1
|
Bertelmann C, Mock M, Schmid A, Bühler B. Efficiency aspects of regioselective testosterone hydroxylation with highly active CYP450-based whole-cell biocatalysts. Microb Biotechnol 2024; 17:e14378. [PMID: 38018939 PMCID: PMC10832557 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Steroid hydroxylations belong to the industrially most relevant reactions catalysed by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYP450s) due to the pharmacological relevance of hydroxylated derivatives. The implementation of respective bioprocesses at an industrial scale still suffers from several limitations commonly found in CYP450 catalysis, that is low turnover rates, enzyme instability, inhibition and toxicity related to the substrate(s) and/or product(s). Recently, we achieved a new level of steroid hydroxylation rates by introducing highly active testosterone-hydroxylating CYP450 BM3 variants together with the hydrophobic outer membrane protein AlkL into Escherichia coli-based whole-cell biocatalysts. However, the activity tended to decrease, which possibly impedes overall productivities and final product titres. In this study, a considerable instability was confirmed and subject to a systematic investigation regarding possible causes. In-depth evaluation of whole-cell biocatalyst kinetics and stability revealed a limitation in substrate availability due to poor testosterone solubility as well as inhibition by the main product 15β-hydroxytestosterone. Instability of CYP450 BM3 variants was disclosed as another critical factor, which is of general significance for CYP450-based biocatalysis. Presented results reveal biocatalyst, reaction and process engineering strategies auguring well for industrial implementation of the developed steroid hydroxylation platform.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Magdalena Mock
- Department of Solar MaterialsLeipzigGermany
- Present address:
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Material SciencesGeorg Agricola University of Applied SciencesBochumGermany
| | | | - Bruno Bühler
- Department of Solar MaterialsLeipzigGermany
- Department of Microbial BiotechnologyHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH–UFZLeipzigGermany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kollerov V, Tarlachkov S, Shutov A, Kazantsev A, Donova M. Identification of a Gene Encoding a New Fungal Steroid 7-Hydroxylase and Its Functional Characterization in Pichia pastoris Yeast. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:17256. [PMID: 38139084 PMCID: PMC10744122 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242417256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The hydroxylation of steroids in the C7β position is one of the rare reactions that allow the production of value-added precursors in the synthesis of ursodeoxycholic acid and other pharmaceuticals. Recently, we discovered this activity in the ascomycete Curvularia sp. VKM F-3040. In this study, the novel gene of 7-hydroxylase (P450cur) was identified as being heterologously expressed and functionally characterized in Pichia pastoris. Transcriptome data mining and differential expression analysis revealed that 12 putative genes in Curvularia sp. mycelia significantly increased their expression in response to dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). The transcriptional level of the most up-regulated cytochrome P450cur gene was increased more than 300-fold. A two-gene construct with a candidate P450cur gene and the gene of its natural redox partner, NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR), which is interconnected by a T2A element, was created. Using this construct, recombinant P. pastoris strains co-expressing fungal P450cur and CPR genes were obtained. The functional activity of the recombinant P450cur was studied in vivo during the bioconversion of androstane steroids. The fungal 7-monooxygenase predominantly catalyzed the 7β-hydroxylation of androstadienedione (ADD), DHEA, and androstenediol, whereas 1-dehydrotestosterone was hydroxylated by P450cur mainly at the C7-Hα position. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a recombinant yeast capable of catalyzing the 7α/β-hydroxylation of ADD and DHEA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vyacheslav Kollerov
- Federal Research Center «Pushchino Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences», G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (S.T.); (A.S.); (M.D.)
| | - Sergey Tarlachkov
- Federal Research Center «Pushchino Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences», G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (S.T.); (A.S.); (M.D.)
| | - Andrei Shutov
- Federal Research Center «Pushchino Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences», G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (S.T.); (A.S.); (M.D.)
| | - Alexey Kazantsev
- Chemical Department, Moscow State University, GSP-1, Leninskiye Gori, 1, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Marina Donova
- Federal Research Center «Pushchino Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences», G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, 142290 Pushchino, Russia; (S.T.); (A.S.); (M.D.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
The ability to site-selectively modify equivalent functional groups in a molecule has the potential to streamline syntheses and increase product yields by lowering step counts. Enzymes catalyze site-selective transformations throughout primary and secondary metabolism, but leveraging this capability for non-native substrates and reactions requires a detailed understanding of the potential and limitations of enzyme catalysis and how these bounds can be extended by protein engineering. In this review, we discuss representative examples of site-selective enzyme catalysis involving functional group manipulation and C-H bond functionalization. We include illustrative examples of native catalysis, but our focus is on cases involving non-native substrates and reactions often using engineered enzymes. We then discuss the use of these enzymes for chemoenzymatic transformations and target-oriented synthesis and conclude with a survey of tools and techniques that could expand the scope of non-native site-selective enzyme catalysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dibyendu Mondal
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Harrison M Snodgrass
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Christian A Gomez
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Jared C Lewis
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Karpov MV, Nikolaeva VM, Fokina VV, Shutov AA, Kazantsev AV, Strizhov NI, Donova MV. Creation and Functional Analysis of Mycolicibacterium smegmatis Recombinant Strains Carrying the Bacillary Cytochromes CYP106A1 and CYP106A2 Genes. APPL BIOCHEM MICRO+ 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s0003683822090058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
|
5
|
Carius Y, Hutter M, Kiss F, Bernhardt R, Lancaster CRD. Structural comparison of the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP106A1 and CYP106A2 provides insight into their differences in steroid conversion. FEBS Lett 2022; 596:3133-3144. [PMID: 36151590 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the structural basis of the selectivity of steroid hydroxylation requires detailed structural and functional investigations on various steroid hydroxylases with different selectivities, such as the bacterial cytochrome P450 enzymes. Here, the crystal structure of the cytochrome P450 CYP106A1 from Priestia megaterium was solved. CYP106A1 exhibits a rare additional structural motif of a cytochrome P450, a sixth β-sheet. The protein was found in different unusual conformations corresponding to both open and closed forms even when crystallized without any known substrate. The structural comparison of CYP106A1 with the previously investigated CYP106A2, including docking studies for both isoforms with the substrate cortisol, reveals a completely different orientation of the steroid molecule in the active sites. This distinction convincingly explains the experimentally observed differences in substrate conversion and product formation by the two enzymes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Carius
- Department of Structural Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Center of Human and Molecular Biology (ZHMB), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Michael Hutter
- Centre for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Flora Kiss
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - C Roy D Lancaster
- Department of Structural Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Center of Human and Molecular Biology (ZHMB), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kuru A, Yildirim K. Microbial conversion of pregnenolone by some filamentous fungi. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10242422.2022.2150967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Kuru
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
| | - Kudret Yildirim
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhu R, Liu Y, Yang Y, Min Q, Li H, Chen L. Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases Catalyse Steroid Nucleus Hydroxylation with Regio‐ and Stereo‐selectivity. Adv Synth Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.202200210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
|
8
|
Peng W, Fu Y, Jia B, Sun X, Wang Y, Deng Z, Lin S, Liang R. Metabolism analysis of 17α-ethynylestradiol by Pseudomonas citronellolis SJTE-3 and identification of the functional genes. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 423:127045. [PMID: 34488099 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic estrogens are the most hazardous and persistent environmental estrogenic contaminants, with few reports on their biodegradation. Pseudomonas citronellolis SJTE-3 degraded natural steroids efficiently and metabolized 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) with the addition of different easily used energy sources (glucose, peptone, ethanol, yeast extract, fulvic acid and ammonia). Over 92% of EE2 (1 mg/L) and 55% of EE2 (10 mg/L) in culture were removed in seven days with the addition of 0.1% ethanol, and the EE2-biotransforming efficiency increased with the increasing ethanol concentrations. Two novel intermediate metabolites of EE2 (C22H22O and C18H34O2) were identified with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and GC-Orbitrap/MS. Comparative analysis and genome mining revealed strain SJTE-3 contained a unique genetic basis for EE2 metabolism, and the putative EE2-degrading genes exhibited dispersed distribution. The EE2 metabolism of strain SJTE-3 was inducible and the transcription of eight genes were significantly induced by EE2. Three genes (sdr3, yjcH and cyp2) encoding a short-chain dehydrogenase, a membrane transporter and a cytochrome P450 hydroxylase, respectively, were vital for EE2 metabolism in strain SJTE-3; their over-expression accelerated EE2 metabolic processes and advanced the generation of intermediate metabolites. This work could promote the study of bacterial EE2 metabolism mechanisms and facilitate efficient bioremediation for EE2 pollution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wanli Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yali Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Ben Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xin Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yanqiu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Zixin Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Shuangjun Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Rubing Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kollerov V, Shutov A, Kazantsev A, Donova M. Hydroxylation of pregnenolone and dehydroepiandrosterone by zygomycete Backusella lamprospora VKM F-944: selective production of 7α-OH-DHEA. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 106:535-548. [PMID: 34939135 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11737-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we studied the transformation of two 3β-hydroxy-5-ene-steroids-pregnenolone and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) by Backusella lamprospora VKM F- 944. The soil-dwelling zygomycete wild-type strain has been earlier selected during the screening and previously unexplored for this purpose. The fungus fully converted pregnenolone to form a mixture of axial 7α-hydroxy-pregnenolone and 7α,11α-dihydroxy-pregnenolone, while no metabolites with β-orientation of the hydroxyl group were detected. The pathway to 7α,11α-diOH-pregnenolone seems to include 7α-hydroxylation of 11α-hydroxylated derivative. The only product from DHEA was identified as 7α-hydroxy-DHEA. The structures of steroid metabolites were confirmed by HPLC, mass-spectrometry (MS), and 1H and 13C NMR analyses. Under the optimized conditions, the yield of 7α-OH-DHEA reached 94% (w/w) or over 14 g/L in absolute terms, even at high concentration of the substrate (DHEA) (15 g/L). To our knowledge, it is the highest yield of the value-added 7α-OH-DHEA reported so far. The results contribute to the knowledge of the diversity of the wild-type fungal strains capable of effective steroid hydroxylation. They could be applied for the production of allylic steroid 7α-alcohols that are widely used in medicine. KEY POINTS: • Zygomycete Backusella lamprospora actively hydroxylates 3β-hydroxy-5-en-steroids. • Axial 7α-hydroxylation is the preferable reaction by the strain towards pregnenolone and DHEA. • The strain selectively produces 7α-OH-DHEA even at high substrate concentrations (up to 15 g/L).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vyacheslav Kollerov
- G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, 142290, Pushchino, Moscow region, Russia.
| | - Andrei Shutov
- G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, 142290, Pushchino, Moscow region, Russia
| | - Alexey Kazantsev
- Chemical Department, Moscow State University, GSP-1, Leninskiye Gori, 1, Moscow, Russia
| | - Marina Donova
- G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, 142290, Pushchino, Moscow region, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Felpeto‐Santero C, Galán B, García JL. Production of 11α-hydroxysteroids from sterols in a single fermentation step by Mycolicibacterium smegmatis. Microb Biotechnol 2021; 14:2514-2524. [PMID: 33660943 PMCID: PMC8601193 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
11α-hydroxylated steroid synthons are one of the most important commercially pharmaceutical intermediates used for the production of contraceptive drugs and glucocorticoids. These compounds are currently produced by biotransformation using fungal strains in two sequential fermentation steps. In this work, we have developed by a rational design new recombinant bacteria able to produce 11α-hydroxylated synthons in a single fermentation step using cholesterol (CHO) or phytosterols (PHYTO) as feedstock. We have designed a synthetic operon expressing the 11α-hydroxylating enzymes from the fungus Rhizopus oryzae that was cloned into engineered mutant strains of Mycolicibacterium smegmatis that were previously created to produce 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD), 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD) from sterols. The introduction of the fungal synthetic operon in these modified bacterial chassis has allowed producing for the first time 11αOH-AD and 11αOH-ADD with high yields directly from sterols in a single fermentation step. Remarkably, the enzymes of sterol catabolic pathway from M. smegmatis recognized the 11α-hydroxylated intermediates as alternative substrates and were able to efficiently funnel sterols to the desired hydroxylated end-products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Felpeto‐Santero
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita SalasAgencia del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientíficasMadridSpain
| | - Beatriz Galán
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita SalasAgencia del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientíficasMadridSpain
| | - José Luis García
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita SalasAgencia del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientíficasMadridSpain
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Felpeto-Santero C, Galán B, García JL. Engineering the Steroid Hydroxylating System from Cochliobolus lunatus in Mycolicibacterium smegmatis. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9071499. [PMID: 34361934 PMCID: PMC8306143 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9071499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
14α-hydroxylated steroids are starting materials for the synthesis of contraceptive and anti-inflammatory compounds in the steroid industry. A synthetic bacterial operon containing the cytochrome P450 CYP103168 and the reductase CPR64795 of the fungus Cochlioboluslunatus able to hydroxylate steroids has been engineered into a shuttle plasmid named pMVFAN. This plasmid was used to transform two mutants of Mycolicibacterium smegmatis named MS6039-5941 and MS6039 that accumulate 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD), and 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD), respectively. The recombinant mutants MS6039-5941 (pMVFAN) and MS6039 (pMVFAN) were able to efficiently express the hydroxylating CYP system of C.lunatus and produced in high yields 14αOH-AD and 14αOH-ADD, respectively, directly from cholesterol and phytosterols in a single fermentation step. These results open a new avenue for producing at industrial scale these and other hydroxylated steroidal synthons by transforming with this synthetic operon other Mycolicibacterium strains currently used for the commercial production of steroidal synthons from phytosterols as feedstock.
Collapse
|
12
|
Hartz P, Gehl M, König L, Bernhardt R, Hannemann F. Development and application of a highly efficient CRISPR-Cas9 system for genome engineering in Bacillus megaterium. J Biotechnol 2021; 329:170-179. [PMID: 33600891 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2021.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus megaterium has become increasingly important for the biotechnological production of valuable compounds of industrial and pharmaceutical importance. Despite recent advances in rational strain design of B. megaterium, these studies have been largely impaired by the lack of molecular tools that are not state-of-the-art for comprehensive genome engineering approaches. In the current work, we describe the adaptation of the CRISPR-Cas9 vector pJOE8999 to enable efficient genome editing in B. megaterium. Crucial modifications comprise the exchange of promoter elements and associated ribosomal binding sites as well as the implementation of a 5-fluorouracil based counterselection system to facilitate proper plasmid curing. In addition, the functionality and performance of the new CRISPR-Cas9 vector pMOE was successfully evaluated by chromosomal disruption studies of the endogenous β-galactosidase gene (BMD_2126) and demonstrated an outstanding efficiency of 100 % based on combinatorial pheno- and genotype analyses. Furthermore, pMOE was applied for the genomic deletion of a steroid esterase gene (BMD_2256) that was identified among several other candidates as the gene encoding the esterase, which prevented accumulation of pharmaceutically important glucocorticoid esters. Recombinant expression of the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase 1 gene (cat1) in the resulting esterase deficient B. megaterium strain ultimately yielded C21-acetylated as well as novel C21-esterified derivates of cortisone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philip Hartz
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Manuel Gehl
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany; Present address: Microbial Protein Structure Group, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Karl-von-Frisch-Strasse 10, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Lisa König
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Frank Hannemann
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Zhang C, Lu M, Lin L, Huang Z, Zhang R, Wu X, Chen Y. Riboflavin Is Directly Involved in N-Dealkylation Catalyzed by Bacterial Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases. Chembiochem 2020; 21:2297-2305. [PMID: 32243060 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Like a vast number of enzymes in nature, bacterial cytochrome P450 monooxygenases require an activated form of flavin as a cofactor for catalytic activity. Riboflavin is the precursor of FAD and FMN that serves as indispensable cofactor for flavoenzymes. In contrast to previous notions, herein we describe the identification of an electron-transfer process that is directly mediated by riboflavin for N-dealkylation by bacterial P450 monooxygenases. The electron relay from NADPH to riboflavin and then via activated oxygen to heme was proposed based on a combination of X-ray crystallography, molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulation, site-directed mutagenesis and biochemical analysis of representative bacterial P450 monooxygenases. This study provides new insights into the electron transfer mechanism in bacterial P450 enzyme catalysis and likely in yeasts, fungi, plants and mammals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chengchang Zhang
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 211198, P. R. China
| | - Meiling Lu
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 211198, P. R. China
| | - Lin Lin
- National Center for Protein Science and Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 333 Haike Road, Shanghai, 201210, P. R. China
| | - Zhangjian Huang
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 211198, P. R. China
| | - Rongguang Zhang
- National Center for Protein Science and Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 333 Haike Road, Shanghai, 201210, P. R. China
| | - Xuri Wu
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 211198, P. R. China
| | - Yijun Chen
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, 211198, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhu J, Shen C, Zhao W, Liu X, Liu J, Yu B. Regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of testosterone by cytochrome P450 from Streptomyces griseus ATCC 13273. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10242422.2020.1799990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jinqian Zhu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chen Shen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wanli Zhao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiufeng Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jihua Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Boyang Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of TCM Evaluation and Translational Research, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Chen W, Fisher MJ, Leung A, Cao Y, Wong LL. Oxidative Diversification of Steroids by Nature-Inspired Scanning Glycine Mutagenesis of P450BM3 (CYP102A1). ACS Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c02077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wenyu Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Matthew J. Fisher
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Aaron Leung
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Yang Cao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
- Oxford Suzhou Centre for Advanced Research, Ruo Shui Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Jiangsu 215123, P.R. China
| | - Luet L. Wong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
- Oxford Suzhou Centre for Advanced Research, Ruo Shui Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Jiangsu 215123, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Wang Q, Ma B, Fushinobu S, Zhang C, Xu LH. Regio- and stereoselective hydroxylation of testosterone by a novel cytochrome P450 154C2 from Streptomyces avermitilis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 522:355-361. [PMID: 31767148 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.11.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 enzymes (P450 or CYP) are some of the most versatile biocatalysts, and offer advantages for oxidizing unreactive C-H bonds in mild conditions. In this study, we identified a novel cytochrome P450 154C2 from Streptomyces avermitilis and characterized its function in 2α-hydroxylation of testosterone with regio- and stereoselectivity. To investigate the efficiency of electron transfer, we conducted biotransformation using two different P450 redox partners-RhFRED (RhF reductase domain) from Rhodococcus sp. and Pdx (putidaredoxin)/Pdr (putidaredoxin reductase) from Pseudomonas putida and revealed that RhFRED was more effective than Pdx/Pdr, especially in vivo. The Km and kcat values for testosterone were estimated to be 0.16 ± 0.05 mM and 0.13 ± 0.02 min-1, and kcat/Km was 0.81 min-1 mM-1. We also determined the crystal structure of the substrate-free form of CYP154C2 at 1.5 Å resolution. The structure has a closed conformation, and the substrate binding pocket is narrow, which can explain the strict substrate specificity of the enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qianwen Wang
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Dinghai, Zhoushan, Zhejiang, 316021, China
| | - Bingbing Ma
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Dinghai, Zhoushan, Zhejiang, 316021, China
| | - Shinya Fushinobu
- Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan
| | - Chunfang Zhang
- Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Dinghai, Zhoushan, Zhejiang, 316021, China.
| | - Lian-Hua Xu
- College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310018, China.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Pratush A, Ye X, Yang Q, Kan J, Peng T, Wang H, Huang T, Xiong G, Hu Z. Biotransformation strategies for steroid estrogen and androgen pollution. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:2385-2409. [PMID: 31993703 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10374-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The common steroid hormones are estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), and testosterone (T). These steroids are reported to contaminate the environment through wastewater treatment plants. Steroid estrogens are widespread in the aquatic environment and therefore pose a potential risk, as exposure to these compounds has adverse impacts on vertebrates. Excessive exposure to steroid estrogens causes endocrine disruption in aquatic vertebrates, which affects the normal sexual life of these animals. Steroid pollutants also cause several health problems in humans and other animals. Microbial degradation is an efficient method for removing hormone pollutants from the environment by remediation. Over the last two decades, microbial metabolism of steroids has gained considerable attention due to its higher efficiency to reduce pollutants from the environment. The present review is focused on the major causes of steroid pollution, concentrations of these pollutants in surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and wastewater, their effect on humans and aquatic animals, as well as recent efforts by various research groups that seek better ways to degrade steroids by aerobic and anaerobic microbial systems. Detailed overview of aerobic and anaerobic microbial biotransformation of steroid estrogens and testosterone present in the environment along with the active enzyme systems involved in these biotransformation reactions is described in the review article, which helps readers to understand the biotransformation mechanism of steroids in depth. Other measures such as co-metabolic degradation, consortia degradation, algal, and fungal steroid biotransformation are also discussed in detail.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amit Pratush
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Xueying Ye
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Qi Yang
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Jie Kan
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Tao Peng
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Tongwang Huang
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Guangming Xiong
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology for Natural Scientists, University Medical School, Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Str. 10, 24105, Kiel, Germany
| | - Zhong Hu
- Biology Department, College of Science, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Distinct Regioselectivity of Fungal P450 Enzymes for Steroidal Hydroxylation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 85:AEM.01182-19. [PMID: 31324634 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01182-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we identified two P450 enzymes (CYP5150AP3 and CYP5150AN1) from Thanatephorus cucumeris NBRC 6298 by combination of transcriptome sequencing and heterologous expression in Pichia pastoris The biotransformation of 11-deoxycortisol and testosterone by Pichia pastoris whole cells coexpressing the cyp5150ap3 and por genes demonstrated that the CYP5150AP3 enzyme possessed steroidal 7β-hydroxylase activities toward these substrates, and the regioselectivity was dependent on the structures of steroidal compounds. CYP5150AN1 catalyzed the 2β-hydroxylation of 11-deoxycortisol. It is interesting that they display different regioselectivity of hydroxylation from that of their isoenzyme, CYP5150AP2, which possesses 19- and 11β-hydroxylase activities.IMPORTANCE The steroidal hydroxylases CYP5150AP3 and CYP5150AN1 together with the previously characterized CYP5150AP2 belong to the CYP5150A family of P450 enzymes with high amino acid sequence identity, but they showed completely different regioselectivities toward 11-deoxycortisol, suggesting the regioselectivity diversity of steroidal hydroxylases of CYP5150 family. They are also distinct from the known bacterial and fungal steroidal hydroxylases in substrate specificity and regioselectivity. Biocatalytic hydroxylation is one of the important transformations for the functionalization of steroid nucleus rings but remains a very challenging task in organic synthesis. These hydroxylases are useful additions to the toolbox of hydroxylase enzymes for the functionalization of steroids at various positions.
Collapse
|
19
|
Dangi B, Lee CW, Kim K, Park S, Yu E, Jeong C, Park H, Lee JH, Oh T. Characterization of two steroid hydroxylases from different
Streptomyces
spp. and their ligand‐bound and ‐unbound crystal structures. FEBS J 2018; 286:1683-1699. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.14729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Bikash Dangi
- Department of Life Science and Biochemical Engineering Sunmoon University Asansi Korea
| | - Chang Woo Lee
- Unit of Polar Genomics Korea Polar Research Institute Incheon Korea
- Department of Polar Sciences University of Science and Technology Incheon Korea
| | - Ki‐Hwa Kim
- Department of Life Science and Biochemical Engineering Sunmoon University Asansi Korea
| | - Sun‐Ha Park
- Unit of Polar Genomics Korea Polar Research Institute Incheon Korea
| | - Eun‐Ji Yu
- Department of Life Science and Biochemical Engineering Sunmoon University Asansi Korea
| | - Chang‐Sook Jeong
- Unit of Polar Genomics Korea Polar Research Institute Incheon Korea
- Department of Polar Sciences University of Science and Technology Incheon Korea
| | - Hyun Park
- Unit of Polar Genomics Korea Polar Research Institute Incheon Korea
- Department of Polar Sciences University of Science and Technology Incheon Korea
| | - Jun Hyuck Lee
- Unit of Polar Genomics Korea Polar Research Institute Incheon Korea
- Department of Polar Sciences University of Science and Technology Incheon Korea
| | - Tae‐Jin Oh
- Department of Life Science and Biochemical Engineering Sunmoon University Asansi Korea
- Genome‐based BioIT Convergence Institute Asansi Korea
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Biotechnology Sunmoon University Asansi Korea
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Szaleniec M, Wojtkiewicz AM, Bernhardt R, Borowski T, Donova M. Bacterial steroid hydroxylases: enzyme classes, their functions and comparison of their catalytic mechanisms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:8153-8171. [PMID: 30032434 PMCID: PMC6153880 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-9239-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The steroid superfamily includes a wide range of compounds that are essential for living organisms of the animal and plant kingdoms. Structural modifications of steroids highly affect their biological activity. In this review, we focus on hydroxylation of steroids by bacterial hydroxylases, which take part in steroid catabolic pathways and play an important role in steroid degradation. We compare three distinct classes of metalloenzymes responsible for aerobic or anaerobic hydroxylation of steroids, namely: cytochrome P450, Rieske-type monooxygenase 3-ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylase, and molybdenum-containing steroid C25 dehydrogenases. We analyze the available literature data on reactivity, regioselectivity, and potential application of these enzymes in organic synthesis of hydroxysteroids. Moreover, we describe mechanistic hypotheses proposed for all three classes of enzymes along with experimental and theoretical evidences, which have provided grounds for their formulation. In case of the 3-ketosteroid 9α-hydroxylase, such a mechanistic hypothesis is formulated for the first time in the literature based on studies conducted for other Rieske monooxygenases. Finally, we provide comparative analysis of similarities and differences in the reaction mechanisms utilized by bacterial steroid hydroxylases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Szaleniec
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30-239, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka M Wojtkiewicz
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30-239, Kraków, Poland
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Lehrstuhl für Biochemie, Universität des Saarlandes, Campus B2 2, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Tomasz Borowski
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 8, 30-239, Kraków, Poland
| | - Marina Donova
- G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow Oblast, 142290, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Spady ES, Wyche TP, Rollins NJ, Clardy J, Way JC, Silver PA. Mammalian Cells Engineered To Produce New Steroids. Chembiochem 2018; 19:1827-1833. [PMID: 29931794 PMCID: PMC6156985 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Steroids can be difficult to modify through traditional organic synthesis methods, but many enzymes regio- and stereoselectively process a wide variety of steroid substrates. We tested whether steroid-modifying enzymes could make novel steroids from non-native substrates. Numerous genes encoding steroid-modifying enzymes, including some bacterial enzymes, were expressed in mammalian cells by transient transfection and found to be active. We made three unusual steroids by stable expression, in HEK293 cells, of the 7α-hydroxylase CYP7B1, which was selected because of its high native product yield. These cells made 7α,17α-dihydroxypregnenolone and 7β,17α-dihydroxypregnenolone from 17α-hydroxypregnenolone and produced 11α,16α-dihydroxyprogesterone from 16α-hydroxyprogesterone. The last two products were the result of CYP7B1-catalyzed hydroxylation at previously unobserved sites. A Rosetta docking model of CYP7B1 suggested that these substrates' D-ring hydroxy groups might prevent them from binding in the same way as the native substrates, bringing different carbon atoms close to the active ferryl oxygen atom. This new approach could potentially use other enzymes and substrates to produce many novel steroids for drug candidate testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma S. Spady
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School – Boston, MA 02115, United States
- Laboratory of Systems Pharmacology, Harvard University – Boston, MA 02115, United States
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University – Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Thomas P. Wyche
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School – Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Nathanael J. Rollins
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School – Boston, MA 02115, United States
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University – Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Jon Clardy
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School – Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Jeffrey C. Way
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School – Boston, MA 02115, United States
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University – Boston, MA 02115, United States
| | - Pamela A. Silver
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School – Boston, MA 02115, United States
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University – Boston, MA 02115, United States
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Acevedo-Rocha CG, Gamble CG, Lonsdale R, Li A, Nett N, Hoebenreich S, Lingnau JB, Wirtz C, Fares C, Hinrichs H, Deege A, Mulholland AJ, Nov Y, Leys D, McLean KJ, Munro AW, Reetz MT. P450-Catalyzed Regio- and Diastereoselective Steroid Hydroxylation: Efficient Directed Evolution Enabled by Mutability Landscaping. ACS Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b00389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos G. Acevedo-Rocha
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-University, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Charles G. Gamble
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Richard Lonsdale
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-University, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K
| | - Aitao Li
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-University, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Hubei University 368 Youyi Road, Wuchang Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Nathalie Nett
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-University, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Sabrina Hoebenreich
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-University, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Julia B. Lingnau
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
| | - Cornelia Wirtz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
| | - Christophe Fares
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
| | - Heike Hinrichs
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
| | - Alfred Deege
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
| | - Adrian J. Mulholland
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K
| | - Yuval Nov
- Department of Statistics, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel
| | - David Leys
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Kirsty J. McLean
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Andrew W. Munro
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, U.K
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, 45470 Muelheim, Germany
- Department of Chemistry, Philipps-University, Hans-Meerwein-Strasse 4, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Bowen AM, Johnson EOD, Mercuri F, Hoskins NJ, Qiao R, McCullagh JSO, Lovett JE, Bell SG, Zhou W, Timmel CR, Wong LL, Harmer JR. A Structural Model of a P450-Ferredoxin Complex from Orientation-Selective Double Electron-Electron Resonance Spectroscopy. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:2514-2527. [PMID: 29266939 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b11056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenases catalyze the oxidation of chemically inert carbon-hydrogen bonds in diverse endogenous and exogenous organic compounds by atmospheric oxygen. This C-H bond oxy-functionalization activity has huge potential in biotechnological applications. Class I CYPs receive the two electrons required for oxygen activation from NAD(P)H via a ferredoxin reductase and ferredoxin. The interaction of Class I CYPs with their cognate ferredoxin is specific. In order to reconstitute the activity of diverse CYPs, structural characterization of CYP-ferredoxin complexes is necessary, but little structural information is available. Here we report a structural model of such a complex (CYP199A2-HaPux) in frozen solution derived from distance and orientation restraints gathered by the EPR technique of orientation-selective double electron-electron resonance (os-DEER). The long-lived oscillations in the os-DEER spectra were well modeled by a single orientation of the CYP199A2-HaPux complex. The structure is different from the two known Class I CYP-Fdx structures: CYP11A1-Adx and CYP101A1-Pdx. At the protein interface, HaPux residues in the [Fe2S2] cluster-binding loop and the α3 helix and the C-terminus residue interact with CYP199A2 residues in the proximal loop and the C helix. These residue contacts are consistent with biochemical data on CYP199A2-ferredoxin binding and electron transfer. Electron-tunneling calculations indicate an efficient electron-transfer pathway from the [Fe2S2] cluster to the heme. This new structural model of a CYP-Fdx complex provides the basis for tailoring CYP enzymes for which the cognate ferredoxin is not known, to accept electrons from HaPux and display monooxygenase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alice M Bowen
- Centre for Applied Electron Spin Resonance, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Eachan O D Johnson
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Francesco Mercuri
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati (ISMN) Via P. Gobetti 101, 40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Nicola J Hoskins
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Ruihong Qiao
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - James S O McCullagh
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Janet E Lovett
- Centre for Applied Electron Spin Resonance, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Stephen G Bell
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Weihong Zhou
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Christiane R Timmel
- Centre for Applied Electron Spin Resonance, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Luet Lok Wong
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| | - Jeffrey R Harmer
- Centre for Applied Electron Spin Resonance, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford , South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QR, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Putkaradze N, Litzenburger M, Abdulmughni A, Milhim M, Brill E, Hannemann F, Bernhardt R. CYP109E1 is a novel versatile statin and terpene oxidase from Bacillus megaterium. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101:8379-8393. [PMID: 29018905 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8552-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
CYP109E1 is a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase from Bacillus megaterium with a hydroxylation activity for testosterone and vitamin D3. This study reports the screening of a focused library of statins, terpene-derived and steroidal compounds to explore the substrate spectrum of this enzyme. Catalytic activity of CYP109E1 towards the statin drug-precursor compactin and the prodrugs lovastatin and simvastatin as well as biotechnologically relevant terpene compounds including ionones, nootkatone, isolongifolen-9-one, damascones, and β-damascenone was found in vitro. The novel substrates induced a type I spin-shift upon binding to P450 and thus permitted to determine dissociation constants. For the identification of conversion products by NMR spectroscopy, a B. megaterium whole-cell system was applied. NMR analysis revealed for the first time the ability of CYP109E1 to catalyze an industrially highly important reaction, the production of pravastatin from compactin, as well as regioselective oxidations generating drug metabolites (6'β-hydroxy-lovastatin, 3'α-hydroxy-simvastatin, and 4″-hydroxy-simvastatin) and valuable terpene derivatives (3-hydroxy-α-ionone, 4-hydroxy-β-ionone, 11,12-epoxy-nootkatone, 4(R)-hydroxy-isolongifolen-9-one, 3-hydroxy-α-damascone, 4-hydroxy-β-damascone, and 3,4-epoxy-β-damascone). Besides that, a novel compound, 2-hydroxy-β-damascenone, produced by CYP109E1 was identified. Docking calculations using the crystal structure of CYP109E1 rationalized the experimentally observed regioselective hydroxylation and identified important amino acid residues for statin and terpene binding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Putkaradze
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Martin Litzenburger
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Ammar Abdulmughni
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Mohammed Milhim
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Elisa Brill
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Frank Hannemann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Bakkes PJ, Riehm JL, Sagadin T, Rühlmann A, Schubert P, Biemann S, Girhard M, Hutter MC, Bernhardt R, Urlacher VB. Engineering of versatile redox partner fusions that support monooxygenase activity of functionally diverse cytochrome P450s. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9570. [PMID: 28852040 PMCID: PMC5575160 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10075-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most bacterial cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s or CYPs) require two redox partner proteins for activity. To reduce complexity of the redox chain, the Bacillus subtilis flavodoxin YkuN (Y) was fused to the Escherichia coli flavodoxin reductase Fpr (R), and activity was tuned by placing flexible (GGGGS)n or rigid ([E/L]PPPP)n linkers (n = 1–5) in between. P-linker constructs typically outperformed their G-linker counterparts, with superior performance of YR-P5, which carries linker ([E/L]PPPP)5. Molecular dynamics simulations demonstrated that ([E/L]PPPP)n linkers are intrinsically rigid, whereas (GGGGS)n linkers are highly flexible and biochemical experiments suggest a higher degree of separation between the fusion partners in case of long rigid P-linkers. The catalytic properties of the individual redox partners were best preserved in the YR-P5 construct. In comparison to the separate redox partners, YR-P5 exhibited attenuated rates of NADPH oxidation and heme iron (III) reduction, while coupling efficiency was improved (28% vs. 49% coupling with B. subtilis CYP109B1, and 44% vs. 50% with Thermobifida fusca CYP154E1). In addition, YR-P5 supported monooxygenase activity of the CYP106A2 from Bacillus megaterium and bovine CYP21A2. The versatile YR-P5 may serve as a non-physiological electron transfer system for exploitation of the catalytic potential of other P450s.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Bakkes
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Jan L Riehm
- Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Campus Building E2.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Tanja Sagadin
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Ansgar Rühlmann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Peter Schubert
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefan Biemann
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Michael C Hutter
- Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Campus Building E2.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus Building B2.2, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Schmitz D, Janocha S, Kiss FM, Bernhardt R. CYP106A2-A versatile biocatalyst with high potential for biotechnological production of selectively hydroxylated steroid and terpenoid compounds. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2017; 1866:11-22. [PMID: 28780179 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2017.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
CYP106A2 from Bacillus megaterium ATCC13368, was identified in the 1970s as one of the first bacterial steroid hydroxylases responsible for the conversion of progesterone to 15β-hydroxyprogesterone. Later on it has been proven to be a potent hydroxylase of numerous 3-oxo-Δ4 as well as 3-hydroxy-Δ5-steroids and has recently also been characterized as a regioselective allylic bacterial diterpene hydroxylase. The main hydroxylation position of CYP106A2 is thought to be influenced by the functional groups at C3 position in the steroid core leading to a favored 15β-hydroxylation of 3-oxo-Δ4-steroids and 7β-hydroxylation of 3-hydroxy-Δ5-steroids. However, in some cases the hydroxylation is not strictly selective, resulting in the formation of undesired side-products. To overcome the unspecific hydroxylations or, on the contrary, to gain more of these products in case they are of industrial interest, rational protein design and directed evolution have been successfully performed to shift the stereoselectivity of hydroxylation by CYP106A2. The subsequently obtained hydroxylated steroid and terpene derivatives are especially useful as drug metabolites and drug precursors for the pharmaceutical industry, due to their diverse biological properties and hardship of their chemical synthesis. As a soluble prokaryotic P450 with broad substrate spectrum and hydroxylating capacity, CYP106A2 is an outstanding candidate to establish bioconversion processes. It has been expressed with respectable yields in Escherichia coli and Bacillus megaterium and was applied for the preparative hydroxylation of several steroids and terpenes. Recently, the application of the enzyme was assessed under process conditions as well, depicting a successfully optimized process development and getting us closer to industrial scale process requirements and a future large scale application. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Cytochrome P450 biodiversity and biotechnology, edited by Erika Plettner, Gianfranco Gilardi, Luet Wong, Vlada Urlacher, Jared Goldstone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Schmitz
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus B2.2, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Simon Janocha
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus B2.2, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Flora Marta Kiss
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus B2.2, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus B2.2, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Putkaradze N, Kiss FM, Schmitz D, Zapp J, Hutter MC, Bernhardt R. Biotransformation of prednisone and dexamethasone by cytochrome P450 based systems – Identification of new potential drug candidates. J Biotechnol 2017; 242:101-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2016.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
|
28
|
Abstract
Steroid modifications by selected wild-type and engineered strains of microorganisms became an effective tool for the production of high-valued steroidal drugs and their precursors for the pharmaceutical industry. Some microorganisms are effective at the performance of sterol side-chain degradation, oxyfunctionalization of steroid core, and redox reactions at different positions of the steroid molecule. A number of bioprocesses using steroid-transforming microbial strains are well established on an industrial level. Although a range of biocatalytic methods has been developed, selection of suitable microorganisms, as well as creation of new engineered strains, is of great importance for generation of improved bioprocesses and production schemes for obtaining known and new metabolites with potent biological activity. The achievements in genetic and metabolic engineering of steroid-transforming strains in combination with novel approaches in the enzymatic and whole-cell biocatalysis provide a platform for highly effective and selective biotransformations.Here, we briefly review the current state and prospects in the field of microbial bioconversions with special attention to the application of molecular microbiology methods for the generation of new whole cell biocatalysts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina V Donova
- G.K. Skryabin Institute of Biochemistry & Physiology of Microorganisms, Russian Academy of Sciences, Prospekt Nauki, 5, Puschino, Russia, 142290.
- Pharmins LTD, Pushchino, 142290, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Khatri Y, Carius Y, Ringle M, Lancaster CRD, Bernhardt R. Structural characterization of CYP260A1 fromSorangium cellulosumto investigate the 1α-hydroxylation of a mineralocorticoid. FEBS Lett 2016; 590:4638-4648. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 10/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yogan Khatri
- Institute of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Yvonne Carius
- Department of Structural Biology; Institute of Biophysics and Center of Human and Molecular Biology (ZHMB); Saarland University; Homburg Germany
| | - Michael Ringle
- Institute of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Saarbrücken Germany
| | - C. Roy D. Lancaster
- Department of Structural Biology; Institute of Biophysics and Center of Human and Molecular Biology (ZHMB); Saarland University; Homburg Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Saarbrücken Germany
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Jóźwik IK, Kiss FM, Gricman Ł, Abdulmughni A, Brill E, Zapp J, Pleiss J, Bernhardt R, Thunnissen AMWH. Structural basis of steroid binding and oxidation by the cytochrome P450 CYP109E1 from Bacillus megaterium. FEBS J 2016; 283:4128-4148. [PMID: 27686671 PMCID: PMC5132081 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) are attractive enzymes for the pharmaceutical industry, in particular, for applications in steroidal drug synthesis. Here, we report a comprehensive functional and structural characterization of CYP109E1, a novel steroid‐converting cytochrome P450 enzyme identified from the genome of Bacillus megaterium DSM319. In vitro and whole‐cell in vivo turnover experiments, combined with binding assays, revealed that CYP109E1 is able to hydroxylate testosterone at position 16β. Related steroids with bulky substituents at carbon C17, like corticosterone, bind to the enzyme without being converted. High‐resolution X‐ray structures were solved of a steroid‐free form of CYP109E1 and of complexes with testosterone and corticosterone. The structural analysis revealed a highly dynamic active site at the distal side of the heme, which is wide open in the absence of steroids, can bind four ordered corticosterone molecules simultaneously, and undergoes substantial narrowing upon binding of single steroid molecules. In the crystal structures, the single bound steroids adopt unproductive binding modes coordinating the heme‐iron with their C3‐keto oxygen. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations suggest that the steroids may also bind in ~180° reversed orientations with the C16 carbon and C17‐substituents pointing toward the heme, leading to productive binding of testosterone explaining the observed regio‐ and stereoselectivity. The X‐ray structures and MD simulations further identify several residues with important roles in steroid binding and conversion, which could be confirmed by site‐directed mutagenesis. Taken together, our results provide unique insights into the CYP109E1 activity, substrate specificity, and regio/stereoselectivity. Database The atomic coordinates and structure factors have been deposited in the Protein Data Bank with accession codes 5L90 (steroid‐free CYP109E1), 5L91 (CYP109E1‐COR4), 5L94 (CYP109E1‐TES), and 5L92 (CYP109E1‐COR). Enzymes Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP109E1, EC 1.14.14.1, UniProt ID: D5DKI8, Adrenodoxin reductase EC 1.18.1.6.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilona K Jóźwik
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Flora M Kiss
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Łukasz Gricman
- Institute of Technical Biochemistry, University of Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ammar Abdulmughni
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Elisa Brill
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Josef Zapp
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Juergen Pleiss
- Institute of Technical Biochemistry, University of Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Andy-Mark W H Thunnissen
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Kiss FM, Khatri Y, Zapp J, Bernhardt R. Identification of new substrates for the CYP106A1-mediated 11-oxidation and investigation of the reaction mechanism. FEBS Lett 2015; 589:2320-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2015.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
32
|
Comparison of CYP106A1 and CYP106A2 from Bacillus megaterium – identification of a novel 11-oxidase activity. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:8495-514. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6563-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
33
|
Kiss FM, Lundemo MT, Zapp J, Woodley JM, Bernhardt R. Process development for the production of 15β-hydroxycyproterone acetate using Bacillus megaterium expressing CYP106A2 as whole-cell biocatalyst. Microb Cell Fact 2015; 14:28. [PMID: 25890176 PMCID: PMC4354754 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-015-0210-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background CYP106A2 from Bacillus megaterium ATCC 13368 was first identified as a regio- and stereoselective 15β-hydroxylase of 3-oxo-∆4-steroids. Recently, it was shown that besides 3-oxo-∆4-steroids, 3-hydroxy-∆5-steroids as well as di- and triterpenes can also serve as substrates for this biocatalyst. It is highly selective towards the 15β position, but the 6β, 7α/β, 9α, 11α and 15α positions have also been described as targets for hydroxylation. Based on the broad substrate spectrum and hydroxylating capacity, it is an excellent candidate for the production of human drug metabolites and drug precursors. Results In this work, we demonstrate the conversion of a synthetic testosterone derivative, cyproterone acetate, by CYP106A2 under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Using a Bacillus megaterium whole-cell system overexpressing CYP106A2, sufficient amounts of product for structure elucidation by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy were obtained. The product was characterized as 15β-hydroxycyproterone acetate, the main human metabolite. Since the product is of pharmaceutical interest, our aim was to intensify the process by increasing the substrate concentration and to scale-up the reaction from shake flasks to bioreactors to demonstrate an efficient, yet green and cost-effective production. Using a bench-top bioreactor and the recombinant Bacillus megaterium system, both a fermentation and a transformation process were successfully implemented. To improve the yield and product titers for future industrial application, the main bottlenecks of the reaction were addressed. Using 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin, an effective bioconversion of 98% was achieved using 1 mM substrate concentration, corresponding to a product formation of 0.43 g/L, at a 400 mL scale. Conclusions Here we describe the successful scale-up of cyproterone acetate conversion from shake flasks to bioreactors, using the CYP106A2 enzyme in a whole-cell system. The substrate was converted to its main human metabolite, 15β-hydroxycyproterone acetate, a highly interesting drug candidate, due to its retained antiandrogen activity but significantly lower progestogen properties than the mother compound. Optimization of the process led to an improvement from 55% to 98% overall conversion, with a product formation of 0.43 g/L, approaching industrial process requirements and a future large-scale application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Flora M Kiss
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Saarland, Campus B 2.2, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany.
| | - Marie T Lundemo
- CAPEC-PROCESS, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Josef Zapp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Saarland, Campus B 2.2, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany.
| | - John M Woodley
- CAPEC-PROCESS, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Saarland, Campus B 2.2, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Janocha S, Schmitz D, Bernhardt R. Terpene hydroxylation with microbial cytochrome P450 monooxygenases. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 148:215-50. [PMID: 25682070 DOI: 10.1007/10_2014_296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Terpenoids comprise a highly diverse group of natural products. In addition to their basic carbon skeleton, they differ from one another in their functional groups. Functional groups attached to the carbon skeleton are the basis of the terpenoids' diverse properties. Further modifications of terpene olefins include the introduction of acyl-, aryl-, or sugar moieties and usually start with oxidations catalyzed by cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s, CYPs). P450s are ubiquitously distributed throughout nature, involved in essential biological pathways such as terpenoid biosynthesis as well as the tailoring of terpenoids and other natural products. Their ability to introduce oxygen into nonactivated C-H bonds is unique and makes P450s very attractive for applications in biotechnology. Especially in the field of terpene oxidation, biotransformation methods emerge as an attractive alternative to classical chemical synthesis. For this reason, microbial P450s depict a highly interesting target for protein engineering approaches in order to increase selectivity and activity, respectively. Microbial P450s have been described to convert industrial and pharmaceutically interesting terpenoids such as ionones, limone, valencene, resin acids, and triterpenes (including steroids) as well as vitamin D3. Highly selective and active mutants have been evolved by applying classical site-directed mutagenesis as well as directed evolution of proteins. As P450s usually depend on electron transfer proteins, mutagenesis has also been applied to improve the interactions between P450s and their respective redox partners. This chapter provides an overview of terpenoid hydroxylation reactions catalyzed by bacterial P450s and highlights the achievements made by protein engineering to establish productive hydroxylation processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Janocha
- Department of Biochemistry, Saarland University, Campus B2 2, 66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|