceus is an important medicinal fungus in traditional Chinese medicine because of its polysaccharides and other natural products. Compared terpenoids and polyketides, the analysis of synthetic pathway of polysaccharides is more difficult because of the many genes involved in central metabolism. In previous studies, A6180, encoding a putative UDP-glucose 4-epimerase (UGE) in an H. erinaceus mutant with high production of active polysaccharides, was significantly upregulated. Since there is no reliable genetic manipulation technology for H. erinaceus, we employed Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae to study the function and activity of A6180. The recombinant overexpression vector pET22b-A6180 was constructed for heterologous expression in E. coli. The enzymatic properties of the recombinant protein were investigated. It showed that the recombinant A6180 could strongly convert UDP-α-D-glucose into UDP-α-D-galactose under optimal conditions (pH 6.0, 30°C). In addition, when A6180 was introduced into S. cerevisiae BY4742, xylose was detected in the polysaccharide composition of the yeast transformant. This suggested that the protein coded by A6180 might be a multifunctional enzyme. The generated polysaccharides with a new composition of sugars showed enhanced macrophage activity in vitro. These results indicate that A6180 plays an important role in the structure and activity of polysaccharides. It is a promising strategy for producing polysaccharides with higher activity by introducing A6180 into polysaccharide-producing mushrooms.

Nutraceutical potential of mushroom bioactive metabolites and their food functionality

Numerous mushroom bioactive metabolites, including polysaccharides, eritadenine, lignin, chitosan, mevinolin, and astrakurkurone have been studied in life-threatening conditions and diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular, hypertension, cancer, DNA damage, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity attempting to identify natural therapies. These bioactive metabolites have shown potential as antiviral and immune system strengthener natural agents through diverse cellular and physiological pathways modulation with no toxicity evidence, widely available, and inexpensive. In light of the emerging literature, this paper compiles the most recent information describing the molecular mechanisms that underlie the nutraceutical potentials of these mushroom metabolites suggesting their effectiveness if combined with existing drug therapies while discussing the food functionality of mushrooms. The findings raise hope that these mushroom bioactive metabolites may be utilized as natural therapies considering their therapeutic potential while anticipating further research designing clinical trials and developing new drug therapies while encouraging their consumption as a natural adjuvant in preventing and controlling life-threatening conditions and diseases. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Diabetes, cardiovascular, hypertension, cancer, DNA damage, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity are among the world's largest life-threatening conditions and diseases. Several mushroom bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, eritadenine, lignin, chitosan, mevinolin, and astrakurkurone have been found potential in tackling these diseases through diverse cellular and physiological pathways modulation with no toxicity evidence, suggesting their use as nutraceutical foods in preventing and controlling these life-threatening conditions and diseases.

Neurogenesis-dependent antidepressant-like activity of Hericium erinaceus in an animal model of depression

Background

Depression is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder that affects more than 264 million people worldwide. The efficacy of conventional antidepressants are barely adequate and many have side effects. Hericium erinaceus (HE) is a medicinal mushroom that has been reported to have therapeutic potential for treating depression.

Methods

Animals subjected to chronic restraint stress were given 4 weeks HE treatment. Animals were then screened for anxiety and depressive-like behaviours. Gene and protein assays, as well as histological analysis were performed to probe the role of neurogenesis in mediating the therapeutic effect of HE. Temozolomide was administered to validate the neurogenesis-dependent mechanism of HE.

Results

The results showed that 4 weeks of HE treatment ameliorated depressive-like behaviours in mice subjected to 14 days of restraint stress. Further molecular assays demonstrated the 4-week HE treatment elevated the expression of several neurogenesis-related genes and proteins, including doublecortin, nestin, synaptophysin, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase, and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (pCREB). Increased bromodeoxyuridine-positive cells were also observed in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, indicating enhanced neurogenesis. Neurogenesis blocker temozolomide completely abolished the antidepressant-like effects of HE, confirming a neurogenesis-dependent mechanism. Moreover, HE induced anti-neuroinflammatory effects through reducing astrocyte activation in the hippocampus, which was also abolished with temozolomide administration.

Conclusion

HE exerts antidepressant effects by promoting neurogenesis and reducing neuroinflammation through enhancing the BDNF-TrkB-CREB signalling pathway.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13020-021-00546-8.

Antidiabetic effects of quercetin and liraglutide combination through modulation of TXNIP/IRS-1/PI3K pathway

The study was designed to assess the possible augmented antidiabetic effects of combining quercetin and liraglutide in a type 1 diabetes model, with emphasis on the contribution of hepatic thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP)/insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1)/phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinase (PI3K) pathway. The wound-healing effects were also examined. Diabetes was induced by a single i.p STZ injection (55 mg/kg). Diabetic rats were treated with either quercetin (100 mg/kg/day, orally) or liraglutide (0.3 mg/kg/twice daily, S.C.) or their combination. Drugs were also applied topically on the wound. Blood glucose levels, serum albumin, total protein, total cholesterol and triglycerides were measured. Histopathological examination of the liver, pancreas and skin tissues was performed using haematoxylin and eosin staining. The hepatic malondialdehyde level was measured spectrophotometrically. Hepatic TXNIP and PI3K levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunsorbent assay (ELISA). Tissue expression of IRS-1 and phospho-IRS-1 (Ser 616) was assessed by immunohistochemistry. Quercetin, liraglutide and their combination effectively decreased blood glucose levels, improved lipid profile, upregulated albumin and total protein serum levels and reduced hepatic oxidative stress with the combination being most effective. Moreover, the combination group showed enhanced wound-healing effects and almost normalized hepatic and pancreatic histopathology. Quercetin and/or liraglutide significantly decreased TXNIP levels and serine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and increased PI3K levels compared to the diabetic untreated group. Interestingly, only the combination therapy normalized hepatic IRS-1 expression. The combination of quercetin and liraglutide showed enhanced antidiabetic effects, possibly through lowering hepatic TXNIP levels, with the resultant up-regulation of the IRS-1/PI3K pathway.

Key Mechanisms and Potential Implications of Hericium erinaceus in NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation by Reactive Oxygen Species during Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the principal cause of dementia, and its incidence increases with age. Altered antioxidant systems and inflammation have an important role in the etiology of neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we evaluated the effects of Hericium erinaceus, a nutritional mushroom with important antioxidant effects, in a rat model of AD. Animals were injected with 70 mg/Kg of AlCl3 daily for 6 weeks, and Hericium erinaceus was administered daily by gavage. Before the experiment’s end date, behavioral test training was performed. At the end of the study, behavioral changes were assessed, and the animals were euthanized. Brain tissues were harvested for further analysis. AlCl3 mainly accumulates in the hippocampus, the principal region of the brain involved in memory functions and learning. Hericium erinaceus administration reduced behavioral changes and hippocampal neuronal degeneration. Additionally, it reduced phosphorylated Tau levels, aberrant APP overexpression, and β-amyloid accumulation. Moreover, Hericium erinaceus decreased the pro-oxidative and pro-inflammatory hippocampal alterations induced by AD. In particular, it reduced the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome components, usually activated by increased oxidative stress during AD. Collectively, our results showed that Hericium erinaceus has protective effects on behavioral alteration and histological modification associated with AD due to the modulation of the oxidative and inflammatory pathways, as well as regulating cellular brain stress.

Preclinical Bioavailability, Tissue Distribution, and Protein Binding Studies of Erinacine A, a Bioactive Compound from Hericium erinaceus Mycelia Using Validated LC-MS/MS Method

Erinacine A, derived from the mycelia of Hericium erinaceus, has attracted much attention due to its neuroprotective properties. However, very few studies have been conducted on the bioavailability, tissue distribution, and protein binding of erinacine A. This study aimed to investigate the bioavailability, tissue distribution, and protein binding of erinacine A in Sprague-Dawley rats. After oral administration (po) and intravenous administration (iv) of 2.381 g/kg BW of the H. erinaceus mycelia extract (equivalent to 50 mg/kg BW of erinacine A) and 5 mg/kg BW of erinacine A, respectively, the absolute bioavailability of erinacine A was estimated as 24.39%. Erinacine A was detected in brain at 1 h after oral dosing and reached the peak at 8 h. Protein binding assay showed unbound erinacine A fractions in brain to blood ratio is close to unity, supporting passive diffusion as the dominating transport. Feces was the major route for the elimination of erinacine A. This study is the first to show that erinacine A can penetrate the blood-brain barrier of rats by the means of passive diffusion and thus support the development of H. erinaceus mycelia for the improvement of neurohealth.

Rapid Identification of Chemical Constituents in Hericium erinaceus Based on LC-MS/MS Metabolomics

Hericium erinaceus is a precious edible and medicinal fungus with high nutritional value. It has many functions, such as enhancing immunity, antitumor antioxidation, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, and protecting gastric mucosa. However, there are few researches about the H. erinaceus compounds. In this paper, ultraperformance liquid chromatography tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-exactive-MS/MS) was used to isolate and identify the compounds in H. erinaceus. 102 compounds were identified in H. erinaceus by comparing with standard databases such as MZVault, MZCloud, and BGI Library (self-built standard Library by BGI Co., Ltd), including flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolic acids, phenylpropanoids, steroids, organic acids, and amino acids.

The Inhibitory Effects of Hericium erinaceus β-glucan on in vitro Starch Digestion

β-glucan has attracted extensive attention due to its health promoting effects, such as lowering the blood sugar and lipids levels, and enhancing immunity. In this study, three different β-glucans (HEBG-1, HEBG-2, HEBG-3) were obtained from Hericium erinaceus by sodium hydroxide, β-1,3-glucanase and β-1,6-glucanase, respectively. The effects of the glucans on in vitro digestion of wheat starch were investigated by Englyst method. We found that addition of HEBGs significantly reduced the digestibility of starch, showing as decreased RDS and pGI, and increased SDS and RS content. In addition, the inhibitory effects positively correlated with the molecular weight of HEBG. The triple helix structure in HEBG plays important roles in inhibiting starch digestion. And β-1,3- glucan showed stronger inhibitor effects than those of β-1,6- glucan. This study unravels the mechanism of HEBG on inhibition of starch digestion and provides a theoretical understanding for the application of edible mushroom β-glucan to the development of low glycemic index starchy foods.

A Review on Natural Products and Herbs Used in the Management of Diabetes

AIM

We aimed to review the importance of the natural products and herbs used in the management of diabetes mellitus (DM) as medicinal agents.

BACKGROUND

Naturally occuring phytoactive compounds and herbs are very important because they are found to be effective against several diseases. DM is a commonly occurring endocrinological disorder, with the incidences increased four times in the last 34 years. There are several oral hypoglycemic agents available in the market, which in the long term, may lead to a high risk of secondary failure rate.

OBJECTIVES

This review focuses on natural products and herbs application for effective management of diabetic conditions, and natural products that can be utilized as alternative therapy.

METHODS

We searched the various online databases (PubMed, Bentham, ScienceDirect) and scientific publications from the library using a qualitative systematic review. The criteria of the review were based on natural products and herbs application for possessing medicinal value against diabetes and the literature of previous thirty years has been searched. The inclusion criteria of materials were based on the quality and relevancy with our aim.

RESULTS

We observed that owing to the potential of natural products and herbs, different research groups are searching for the potent natural antidiabetic agents with minimal side effects. Recent research showed that there is a decline in a number of new molecules that fail in clinical trials because of toxicity thus, natural products and herbs are considered as the alternative. Currently, some of the natural products and herbs like coixol, andrographolide, Tinospora cordifolia, polypeptide p, charantin, Annona squamosa, and Nigella are being explored for their potential to be used successfully for the management of type 2 diabetes.

CONCLUSION

The significance of natural products and herbs in the anticipation of diabetes and allied complications are being described herein. We observed that a huge amount of work is being done to explore the natural products and herbs to manage the diabetes and this review gives the highlights of them.

Characterization of α-glucosidase inhibitory constituents of the fruiting body of lion's mane mushroom (Hericium erinaceus)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hericium erinaceus, commonly called lion's mane mushroom, is an edible and medicinal mushroom that has been traditionally used for the treatment of metabolic disorders, gastrointestinal diseases and memory impairment. In this study, potential anti-hyperglycemic constituents were identified to support the traditional usage of H. erinaceus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The components of H. erinaceus were purified using various column chromatography techniques. The structure of the separated compounds was determined based on spectroscopic data analysis, i.e., 1D and 2D NMR analysis. The anti-hyperglycemic activity of the isolated compounds was evaluated by measuring the inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase activity. Molecular docking analysis was also conducted for elucidation of α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of isolated compounds.

RESULTS

Ten compounds including four new compounds, erinacenols A-D (1-4), were isolated from the fruiting bodies of H. erinaceus. Investigation of the anti-hyperglycemic effect of isolated compounds demonstrated that erinacenol D (4), 4-[3',7'-dimethyl-2',6'-octadienyl]-2-formyl-3-hydroxy-5-methyoxybenzylalcohol (6), hericene A (7), hericene D (8) and hericenone D (9) strongly inhibited α-glucosidase activity with IC₅₀ values of <20 μM. The structure activity relationship suggested the importance of long side chain for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Further analysis by molecular docking demonstrated the interaction of α-glucosidase and isolated compounds, which supported the inhibitory activity of α-glucosidase.

CONCLUSION

Our present study demonstrated the beneficial effect of H. erinaceus by characterization of α-glucosidase inhibitory compounds, including four new compounds. This approach can be valuable support for the traditional use of H. erinaceus for the treatment of diabetes and metabolic diseases, which needs to be clarified by further in-vivo study.

Potential Antidepressant Effects of Scutellaria baicalensis, Hericium erinaceus and Rhodiola rosea

Recent studies focused on the pharmacology and feasibility of herbal compounds as a potential strategy to target a variety of human diseases ranging from metabolic to brain disorders. Accordingly, bioactive ingredients which are found within a variety of herbal compounds are reported to produce both neuroprotective and psychotropic activities which may help to combat mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances and cognitive alterations. In the present manuscript, we focus on three herbs which appear effective in mitigating anxiety or depression with favourable risk-benefit profiles, namely Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis), Hericium erinaceus (H. erinaceus) and Rhodiola rosea (R. rosea). These three traditional folk medicinal herbs target the main biochemical events that are implicated in mental disorders, mimicking, to some extent, the mechanisms of action of conventional antidepressants and mood stabilizers with a wide margin of tolerability. In detail, they rescue alterations in neurotransmitter and neuro-endocrine systems, stimulate neurogenesis and the synthesis of neurotrophic factors, and they counteract oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation. Albeit the encouraging results that emerge from both experimental and clinical evidence, further studies are needed to confirm and better understand the mental-health promoting, and specifically, the antidepressant effects of these herbs.

Therapeutic Potential of Hericium erinaceus for Depressive Disorder

Depression is a common and severe neuropsychiatric disorder that is one of the leading causes of global disease burden. Although various anti-depressants are currently available, their efficacies are barely adequate and many have side effects. Hericium erinaceus, also known as Lion’s mane mushroom, has been shown to have various health benefits, including antioxidative, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects. It has been used to treat cognitive impairment, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. Bioactive compounds extracted from the mycelia and fruiting bodies of H. erinaceus have been found to promote the expression of neurotrophic factors that are associated with cell proliferation such as nerve growth factors. Although antidepressant effects of H. erinaceus have not been validated and compared to the conventional antidepressants, based on the neurotrophic and neurogenic pathophysiology of depression, H. erinaceus may be a potential alternative medicine for the treatment of depression. This article critically reviews the current literature on the potential benefits of H. erinaceus as a treatment for depressive disorder as well as its mechanisms underlying the antidepressant-like activities.

Erinacine A-enriched Hericium erinaceus mycelia promotes longevity in Drosophila melanogaster and aged mice

Erinacine A-enriched Hericium erinaceus mycelia is a well-established potential therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative disorders. However, the effect of erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus mycelia on promoting longevity remains unclear. This is the first study to investigate the effect of erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus mycelia on lifespan-prolonging activity in Drosophila melanogaster and senescence-accelerated P8 (SAMP8) mice. Two hundred D. melanogaster and 80 SAMP8 mice of both sexes were randomly divided into four groups and were administered with either the standard, low-dose, mid-dose, or high-dose erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus mycelia. After treatment, the lifespan was measured in D. melanogaster, and the lifespan, food intake and oxidative damage were evaluated in SAMP8 mice. Results showed that supplementation with erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus mycelia extended the lifespan in both D. melanogaster and SAMP8 by a maximum of 32% and 23%, respectively, compared to the untreated controls. Moreover, erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus mycelia decreased TBARS levels and induced the anti-oxidative enzyme activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. Together, these findings suggest that erinacine A-enriched H. erinaceus mycelia supplement could promote longevity, mediated partly through the induction of endogenous antioxidants enzymes.

Absolute Bioavailability, Tissue Distribution, and Excretion of Erinacine S in Hericium erinaceus Mycelia

Erinacine S, so far known to have been produced only in Hericium erinaceus mycelia, has just recently been discovered and is able to reduce amyloid plaque growth and improve neurogenesis in aged brain of rats. However, few investigations have been conducted on the absorption, distribution, and excretion study of Erinacine S. This study aimed to investigate the absolute bioavailability, tissue distribution, and excretion of Erinacine S in H. Erinaceus mycelia in eight-week old Sprague-Dawley rats. After oral administration and intravenous administration of 2.395 g/kg body weight of the H. erinaceus mycelia extract (equivalent to 50 mg/kg body weight Erinacine S) and 5 mg/kg of Erinacine S, respectively, the absolute bioavailability was estimated as 15.13%. In addition, Erinacine S was extensively distributed in organs such as brain, heart, lung, liver, kidney, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The maximum concentration of Erinacine S was observed in the stomach, 2 h after the oral administration of H. erinaceus mycelia extract, whereas the maximum amount of Erinacine S found in other tissues were seen after 8 h. Total amount of unconverted Erinacine S eliminated in feces and urine in 24 h was 0.1% of the oral dosage administrated. This study is the first to show that Erinacine S can penetrate the blood–brain barrier of rats and thus support the development of H. erinaceus mycelia, for the treatment of neurological diseases.

Antidiabetic and Antihyperlipidemic Activities of the Leaf Latex Extract of Aloe megalacantha Baker (Aloaceae) in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Model

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus has become a major public health and economic problem across the globe. The inadequacies, as well as serious adverse effects associated with conventional medicines, led to a determined search for alternative natural therapeutic agents. The leaf latex extract of Aloe megalacantha has been used for the management of diabetes mellitus in Ethiopian folk medicine. This study aimed to evaluate the antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects of the leaf latex extract of A. megalacantha in streptozotocin- (STZ-) induced diabetic model.

METHODS

The experimental diabetes was induced in Swiss albino mice by the administration of a single dose of STZ (150 mg/kg), intraperitoneally. The leaf latex extract of A. megalacantha at three different doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) was administered for a period of 14 days. Fasting blood glucose levels (BGLs) were measured by glucose-oxidase and peroxidase reactive strips. After fourteen days, mice from all groups fasted and the blood was collected through puncturing the retroorbit of the eyes under mild anesthetic condition. The collected blood sample was used to determine serum biochemical parameters such as total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. The statistical analysis of results was carried out using one-way analysis (ANOVA) followed by post hoc multiple comparison tests.

RESULTS

Oral administration of A. megalacantha leaf latex extract at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg daily for 14 days results in a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in fasting BGL as compared to negative control STZ-induced diabetic mice. The leaf latex has significantly reduced the level of TC, TG, and LDL, VLDL cholesterol while a significant (p < 0.05) HDL cholesterol increment was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the present investigation indicated that the leaf latex of A. megalacantha possessed significant antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic potential which may prove the claimed use of the plant in amelioration of diabetes and associated complications in Ethiopian folk medicine.

Lactobacillus fermentum HP3-Mediated Fermented Hericium erinaceus Juice as a Health Promoting Food Supplement to Manage Diabetes Mellitus

The current study investigated the antidiabetic property of Lactobacillus fermentum HP3–mediated fermented Hericium erinaceus juice (FHJ) using male Wistar rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus (DM). FHJ was prepared using boiled mushroom juice and L. fermentum HP3. Amino acid and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content of FHJ was analyzed. Streptozotocin-induced DM rats were supplemented with FHJ in a pre- and posttreatment method. The changes in plasma insulin, plasma glucose level, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), representative cytokines, and the antioxidant system were assessed in experimental rats using spectrophotometric methods and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The supplementation of FHJ improved the body mass, insulin level, and recovery progress of hyperglycemia. HbA1c level was altered by the FHJ intervention. The inflammatory cytokines level was suppressed in FHJ supplemented group compared with control. Intervention of FHJ and insulin improved the production of interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-–β1 in DM rat. The study suggested that fermented H erinaceus juice may be used as one of the food-based health-promoting supplement to manage DM along with medication.

Antidiabetic phytoconstituents and their mode of action on metabolic pathways

Diabetes Mellitus, characterized by persistent hyperglycaemia, is a heterogeneous group of disorders of multiple aetiologies. It affects the human body at multiple organ levels thus making it difficult to follow a particular line of the treatment protocol and requires a multimodal approach. The increasing medical burden on patients with diabetes-related complications results in an enormous economic burden, which could severely impair global economic growth in the near future. This shows that today's healthcare system has conventionally been poorly equipped towards confronting the mounting impact of diabetes on a global scale and demands an urgent need for newer and better options. The overall challenge of this field of diabetes treatment is to identify the individualized factors that can lead to improved glycaemic control. Plants are traditionally used worldwide as remedies for diabetes healing. They synthesize a diverse array of biologically active compounds having antidiabetic properties. This review is an endeavour to document the present armamentarium of antidiabetic herbal drug discovery and developments, highlighting mechanism-based antidiabetic properties of over 300 different phytoconstituents of various chemical categories from about 100 different plants modulating different metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, Krebs cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogen synthesis and degradation, cholesterol synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism as well as peroxisome proliferator activated receptor activation, dipeptidyl peptidase inhibition and free radical scavenging action. The aim is to provide a rich reservoir of pharmacologically established antidiabetic phytoconstituents with specific references to the novel, cost-effective interventions, which might be of relevance to other low-income and middle-income countries of the world.

Neuroinflammation and neurohormesis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and Alzheimer-linked pathologies: modulation by nutritional mushrooms

Human life develops and expands not only in time and space, but also in the retrograde permanent recollection and interweaving of memories. Therefore, individual human identity depends fully on a proper access to the autobiographical memory. Such access is hindered or lost under pathological conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, including recently associated oxidant pathologies, such as ocular neural degeneration occurring in glaucoma or neurosensorial degeneration occurring in Menière’s disease. Oxidative stress and altered antioxidant systems have been suggested to play a role in the aetiology of major neurodegenerative disorders, and altered expression of genes sensing oxidative stress, as well as decreased cellular stress response mechanisms could synergistically contribute to the course of these oxidant disorders. Thus, the theory that low levels of stress can produce protective responses against the pathogenic processes is a frontier area of neurobiological research focal to understanding and developing therapeutic approaches to neurodegenerative disorders. Herein, we discuss cellular mechanisms underlying AD neuroinflammatory pathogenesis that are contributory to Alzheimer’s disease. We describe endogenous cellular defence mechanism modulation and neurohormesis as a potentially innovative approach to therapeutics for AD and other neurodegenerative conditions that are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and neuroinflammation. Particularly, we consider the emerging role of the inflammasome as an important component of the neuroprotective network, as well as the importance of Coriolus and Hericium nutritional mushrooms in redox stress responsive mechanisms and neuroprotection.

Therapeutic molecules against type 2 diabetes: What we have and what are we expecting?

World Health Organization (WHO) has identified diabetes as one of the fastest growing non-communicable diseases with 422 million patients around the world in 2014. Diabetes, a metabolic disease, is characterized primarily by hyperglycemia which results in various macrovascular and microvascular complications like cardiovascular disease and neuropathies which can significantly deteriorate the quality of life. The body either does not manufactures enough insulin (type 1 diabetes or T1DM) or becomes insensitive to physiologically secreted insulin or both (type 2 diabetes or T2DM). The majority of the diabetic population is affected by type 2 diabetes. Currently, hyperglycemia is treated by a broad range of molecules such as biguanides, sulfonylurea, insulin, thiazolidinediones, incretin mimetics, and DPP-4 inhibitors exerting different mechanisms. However, new drug classes have indeed come in the market such as SGLT-2 inhibitors and other are in the experimental stages such as GPR 40 agonists, GSK-3 inhibitors, GK activators and GPR21 inhibitors which definitely could be anticipated as safe and effective for diabetes therapy. This article reviews the general approach to currently approved therapies for type 2 diabetes and focusing on novel approaches that could be a panacea and might be useful in the future for diabetes patients.

The effect of midkine on growth factors and oxidative status in an experimental wound model in diabetic and healthy rats

Wound healing is important for longevity. Midkine is a cytokine involved in controlling tissue repair and new tissue development, and in regulating inflammation. We investigated the effect of midkine on wound healing in rats. In total, 108 Wistar albino rats were used: 12 as healthy and diabetic controls; 96 were split into 4 groups: healthy, saline treated; healthy, midkine (10 ng/kg, 48 h intervals) treated; diabetic, saline treated; and diabetic, midkine treated. Following wound creation, 6 rats per group were euthanized on days 3, 7, 14, and 28; the wounded skin was removed. Levels of epidermal growth factor (EGF), matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were measured. MMP-8 and PDGF levels fluctuated in all groups; TGF-β fluctuated in the diabetic groups and was significantly higher in the HM group than other groups after 14 days. EGF and VEGF levels were increased in the HM group after 3 days. TBARS levels were highest in the diabetic groups. Macroscopically, the midkine-treated groups healed better. Midkine can accelerate wound healing by influencing growth factors and oxidative status in wound tissues.

Cystathionine-γ lyase-derived hydrogen sulfide mediates the cardiovascular protective effects of moxonidine in diabetic rats

Blunted cystathionine-γ lyase (CSE) activity (reduced endogenous H2S-level) is implicated in hypertension and myocardial dysfunction in diabetes. Here, we tested the hypothesis that CSE derived H2S mediates the cardiovascular protection conferred by the imidazoline I1 receptor agonist moxonidine in a diabetic rat model. We utilized streptozotocin (STZ; 55mg/kg i.p) to induce diabetes in male Wistar rats. Four weeks later, STZ-treated rats received vehicle, moxonidine (2 or 6mg/kg; gavage), CSE inhibitor DL-propargylglycine, (37.5mg/kg i.p) or DL-propargylglycine with moxonidine (6mg/kg) for 3 weeks. Moxonidine improved the glycemic state, and reversed myocardial hypertrophy, hypertension and baroreflex dysfunction in STZ-treated rats. Ex vivo studies revealed that STZ caused reductions in CSE expression/activity, H2S and nitric oxide (NO) levels and serum adiponectin and elevations in myocardial imidazoline I1 receptor expression, p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase, ERK1/2, phosphorylation and lipid peroxidation (expressed as malondialdehyde). Moxonidine reversed these biochemical responses, and suppressed the expression of death associated protein kinase-3. Finally, pharmacologic CSE inhibition (DL-propargylglycine) abrogated the favorable cardiovascular, glycemic and biochemical responses elicited by moxonidine. These findings present the first evidence for a mechanistic role for CSE derived H2S in the glycemic control and in the favorable cardiovascular effects conferred by imidazoline I1 receptor activation (moxonidine) in a diabetic rat model.

Chemistry, Nutrition, and Health-Promoting Properties of Hericium erinaceus (Lion's Mane) Mushroom Fruiting Bodies and Mycelia and Their Bioactive Compounds

The culinary and medicinal mushroom Hericium erinaceus is widely consumed in Asian countries, but apparently not in the United States, for its nutritional and health benefits. To stimulate broader interest in the reported beneficial properties, this overview surveys and consolidates the widely scattered literature on the chemistry (isolation and structural characterization) of polysaccharides and secondary metabolites such as erinacines, hericerins, hericenones, resorcinols, steroids, mono- and diterpenes, and volatile aroma compounds, nutritional composition, food and industrial uses, and exceptional nutritional and health-promoting aspects of H. erinaceus. The reported health-promoting properties of the mushroom fruit bodies, mycelia, and bioactive pure compounds include antibiotic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, antifatigue, antihypertensive, antihyperlipodemic, antisenescence, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and neuroprotective properties and improvement of anxiety, cognitive function, and depression. The described anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and immunostimulating properties in cells, animals, and humans seem to be responsible for the multiple health-promoting properties. A wide range of research advances and techniques are described and evaluated. The collated information and suggestion for further research might facilitate and guide further studies to optimize the use of the whole mushrooms and about 70 characterized actual and potential bioactive secondary metabolites to help prevent or treat human chronic, cognitive, and neurological diseases.

Ultrastructural changes in the mycelium of Hericium erinaceum (Bull.; Fr.) Pers. under selenium-induced oxidative stress

BACKGROUND

In this study we examined the influence of various forms of selenium (organic and inorganic) on the vivacity of Hericium erinaceum mycelium and structural changes and ultrastructure occurring during its development in submerged culture.

RESULTS

The mycelium was grown on sodium selenite (Na₂SeO₃), Selol (with 20 and 50 g kg⁻¹ Se, respectively) and a mixture of Na₂SeO₃ and Selol. Samples of the mycelium were collected on day 3 and day 24 of the incubation and viewed under an electron microscope. Selol at concentration 20 g kg⁻¹ did not cause any damage to the cell ultrastructure, but it contributed to the thickening of the cell wall, which implied an influence on polysaccharide production. In the other cases, degradation changes appeared in the protoplasm and the thickness of the cell wall did not increase.

CONCLUSION

The nature of the effect exerted by various sources of selenium in the culture medium on the formation of polysaccharides probably results from the differences in their chemical composition and differences in the toxicity of these compounds towards the cells, but is also connected with the decomposition of the wall surrounding degraded fungal cells.

Hericium erinaceus (Yamabushitake): a unique resource for developing functional foods and medicines

This article provides valuable scientific information for Hericium erinaceus and shows its potential for the development of new functional foods and drugs.