Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: nutrition and supplementation

Common questions and misconceptions about protein supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?

Protein supplementation often refers to increasing the intake of this particular macronutrient through dietary supplements in the form of powders, ready-to-drink shakes, and bars. The primary purpose of protein supplementation is to augment dietary protein intake, aiding individuals in meeting their protein requirements, especially when it may be challenging to do so through regular food (i.e. chicken, beef, fish, pork, etc.) sources alone. A large body of evidence shows that protein has an important role in exercising and sedentary individuals. A PubMed search of "protein and exercise performance" reveals thousands of publications. Despite the considerable volume of evidence, it is somewhat surprising that several persistent questions and misconceptions about protein exist. The following are addressed: 1) Is protein harmful to your kidneys? 2) Does consuming "excess" protein increase fat mass? 3) Can dietary protein have a harmful effect on bone health? 4) Can vegans and vegetarians consume enough protein to support training adaptations? 5) Is cheese or peanut butter a good protein source? 6) Does consuming meat (i.e., animal protein) cause unfavorable health outcomes? 7) Do you need protein if you are not physically active? 8) Do you need to consume protein ≤ 1 hour following resistance training sessions to create an anabolic environment in skeletal muscle? 9) Do endurance athletes need additional protein? 10) Does one need protein supplements to meet the daily requirements of exercise-trained individuals? 11) Is there a limit to how much protein one can consume in a single meal? To address these questions, we have conducted a thorough scientific assessment of the literature concerning protein supplementation.

The relationship between anabolic androgenic steroid use and body image, eating behavior, and physical activity by gender: A systematic review

The prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) is rising, especially in recreational sports and the general population. While body image significantly influences AAS use, gender differences remain unclear. We examined gender-related connections between AAS use, body image, eating behavior, and physical activity. Following PRISMA guidelines, we analyzed 22 studies: 14 with male-only samples, 5 mixed-gender, 2 with sexual and gender minorities, and 1 with a female-only sample. FINDINGS: confirm body image as a key predictor of AAS use. Though AAS use correlates with eating disorders, outcomes vary by context; for instance, no discernible difference in eating behavior was observed between AAS users and non-users in bodybuilding. Physical activity findings varied, with some studies showing no significant differences between AAS users and non-users. Due to limited gender-comparison studies, conclusive gender-related differences cannot be drawn. This systematic review underscores the complex interplay between AAS use, body image, eating behavior, and physical activity, emphasizing the necessity for further research to develop targeted interventions for diverse populations, addressing AAS-related concerns and promoting overall well-being.

Autonomic Rebound Following Maximal Exercise in Bodybuilders and Recreationally Active Participants

The off-season for natural bodybuilders (BB) is characterized by increased training loads and fluctuations in caloric intake, which may lead to insufficient recovery. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays a pivotal role in recovery. The purpose of this study was to evaluate resting ANS activity and recovery following a maximal exercise bout in off-season BB and compare them to those of recreationally active individuals. Fifteen males participated; 7 recreationally active (RA) (24.6 ± 2.1 years, 81.1 ± 10.8 kg) and 8 BB (21.8 ± 2.9 years, 89.3 ± 13.0 kg). Each performed a graded exercise test. Heart rate variability (HRV) was measured at rest and during a 45 min recovery period. HRV was analyzed as: root mean square of successive differences (lnRMSSD), standard deviation of normal-to-normal sinus beats (lnSDNN), high frequency (lnHF), low frequency (lnLF), and the ratio of low frequency to high frequency (lnLF/lnHF). A one-way ANOVA showed no differences for any resting marker of HRV, HR, and HR recovery. A significant depression in all markers of HRV was observed in the BB group at the 15 min point, and no recovery was observed before 45 min when compared to RA. The results of this study demonstrated depressed HRV recovery following the graded exercise test in BB when compared to the RA group.

Cholestasis Linked to Bodybuilding Supplements: Exploring the Risks of Contamination

Drug-induced liver injury resulting from herbal and dietary supplement use is increasingly common and underrecognized. We report a case of a 34-year-old male recreational bodybuilder who presented with muscle cramping, fatigue, and diffuse itching in the setting of bodybuilding supplement use. Labs showed cholestatic liver injury, and liver biopsy revealed bland cholestasis and sinusoidal dilation. He was diagnosed with anabolic-androgenic steroid-induced liver injury. He was symptomatically managed with plasmapheresis for debilitating pruritus. This case highlights drug-induced liver injury as a complication of bodybuilding supplement use containing unlabeled anabolic-androgenic steroids. Sports medicine providers should inquire on herbal and dietary supplement use and be aware of potential contaminants.

The Use of Anabolic Steroids by Bodybuilders in the State of Sergipe, Brazil

Bodybuilding, as a high-performance sport, requires regular strength and resistance exercises with the principal objective of increasing muscle hypertrophy. However, many bodybuilders resort to the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) to improve their performance in a short period of time. This study employs a survey-type, cross-sectional, descriptive-analytical method to evaluate the profile of bodybuilding athletes in the State of Sergipe, Brazil, and verify the level of knowledge/awareness about the health risks and impacts resulting from the use of such substances. Finite- and convenience-type populations are assessed, including individuals of both sexes, aged older than 18 years, self-declared bodybuilding athletes residing in the State of Sergipe, Brazil, and participating in regional and/or state competitions. As a result, no significant relationships were determined between sex (p = 0.492), age (p = 0.460), family income (p = 0.141), and medical follow-up sessions. For the variables level of education and medical follow-up vs. no follow-up sessions, a significant result was achieved (p = 0.01), with 74.3% of individuals reporting having follow-up treatment and 25.7% responding that they had no follow-up treatment, a percentage representing the group that completed their higher education. The substances most used by the athletes were Sustanon 250 or Durateston, Nandrolone Decanoate (Deca or Deca-Durabolin), and Testosterone. The most-reported acute side effects were acne at 33.8% (n = 20), irritability at 32.1% (n = 19), alopecia (hair loss), and nervousness at 23.7% (n = 14). The most-reported chronic side effects were arterial hypertension at 36.0% (n = 9), liver disease at 28.0% (n = 7), and cancer (non-specific) at 8.0% (n = 2). We concluded that, regardless of the athletes' socioeconomic profiles, the use of AASs was high, with two or more substances being used in combination and for a prolonged period. Thus, it is necessary to promote awareness campaigns regarding the use of AASs and their effects on high-performance and recreational athletes.

Do Muscle Mass and Body Fat Differ Between Elite and Amateur Natural Physique Athletes on Competition Day? A Preliminary, Cross-Sectional, Anthropometric Study

ABSTRACT

González-Cano, H, Martín-Olmedo, JJ, Baz-Valle, E, Contreras, C, Schoenfeld, BJ, García-Ramos, A, Jiménez-Martínez, P, and Alix-Fages, C. Do muscle mass and body fat differ between elite and amateur natural physique athletes on competition day? A preliminary, cross-sectional, anthropometric study. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 951-956, 2024-Natural physique athletes strive to achieve low body fat levels while promoting muscle mass hypertrophy for competition day. This study aimed to compare the anthropometric characteristics of natural amateur (AMA) and professional (PRO) World Natural Bodybuilding Federation (WNBF) competitors. Eleven male natural physique athletes (6 PRO and 5 AMA; age = 24.8 ± 2.3 years) underwent a comprehensive anthropometric evaluation following the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry protocol within a 24-hour time frame surrounding the competition. The 5-component fractionation method was used to obtain the body composition profile of the muscle, adipose, bone, skin, and residual tissues. Five physique athletes exceeded the 5.2 cutoff point of muscle-to-bone ratio (MBR) for natural athletes. Professional physique athletes were older than AMA physique athletes (p = 0.05), and they also presented larger thigh girths (p = 0.005) and bone mass (p = 0.019) compared with AMA physique athletes. Although no statistically significant between-group differences were observed in body mass, height, or body fat levels, PRO physique athletes exhibited a higher body mass index (BMI; AMA: 24.45 ± 0.12; PRO: 25.52 ± 1.01; p = 0.048), lean body mass (LBM; AMA: 64.49 ± 2.35; PRO: 69.80 ± 3.78; p = 0.024), fat-free mass (FFM; AMA: 71.23 ± 3.21; PRO: 76.52 ± 4.31; p = 0.05), LBM index (LBMI; AMA: 20.65 ± 0.52; PRO: 21.74 ± 0.85; p = 0.034), and fat-free mass index index (FFMI; AMA: 22.80 ± 0.22; PRO: 23.83 ± 0.90; p = 0.037) compared with AMA physique athletes. These findings highlight the unique characteristics and anthropometric differences between PRO and AMA natural physique athletes on competition day, emphasizing the significance of age, thigh girth, bone mass, BMI, LBM, FFM, and FFMI in distinguishing these 2 groups. Based on our findings, the established boundaries for muscle mass in natural physique athletes, based on FFMI and MBR, warrant reconsideration.

Bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers' behavior towards rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb meat: A comparative review

In bodybuilders' diets, protein plays a crucial role in supporting muscle growth and repairing damaged muscle tissue. These individuals meet their protein needs by combining dietary sources with supplements. Animal-based proteins are often preferred over plant-based proteins because they are believed to better support muscle protein synthesis. This review explores the meat consumption patterns of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, focusing on rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb. We describe and compare the types of meat bodybuilders commonly consume and provide an overview of protein supplements, including meat-based options, plant-based alternatives, and whey-based products. Our aim is to gain insight into the dietary preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, considering their nutritional requirements and the potential effect on the meat industry. We conducted an extensive search across various databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar. We found that individual choices vary based on factors such as attitudes, trust, taste, texture, nutritional content, ethical considerations, and cultural influences. Nutritional factors, including protein content, amino acid profiles, and fat levels, significantly influence the preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers. However, it is crucial to maintain a balance by incorporating other essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, healthy fats, vitamins, and minerals to ensure a complete and balanced diet. The findings from this review can inform strategies and product development initiatives tailored to the needs of bodybuilders and discerning meat enthusiasts.

Peak Week Carbohydrate Manipulation Practices in Physique Athletes: A Narrative Review

BACKGROUND

Physique athletes are ranked by a panel of judges against the judging criteria of the corresponding division. To enhance on-stage presentation and performance, competitors in certain categories (i.e. bodybuilding and classic physique) achieve extreme muscle size and definition aided by implementing acute "peaking protocols" in the days before competition. Such practices can involve manipulating nutrition and training variables to increase intramuscular glycogen and water while minimising the thickness of the subcutaneous layer. Carbohydrate manipulation is a prevalent strategy utilised to plausibly induce muscle glycogen supercompensation and subsequently increase muscle size. The relationship between carbohydrate intake and muscle glycogen saturation was first examined in endurance event performance and similar strategies have been adopted by physique athletes despite the distinct physiological dissimilarities and aims between the sports.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this narrative review is to (1) critically examine and appraise the existing scientific literature relating to carbohydrate manipulation practices in physique athletes prior to competition; (2) identify research gaps and provide direction for future studies; and (3) provide broad practical applications based on the findings and physiological reasoning for coaches and competitors.

FINDINGS

The findings of this review indicate that carbohydrate manipulation practices are prevalent amongst physique athletes despite a paucity of experimental evidence demonstrating the efficacy of such strategies on physique performance. Competitors have also been observed to manipulate water and electrolytes in conjunction with carbohydrate predicated on speculative physiological mechanisms which may be detrimental for performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Further experimental evidence which closely replicates the nutritional and training practices of physique athletes during peak week is required to make conclusions on the efficacy of carbohydrate manipulation strategies. Quasi-experimental designs may be a feasible alternative to randomised controlled trials to examine such strategies due to the difficulty in recruiting the population of interest. Finally, we recommend that coaches and competitors manipulate as few variables as possible, and experiment with different magnitudes of carbohydrate loads in advance of competition if implementing a peaking strategy.

Training, Pharmacological Ergogenic Aids, Dehydration, and Nutrition Strategies during a Peak Week in Competitive Brazilian Bodybuilders: An Observational Cross-Sectional Study in a Non-World Anti-Doping Agency Competitive Environment

BACKGROUND

this observational and cross-sectional study aimed to describe training, pharmacological ergogenic aids, dehydration, and nutrition strategies during a peak week in competitive bodybuilders and monitor changes that occurred across this period.

METHODS

Ten amateur bodybuilders were followed during a peak week phase and one day post-contest. Training, diet, dehydration protocol, anabolic steroid use, and nonsteroidal agents were recorded, prescribed, and supervised by the same coach in charge. Body composition, resting metabolic rate, and circumferences were assessed by the research team.

RESULTS

Overall, during the peak week phase, the use of anabolic steroids, diuretics, and other pharmacological aids was high among athletes, and the dose and frequency were similar between competitors. Despite the use of supraphysiological doses of drugs, bodybuilders displayed a statistical reduction of lean mass markers, resting metabolic rate, and fat mass markers, possibly influenced by the performance of high volumes of aerobic exercise combined with dietary energy restriction.

CONCLUSIONS

The main findings of this study display that the coach in charge of Brazilian bodybuilders applied the same anabolic steroid, diuretic, and other pharmacological protocols for all competitors. Moreover, the protocols employed by bodybuilders did not fully attenuate the loss of lean mass during the peak week period.

The general nutrition practices of competitive powerlifters vary by competitive calibre and sex, weight, and age class

PURPOSE

To characterise self-reported nutrition practices and beliefs of powerlifters.

METHODS

Actively competing male (n = 240) and female (n = 65) powerlifters completed a cross-sectional online survey of self-reported nutrition practices across the competitive cycle, within specific competitive phases, and hard and easy training days. Data are presented as number (n) and percentage (%) of all powerlifters practicing a given strategy followed by a % of responses reporting various practices or beliefs within this strategy. Differences in categorical sub-groups (sex, age, and weight class; and competitive calibre) were analysed with a chi-square test and denoted where significant (p ≤ 0.05).

RESULTS

Most powerlifters reported following a specific diet long-term (n = 203, 66.6%) of which If It Fits Your Macros (IIFYM)/flexible dieting was most common (n = 159, 78.3%). Over half reported introducing a special diet for a competitive phase (n = 162, 53.1%), of which IIFYM/flexible dieting was most followed for competition preparation (n = 80, 63%) and off-season (n = 48, 71.6%). Compared to normal dietary intake, most reported eating more on harder training days (n = 219, 71.8%) and refraining from eating less on easier training days (n = 186, 61%).

CONCLUSIONS

IIFYM/flexible dieting is commonly followed by powerlifters to support performance and body composition goals. Females seemed to report more often restricting energy and dieting for body composition reasons than males. Powerlifters tailor their energy intake on harder training days to the higher training demands but refrain from reducing energy intake on rest/easier training days.

Integrating Deloading into Strength and Physique Sports Training Programmes: An International Delphi Consensus Approach

BACKGROUND

Deloading is a ubiquitous yet under-researched strategy within strength and physique training. How deloading should be integrated into the training programme to elicit optimal training outcomes is unknown. To aid its potential integration, this study established consensus around design principles for integrating deloading in strength and physique training programmes using expert opinion and practical experience.

METHODS

Expert strength and physique coaches were invited to an online Delphi consisting of 3 rounds. Thirty-four coaches completed the first round, 29 completed the second round, and 21 completed the third round of a Delphi questionnaire. In the first round, coaches answered 15 open-ended questions from four categories: 1: General Perceptions of Deloading; 2: Potential Applications of Deloading; 3: Designing and Implementing Deloading; and 4: Creating an Inclusive Deloading Training Environment. First-round responses were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis, resulting in 138 statements organized into four domains. In the second and third rounds, coaches rated each statement using a four-point Likert scale, and collective agreement or disagreement was calculated.

RESULTS

Stability of consensus was achieved across specific aspects of the four categories. Findings from the final round were used to develop the design principles, which reflect the consensus achieved.

CONCLUSIONS

This study develops consensus on design principles for integrating deloading into strength and physique sports training programmes. A consensus definition is proposed: "Deloading is a period of reduced training stress designed to mitigate physiological and psychological fatigue, promote recovery, and enhance preparedness for subsequent training." These findings contribute novel knowledge that might advance the current understanding of deloading in strength and physique sports.

Going Vegan for the Gain: A Cross-Sectional Study of Vegan Diets in Bodybuilders during Different Preparation Phases

Numerous athletes compete at a high level without consuming animal products; although a well-planned vegan diet might be appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, a few elements need to be addressed to build a balanced plant-based diet for an athlete, particularly in bodybuilding, in which muscle growth should be maximised, as athletes are judged on their aesthetics. In this observational study, nutritional intakes were compared in a cohort of natural omnivorous and vegan bodybuilders, during two different phases of preparation. To this end, 18 male and female bodybuilders (8 vegans and 10 omnivores) completed a food diary for 5 days during the bulking and cutting phases of their preparation. A mixed-model analysis was used to compare macro- and micronutrient intakes between the groups in the two phases. Both vegans and omnivores behaved similarly regarding energy, carbohydrate, and fat intakes, but vegans decreased their protein intake during the cutting phase. Our results suggest that vegan bodybuilders may find difficulties in reaching protein needs while undergoing a caloric deficit, and they might benefit from nutritional professionals' assistance to bridge the gap between the assumed proteins and those needed to maintain muscle mass through better nutrition and supplementation planning.

Resistance training volume does not influence lean mass preservation during energy restriction in trained males

This study investigated the effects of a relatively high- versus moderate-volume resistance training program on changes in lean mass during caloric restriction. Thirty-eight resistance-trained males were randomized to perform either a high-volume (HVG; 5 sets/exercise) or a moderate-volume (MVG; 3 sets/exercise) resistance training program. Both groups were supervised during lower body training. Participants consumed 30 kcal/kg for 6 weeks after 1 week of weight maintenance (45 kcal/kg), with protein intake fixed at 2.8 g/kg fat-free mass. Muscle thickness of the m. rectus femoris, body composition, contractile properties, stiffness, mood, and sleep status were assessed at pre-, mid-, and post-study. No significant group × time interaction was observed for muscle thickness of the m. rectus femoris at 50% (∆ [post-pre] 0.36 ± 0.93 mm vs. ∆ -0.01 ± 1.59 mm; p = 0.226) and 75% length (∆ -0.32 ± 1.12 mm vs. ∆ 0.08 ± 1.14 mm; p = 0.151), contractility, sleep, and mood in the HVG and MVG, respectively. Body mass (HVG: ∆ -1.69 ± 1.12 kg vs. MVG: ∆ -1.76 ± 1.76 kg) and lean mass (∆ -0.51 ± 2.30 kg vs. ∆ -0.92 ± 1.59 kg) decreased significantly in both groups (p = 0.022), with no between-group difference detected (p = 0.966). High-volume resistance training appears to have neither an advantage nor disadvantage over moderate-volume resistance training in terms of maintaining lean mass or muscle thickness. Given that both groups increased volume load and maintained muscle contractility, sleep quality, and mood, either moderate or higher training volumes conceivably can be employed by resistance-trained individuals to preserve muscle during periods of moderate caloric restriction.

After the spotlight: are evidence-based recommendations for refeeding post-contest energy restriction available for physique athletes? A scoping review

Background: To date, there is limited consensus on post-contest recovery recommendations for natural physique athletes. The available literature emphasizes the negative consequences of extreme dieting associated with physique contests, yet offers only speculative suggestions to facilitate physiological recovery post-contest. This scoping review evaluates evidence-based recommendations for recovery in post-physique contests. Methods: The online search engines and databases Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus were searched systematically and 12 peer reviewed journal articles were included in the review. Results: Six key factors were identified that directly impacted on physiological recovery post-contest: (1) body composition, (2) recovery dietary intake, (3) resting metabolic rate (RMR) restoration, (4) endocrine measures recovery, (5) menstrual cycle recovery, and (6) psychological aspects of recovery. Conclusions: Three dietary strategies have been proposed to facilitate physiological recovery post-contest while bearing in mind body composition and future athlete outcomes; (1) a gradual increase in energy intake to maintenance requirements, (2) ad libitum eating, (3) an immediate return to maintenance energy requirements. Future research is required to determine the timeline in which full physiological recovery occurs post-contest and which strategies best support athlete health and performance during post-contest recovery.

"You can't shoot another bullet until you've reloaded the gun": Coaches' perceptions, practices and experiences of deloading in strength and physique sports

Deloading refers to a purposeful reduction in training demand with the intention of enhancing preparedness for successive training cycles. Whilst deloading is a common training practice in strength and physique sports, little is known about how the necessary reduction in training demand should be accomplished. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine current deloading practices in competitive strength and physique sports. Eighteen strength and physique coaches from a range of sports (weightlifting, powerlifting, and bodybuilding) participated in semi-structured interviews to discuss their experiences of deloading. The mean duration of coaching experience at ≥ national standard was 10.9 (SD = 3.9) years. Qualitative content analysis identified Three categories: definitions, rationale, and application. Participants conceptualised deloading as a periodic, intentional cycle of reduced training demand designed to facilitate fatigue management, improve recovery, and assist in overall training progression and readiness. There was no single method of deloading; instead, a reduction in training volume (achieved through a reduction in repetitions per set and number of sets per training session) and intensity of effort (increased proximity to failure and/or reduction in relative load) were the most adapted training variables, along with alterations in exercise selection and configuration. Deloading was typically prescribed for a duration of 5 to 7 days and programmed every 4 to 6 weeks, although periodicity was highly variable. Additional findings highlight the underrepresentation of deloading in the published literature, including a lack of a clear operational definition.

Effects of the Ketogenic Diet on Muscle Hypertrophy in Resistance-Trained Men and Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Reviews focused on the ketogenic diet (KD) based on the increase in fat-free mass (FFM) have been carried out with pathological populations or, failing that, without population differentiation. The aim of this review and meta-analysis was to verify whether a ketogenic diet without programmed energy restriction generates increases in fat-free mass (FFM) in resistance-trained participants. We evaluated the effect of the ketogenic diet, in conjunction with resistance training, on fat-free mass in trained participants. Boolean algorithms from various databases (PubMed, Scopus. and Web of Science) were used, and a total of five studies were located that related to both ketogenic diets and resistance-trained participants. In all, 111 athletes or resistance-trained participants (87 male and 24 female) were evaluated in the studies analyzed. We found no significant differences between groups in the FFM variables, and more research is needed to perform studies with similar ketogenic diets and control diet interventions. Ketogenic diets, taking into account the possible side effects, can be an alternative for increasing muscle mass as long as energy surplus is generated; however, their application for eight weeks or more without interruption does not seem to be the best option due to the satiety and lack of adherence generated.

Intersection of Diet and Exercise with the Gut Microbiome and Circulating Metabolites in Male Bodybuilders: A Pilot Study

Diet, exercise and the gut microbiome are all factors recognised to be significant contributors to cardiometabolic health. However, diet and exercise interventions to modify the gut microbiota to improve health are limited by poor understanding of the interactions between them. In this pilot study, we explored diet–exercise–microbiome dynamics in bodybuilders as they represent a distinctive group that typically employ well-defined dietary strategies and exercise regimes to alter their body composition. We performed longitudinal characterisation of diet, exercise, the faecal microbial community composition and serum metabolites in five bodybuilders during competition preparation and post-competition. All participants reduced fat mass while conserving lean mass during competition preparation, corresponding with dietary energy intake and exercise load, respectively. There was individual variability in food choices that aligned to individualised gut microbial community compositions throughout the study. However, there was a common shift from a high protein, low carbohydrate diet during pre-competition to a more macronutrient-balanced diet post-competition, which was associated with similar changes in the gut microbial diversity across participants. The circulating metabolite profiles also reflected individuality, but a subset of metabolites relating to lipid metabolism distinguished between pre- and post-competition. Changes in the gut microbiome and circulating metabolome were distinct for each individual, but showed common patterns. We conclude that further longitudinal studies will have greater potential than cross-sectional studies in informing personalisation of diet and exercise regimes to enhance exercise outcomes and improve health.

Self-Reported Training and Supplementation Practices Between Performance-Enhancing Drug-User Bodybuilders Compared with Natural Bodybuilders

ABSTRACT

Li, J, Davies, TB, and Hackett, DA. Self-reported training and supplementation practices between performance-enhancing drug-user bodybuilders compared with natural bodybuilders. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-This study aimed to examine whether the training and supplementation practices differ between performance-enhancing drug (PED)-using bodybuilders (BB) and natural BB. One hundred eighty-seven competitive male bodybuilders with a median age of 27.0 years completed an online survey. Of this sample, 40 respondents reported using PED (PED-user) and 147 respondents reported to be natural. Compared with natural BB, PED-user BB reported greater off-season body weight (p < 0.001) and weight loss before a competition (p < 0.001). In the off-season, PED-user BB performed a greater number of exercises per muscle group (p < 0.001), number of repetition maximum (RM) per set (p < 0.01), and less recovery between the sets (p < 0.01). During the precompetition phase, the natural BB increased their number of RM; however, the PED-user BB still reported using a greater number of RM per set (p = 0.02), exercises per muscle group (p < 0.001), and less recovery time between the sets (p < 0.01). Both the PED-user BB and natural BB reported greater aerobic exercise frequency (p < 0.001) and session duration (p < 0.001), although PED-user BB performed a greater number of aerobic exercise sessions (p = 0.04) and at a higher intensity (p < 0.01). Advanced training techniques, including negatives, partial repetitions, preexhaustion sets, and timed repetitions, were more popular among PED-user BB (p < 0.05). Creatine monohydrate usage was more popular among natural BB (p < 0.001), whereas branched-chain and essential amino acids were more popular among PED-user BB (p ≤ 0.001). Findings suggest that PED-user BB perform more metabolically demanding resistance training sessions, more strenuous aerobic training during the precompetition phase, and may have different supplementation preferences compared with natural BB.

Can Bodybuilding Peak Week Manipulations Favorably Affect Muscle Size, Subcutaneous Thickness, and Related Body Composition Variables? A Case Study

Background: The purpose of this case study was to implement an evidence-based dietary approach to peaking for a bodybuilding competition and monitor its impact on body composition, muscle thickness (MT), intra-to-extra-cellular fluid shifts, subcutaneous thickness (ST), and hydration status. Secondarily, to document any adverse events of this peak week approach in a small, controlled setting. Methods Dietary practices were recorded, and laboratory testing was conducted throughout peak week, including competition morning. Assessments included: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) for body composition, B-mode ultrasound for MT and ST, bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) for total body water (TBW)/intracellular water (ICW)/extracellular water (ECW), and raw BIS data (i.e., resistance, reactance, and phase angle), urine specific gravity (USG) for hydration status, and subjective fullness. Sequential dietary manipulations were made (i.e., CHO depletion/fat loading, CHO/water loading, and a refinement phase) with specific physiological goals. This was reflected in changes observed across all assessments throughout the peak week. Results: From the carbohydrate-depleted state (three days out) to competition day, we observed increases in lean body mass, MT, TBW (primarily ICW), and subjective fullness. Kendall’s Tau B revealed a strong relationship between carbohydrate intake and ∑MT (τ = 0.733, p = 0.056). Additionally, novel ST data demonstrated a 10% reduction for the summation of all seven sites, with some drastic changes in specific regions (e.g., −43% for triceps ST) from three days out to competition day. Conclusions: These data suggest that the prototypical goals of bodybuilders’ peak week (i.e., increasing muscle fullness, decreasing subcutaneous thickness) to enhance their aesthetics/muscularity presented can be achieved with a drug-free protocol involving dietary manipulations.

Nutritional and Non-Nutritional Strategies in Bodybuilding: Impact on Kidney Function

Bodybuilders routinely engage in many dietary and other practices purported to be harmful to kidney health. The development of acute kidney injury, focal segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS) and nephrocalcinosis may be particular risks. There is little evidence that high-protein diets and moderate creatine supplementation pose risks to individuals with normal kidney function though long-term high protein intake in those with underlying impairment of kidney function is inadvisable. The links between anabolic androgenic steroid use and FSGS are stronger, and there are undoubted dangers of nephrocalcinosis in those taking high doses of vitamins A, D and E. Dehydrating practices, including diuretic misuse, and NSAID use also carry potential risks. It is difficult to predict the effects of multiple practices carried out in concert. Investigations into subclinical kidney damage associated with these practices have rarely been undertaken. Future research is warranted to identify the clinical and subclinical harm associated with individual practices and combinations to enable appropriate and timely advice.

Training, Supplementation, and Pharmacological Practices of Competitive Male Bodybuilders Across Training Phases

ABSTRACT

Hackett, DA. Training, supplementation, and pharmacological practices of competitive male bodybuilders across training phases. J Strength Cond Res 36(4): 963-970, 2022-Bodybuilding involves the pursuit of muscularity and leanness primarily through the use of progressive resistance training in combination with other practices such as manipulation of diet and use of ergogenic aids. This study aimed to compare the training practices and ergogenic aids used by competitive male bodybuilders across training phases. An online survey was completed by 235 competitive male bodybuilders with a median age of 26.0 (interquartile range 23.0-31.3) years. Results showed that most respondents performed split-routines (85.5%), 4-7 sessions per week (95.7%), trained major muscle groups twice a week (>50%), and session duration being 60-90 minutes (55.7%). Off-season resistance training sessions mostly comprised of targeting 2-3 muscle groups (56%), 2-3 exercises per muscle group (60.4%), 3-4 sets per exercise (73.2%), 7-12 repetition maximum (RM) per set (71.6%), and 61-180 seconds recovery between sets and exercises (80.5%). At the precompetition phase (6 weeks before competition), there was a decrease in the number of muscle groups trained per session (p = 0.027) and a greater number of repetitions performed per set (p < 0.001). A significant increase in the reported aerobic exercise volume was found during precompetition (<0.001). Performance enhancing drugs were used by 53.6% of respondents who did not compete in natural bodybuilding competitions. Dietary supplements were used by 95.7% of respondents with the most common being creatine monohydrate (80.4%) and whey protein (65.8%). Findings suggest that competitive bodybuilders follow resistance training practices consistent with the broad muscular hypertrophy recommendations but a notable shift in practices occur in the weeks before competition.

Changes in Intra-to-Extra-Cellular Water Ratio and Bioelectrical Parameters from Day-Before to Day-Of Competition in Bodybuilders: A Pilot Study

The present study analyzed the effects from day-before to day-of bodybuilding competition on intracellular water (ICW), extracellular water (ECW), total body water (TBW), and bioimpedance analysis (BIA) parameters (resistance, R; reactance, Xc; and derived scores) in bodybuilding athletes. We assessed anthropometry and BIA (foot-to-hand; tetrapolar; 50 kHz) in 11 male bodybuilders (29 ± 4 year-old; 81 ± 8 kg; 172 ± 7 cm; 27 ± 2 kg/m²) both on the pre-competition day and on the contest day. Results revealed significant increases in ICW (31.6 ± 2.9 to 33.1 ± 2.8 L), with concomitant decreases in ECW (19.8 ± 1.8 to 17.2 ± 1.4 L) and TBW (51.4 ± 4.6 to 50.3 ± 4.2 L) from the day-before competition to contest day, which resulted in relatively large increases in the ICW/ECW ratio (1.60 ± 0.03 to 1.92 ± 0.01 L). Moreover, significant increases in R (391 ± 34 to 413 ± 33 ohm), Xc (64 ± 7 to 70 ± 6 ohm), and phase angle (9.3 ± 0.6 to 9.6 ± 0.7 degree) were observed between time periods. The phase angle scores reported on show-day of 9.6 and 11.2 appear to be the highest group mean and individual values observed in the literature to date. In conclusion, the strategies carried out on the final day of peak-week bodybuilding preparation lead to changes in BIA parameters and body water, with fluids shifting from the extra- to the intracellular compartment.

Weight loss practices and eating behaviours among female physique athletes: Acquiring the optimal body composition for competition

Little is known about weight loss practices and eating behaviours in female physique athletes. This study investigated the weight loss history, practices, and key influences during the pre-competition period in a large cohort of female physique athletes stratified by division and experience level. Eating attitudes and behaviours were assessed to identify whether athletes were at risk of developing an eating disorder. Using a cross-sectional research design, female physique athletes (n = 158) were recruited and completed an anonymous online self-reported survey consisting of two validated questionnaires: Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire and Eating Attitudes Test-26. Irrespective of division or experience, female physique athletes used a combination of weight loss practices during the pre-competition phase. Gradual dieting (94%), food restriction (64%) and excessive exercise (84%), followed by body water manipulation via water loading (73%) were the most commonly used methods. Overall, 37% of female physique athletes were considered at risk of developing an eating disorder. Additionally, 42% of female physique athletes used two pathogenic weight control methods with 34% of Figure novice athletes indicating binge eating once a week or more. The coach (89%) and another athlete (73%) were identified as key influences on athletes' dieting practices and weight loss. The prevalence of athletes identified with disordered eating symptoms and engaging in pathogenic weight control methods is concerning. In future, female physique athletes should seek advice from registered nutritionists to optimise weight management practices and minimise the risk of developing an eating disorder.

May the Force and Mass Be With You-Evidence-Based Contribution of Mechano-Biological Descriptors of Resistance Exercise

Skeletal muscle is one of the most important tissues of the human body. It comprises up to 40% of the body mass and is crucial to survival. Hence, the maintenance of skeletal muscle mass and strength is pivotal. It is well-established that resistance exercise provides a potent anabolic stimulus to increase muscle mass and strength in men and women of all ages. Resistance exercise consists of mechano-biological descriptors, such as load, muscle action, number of repetitions, repetition duration, number of sets, rest interval between sets, frequency, volitional muscular failure, and range of motion, which can be manipulated. Herein, we discuss the evidence-based contribution of these mechano-biological descriptors to muscle mass and strength.

The Comparison of the Effects between Continuous and Intermittent Energy Restriction in Short-Term Bodyweight Loss for Sedentary Population: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial

Objective: To compare the effects of continuous energy restriction (CER) and intermittent energy restriction (IER) in bodyweight loss plan in sedentary individuals with normal bodyweight and explore the influence factors of effect and individual retention. Methods: 26 participants were recruited in this randomized controlled and double-blinded trial and allocated to CER and IER groups. Bodyweight (BW), body mass index (BMI), and resting metabolic rate (RMR) would be collected before and after a 4-week (28 days) plan which included energy restriction (CER or IER) and moderate-intensity exercise. Daily intake of three major nutrients (protein, carbohydrate, fat) and calories were recorded. Results: A significant decrease in BW and BMI were reported within each group. No statistically significant difference in the change of RMR in CERG. No statistically significant difference was reported in the effect between groups, neither as well the intake of total calories, three major nutrients, and individual plan retention. The influence factors of IER and CER are different. Conclusion: Both CER and IER are effective and safe energy restriction strategies in the short term. Daily energy intake and physical exercise are important to both IER and CER.

Perceived ideal body weight exacerbates bulimia and dieting in Bodybuilding Athletes

The passion of bodybuilding athletes for a symmetric, lean, heavily muscled body leads them to carry out exhausting exercise programs and restrictive eating regimens, sometimes resulting in disordered eating behaviors. This study investigates potential exacerbators on the development of disordered eating in bodybuilding (professional and recreational) and strength athletes. This cross-sectional single time point study involved 103 Cypriot bodybuilding athletes of both sexes, performing at three levels: professional, recreational and strength athletes. The Eating Attitude Test 26 (EAT-26) and The Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R21) were used to evaluate disordered eating and eating behaviors respectively. Scores on the items of the questionnaires according to sex were compared using the Mann-Whitney U test and differences according to bodybuilding performance status or/and body weight deviation category using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The current study was performed under the auspices of the Hellenic Center of Education & Treatment of Eating Disorders (KEADD). The degree of deviation between the perceived ideal body weight and the actual body weight was associated with increased risk of eating disorder. Athletes who desired a lower body weight recorded higher scores on EAT-26 overall (p=0.001), and the subscales of dieting (p=0.01) and bulimia (p=0.001). Cognitive restraint and emotional eating scales of TFEQ-R21 were more pronounced in the non-professional athletes (p=0.01). The emotional eating score was higher in women. There is a need for appropriate sport-specific, gender-specific preventive intervention to deescalate the risk of eating disorder, in both professional and non-professional bodybuilding athletes.

Achieving an Optimal Fat Loss Phase in Resistance-Trained Athletes: A Narrative Review

Managing the body composition of athletes is a common practice in the field of sports nutrition. The loss of body weight (BW) in resistance-trained athletes is mainly conducted for aesthetic reasons (bodybuilding) or performance (powerlifting or weightlifting). The aim of this review is to provide dietary–nutritional strategies for the loss of fat mass in resistance-trained athletes. During the weight loss phase, the goal is to reduce the fat mass by maximizing the retention of fat-free mass. In this narrative review, the scientific literature is evaluated, and dietary–nutritional and supplementation recommendations for the weight loss phase of resistance-trained athletes are provided. Caloric intake should be set based on a target BW loss of 0.5–1.0%/week to maximize fat-free mass retention. Protein intake (2.2–3.0 g/kgBW/day) should be distributed throughout the day (3–6 meals), ensuring in each meal an adequate amount of protein (0.40–0.55 g/kgBW/meal) and including a meal within 2–3 h before and after training. Carbohydrate intake should be adapted to the level of activity of the athlete in order to training performance (2–5 g/kgBW/day). Caffeine (3–6 mg/kgBW/day) and creatine monohydrate (3–5 g/day) could be incorporated into the athlete’s diet due to their ergogenic effects in relation to resistance training. The intake of micronutrients complexes should be limited to special situations in which there is a real deficiency, and the athlete cannot consume through their diet.

The Effects of a Macronutrient-Based Diet and Time-Restricted Feeding (16:8) on Body Composition in Physically Active Individuals-A 14-Week Randomised Controlled Trial

The number of people suffering from being overweight or obese has risen steadily in recent years. Consequently, new forms of nutrition and diets were developed as potential solutions. In the last years, the time-restricted feeding and continuous energy restriction via macronutrient-based diets were increasingly popular. Both diets were exclusively studied separately. A comparison of the two diets for people with a high body mass index despite regular physical activity has not yet been studied in detail. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effects of these two diets on body composition and adherence. For this study, a total of 42 subjects (m = 21, f = 21) with a BMI above 25 were recruited from a local fitness gym. After a two-week familiarisation period, one of the two diets was followed over 14 weeks. Dietary behaviour was monitored throughout the period with a food diary. The primary measurement parameters were body weight, lean body mass, fat mass, body mass index, and waist and hip circumference. In addition, adherence was assessed and calculated by food diary and questionnaire. In total, the data of 35 participants (m = 14, f = 21) were analysed. Significant reductions in body weight, fat mass, body mass index, and waist and hip circumference were observed in both groups (p < 0.05). No significant change could be observed in lean body mass in either category. No group and gender differences were detected in any of the primary parameters. For the secondary parameters, a significantly higher adherence was observed in the time-restricted feeding group (p < 0.05). In addition, it can be assumed that an adherence of 60–70% cannot lead to positive changes in body composition. In conclusion, there were no differences between the two diets on the primary parameters. However, it seemed that time-restricted feeding can be better implemented in everyday life, and an adherence of more than 70% is required for both diets to prove effective.

Dietary Strategies of Modern Bodybuilders During Different Phases of the Competitive Cycle

ABSTRACT

Lenzi, JL, Teixeira, EL, de Jesus, G, Schoenfeld, BJ, and de Salles Painelli, V. Dietary strategies of modern bodybuilders during different phases of the competitive cycle. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2546-2551, 2021-Bodybuilders have used a wide array of nutritional strategies over the years. However, most information on the topic is anecdotal, with limited research about the nutritional habits of modern bodybuilders, especially those from new categories. Accordingly, we sought to compare the dietary routines of bodybuilders from the Men's Physique category during "bulking" and "cutting" phases, while attempting to identify the rationale underpinning these practices. Sixteen experienced male bodybuilding competitors were interviewed during bulking (10-12 weeks before competition) and cutting (1 week before competition) phases, wherein we quantified energy and nutrient intake and determined their rationale and sources of education. Dietary analysis revealed a low carbohydrate intake during bulking, with a further decrease (at p < 0.05) during cutting. A similar decrease (at p < 0.05) from bulking to cutting was shown in the intake of most macronutrients and micronutrients, although intake of protein and almost all the micronutrients was well above the recommendation throughout the competitive cycle. Most of the consumed supplements can be deemed unnecessary or without scientific support. Most athletes reported self-managing their diet and supplement program, without the assistance of nutrition professionals. As such, some of their professed nutritional habits obtained during interviewers were not consistent with the food diary information. Although some dietary strategies used by bodybuilders in the Men's Physique category are consistent with evidence-based practice, most can be considered extreme and lack scientific support. The source of education may help to explain their decision-making.

Biopsychosocial Effects of Competition Preparation in Natural Bodybuilders

Bodybuilders are judged on the subjective visual assessment of their muscular size, proportion, and leanness. This case series tracked four drug-free bodybuilders (3 male) during the off-season, pre-competition and recovery phases. This study aimed to comprehensively profile key biopsychosocial changes occurring pre/post competition in a group of British natural bodybuilders. We measured: resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition (via BIA, ultrasound and sum of 7 skinfolds), lipid profiles, fasted glucose, blood pressure, power output (Wingate), grip strength, and carried out psychometric questionnaires (EAT-26, STAI, BUT) over an eight-month period. Mean weight loss from 5 months (5M) to pre-contest (PRE) was 8.6 ± 4.1 kg, followed by an increase of 7.9 ± 1.6 kg two months post contest (POST). The mean RMR of the cohort was stable from 1899 ± 630 kcal (5M) to 1897 ± 598 kcal (PRE), before decreasing to 1797 ± 242 kcal (POST). Mean peak power declined from 770 ± 113.0 w (5M), to 700.0 ± 134.4 w (PRE), before increasing to 816.0 ± 116.2 w (POST). Competition dieting had no effect on EAT-26 or BUT scores, suggesting no body dysmorphic or eating disorder concerns, although trait anxiety was elevated in three out of the four participants throughout the observation. Many of the biopsychosocial changes that occur to bodybuilders as they prepare for competition return to baseline measurements 2 months post competition.

Continuous versus Intermittent Dieting for Fat Loss and Fat-Free Mass Retention in Resistance-trained Adults: The ICECAP Trial

INTRODUCTION

Can intermittent energy restriction (IER) improve fat loss and fat-free mass retention compared with continuous energy restriction (CER) in resistance-trained adults?

METHODS

Sixty-one adults (32 women) with a mean (SD) age of 28.7 (6.5) yr, body weight of 77.2 (16.1) kg, and body fat of 25.5% (6.1%) were randomized to 12 wk of 1) 4 × 3 wk of moderate (m) energy restriction interspersed with 3 × 1 wk of energy balance (mIER; n = 30; 15 wk total) or 2) 12 wk of continuous moderate energy restriction (mCER; n = 31). Analyses of all outcome measures were by intention-to-treat.

RESULTS

After accounting for baseline differences, mIER did not result in lower fat mass or body weight, or greater fat-free mass, compared with mCER after energy restriction. Mean (and 97.5% confidence interval for fat mass at the end of mIER versus mCER was 15.3 (12.5-18.0) kg versus 18.0 (14.3-21.7) kg (P = 0.321), that for fat-free mass was 56.7 (51.5-61.9) kg versus 56.7 (51.4-62.0) kg (P = 0.309), and that for body weight (with 95% confidence interval) was 72.1 (66.4-77.9) versus 74.6 (69.3-80.0) (P = 0.283). There were no differences between interventions in muscle strength or endurance or in resting energy expenditure, leptin, testosterone, insulin-like growth factor-1, free 3,3',5-triiodothyronine or active ghrelin, or in sleep, muscle dysmorphia, or eating disorder behaviors. However, participants in mIER exhibited lower hunger (P = 0.002) and desire to eat (P = 0.014) compared with those in mCER, and greater satisfaction (P = 0.016) and peptide YY (P = 0.034).

CONCLUSIONS

Similar fat loss and fat-free mass retention are achieved with mIER and mCER during 12 wk of energy restriction; however, mIER is associated with reduced appetite.

Branched-chain Amino Acids: Catabolism in Skeletal Muscle and Implications for Muscle and Whole-body Metabolism

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are critical for skeletal muscle and whole-body anabolism and energy homeostasis. They also serve as signaling molecules, for example, being able to activate mammalian/mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). This has implication for macronutrient metabolism. However, elevated circulating levels of BCAAs and of their ketoacids as well as impaired catabolism of these amino acids (AAs) are implicated in the development of insulin resistance and its sequelae, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and of some cancers, although other studies indicate supplements of these AAs may help in the management of some chronic diseases. Here, we first reviewed the catabolism of these AAs especially in skeletal muscle as this tissue contributes the most to whole body disposal of the BCAA. We then reviewed emerging mechanisms of control of enzymes involved in regulating BCAA catabolism. Such mechanisms include regulation of their abundance by microRNA and by post translational modifications such as phosphorylation, acetylation, and ubiquitination. We also reviewed implications of impaired metabolism of BCAA for muscle and whole-body metabolism. We comment on outstanding questions in the regulation of catabolism of these AAs, including regulation of the abundance and post-transcriptional/post-translational modification of enzymes that regulate BCAA catabolism, as well the impact of circadian rhythm, age and mTORC1 on these enzymes. Answers to such questions may facilitate emergence of treatment/management options that can help patients suffering from chronic diseases linked to impaired metabolism of the BCAAs.

Creatine Enhances the Effects of Cluster-Set Resistance Training on Lower-Limb Body Composition and Strength in Resistance-Trained Men: A Pilot Study

Creatine monohydrate (CrM) supplementation has been shown to improve body composition and muscle strength when combined with resistance training (RT); however, no study has evaluated the combination of this nutritional strategy with cluster-set resistance training (CS-RT). The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate the effects of CrM supplementation during a high-protein diet and a CS-RT program on lower-limb fat-free mass (LL-FFM) and muscular strength. Twenty-three resistance-trained men (>2 years of training experience, 26.6 ± 8.1 years, 176.3 ± 6.8 cm, 75.6 ± 8.9 kg) participated in this study. Subjects were randomly allocated to a CS-RT+CrM (n = 8), a CS-RT (n = 8), or a control group (n = 7). The CS-RT+CrM group followed a CrM supplementation protocol with 0.1 g·kg-1·day-1 over eight weeks. Two sessions per week of lower-limb CS-RT were performed. LL-FFM corrected for fat-free adipose tissue (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) and muscle strength (back squat 1 repetition maximum (SQ-1RM) and countermovement jump (CMJ)) were measured pre- and post-intervention. Significant improvements were found in whole-body fat mass, fat percentage, LL-fat mass, LL-FFM, and SQ-1RM in the CS-RT+CrM and CS-RT groups; however, larger effect sizes were obtained in the CS-RT+CrM group regarding whole body FFM (0.64 versus 0.16), lower-limb FFM (0.62 versus 0.18), and SQ-1RM (1.23 versus 0.75) when compared to the CS-RT group. CMJ showed a significant improvement in the CS-RT+CrM group with no significant changes in CS-RT or control groups. No significant differences were found between groups. Eight weeks of CrM supplementation plus a high-protein diet during a CS-RT program has a higher clinical meaningfulness on lower-limb body composition and strength-related variables in trained males than CS-RT alone. Further research might study the potential health and therapeutic effects of this nutrition and exercise strategy.

Flexible vs. rigid dieting in resistance-trained individuals seeking to optimize their physiques: A randomized controlled trial

Abstract

Background

The purpose of this study was to compare a flexible vs. rigid diet on weight loss and subsequent weight regain in resistance-trained (RT) participants in a randomized, parallel group design.

Methods

Twenty-three males and females (25.6 ± 6.1 yrs; 170 ± 8.1 cm; 75.4 ± 10.3 kg) completed the 20-week intervention (consisting of a 10-week diet phase and a 10-week post-diet phase). Participants were randomized to a flexible diet (FLEX) comprised of non-specific foods or a rigid diet (RIGID) comprised of specific foods. Participants adhered to an ~20%kcal reduction during the first 10-weeks of the intervention and were instructed to eat ad libitum for the final 10-weeks. Body composition and resting metabolic rate were assessed 5 times: (baseline, 5, 10 [end of diet phase], 16, and 20 weeks).

Results

During the 10-week diet phase, both groups significantly reduced bodyweight (FLEX: baseline = 76.1 ± 8.4kg, post-diet = 73.5 ± 8.8 kg, ▲2.6 kg; RIGID: baseline = 74.9 ± 12.2 kg, post-diet = 71.9 ± 11.7 kg, ▲3.0 kg, p < 0.001); fat mass (FLEX: baseline = 14.8 ± 5.7 kg, post-diet = 12.5 ± 5.0 kg, ▲2.3 kg; RIGID: baseline = 18.1 ± 6.2 kg, post-diet = 14.9 ± 6.5 kg, ▲3.2 kg p < 0.001) and body fat% (FLEX: baseline = 19.4 ± 8.5%, post-diet = 17.0 ± 7.1%, ▲2.4%; RIGID: baseline = 24.0 ± 6.2%, post-diet = 20.7 ± 7.1%, ▲3.3%; p < 0.001). There were no significant differences between the two groups for any variable during the diet phase. During the post-diet phase, a significant diet x time interaction (p < 0.001) was observed for FFM with the FLEX group gaining a greater amount of FFM (+1.7 kg) in comparison with the RIGID group (−0.7 kg).

Conclusions

A flexible or rigid diet strategy is equally effective for weight loss during a caloric restriction diet in free-living, RT individuals. While post-diet FFM gains were greater in the FLEX group, there were no significant differences in the amount of time spent in resistance and aerobic exercise modes nor were there any significant differences in protein and total caloric intakes between the two diet groups. In the absence of a clear physiological rationale for increases in FFM, in addition to the lack of a standardized diet during the post-diet phase, we refrain from attributing the increases in FFM in the FLEX group to their diet assignment during the diet phase of the investigation. We recommend future research investigate additional physiological and psychological effects of flexible diets and weight regain in lean individuals.

Peak week recommendations for bodybuilders: an evidence based approach

Bodybuilding is a competitive endeavor where a combination of muscle size, symmetry, "conditioning" (low body fat levels), and stage presentation are judged. Success in bodybuilding requires that competitors achieve their peak physique during the day of competition. To this end, competitors have been reported to employ various peaking interventions during the final days leading to competition. Commonly reported peaking strategies include altering exercise and nutritional regimens, including manipulation of macronutrient, water, and electrolyte intake, as well as consumption of various dietary supplements. The primary goals for these interventions are to maximize muscle glycogen content, minimize subcutaneous water, and reduce the risk abdominal bloating to bring about a more aesthetically pleasing physique. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of evidence to support the commonly reported practices employed by bodybuilders during peak week. Hence, the purpose of this article is to critically review the current literature as to the scientific support for pre-contest peaking protocols most commonly employed by bodybuilders and provide evidence-based recommendations as safe and effective strategies on the topic.

Carbohydrate refeed does not modify GVT-performance following energy restriction in bodybuilders

Bodybuilding is a sport in which competitors' physiques are judged on their muscular size, symmetry, and leanness, as displayed in a number of different poses. In the pre-competitive period, bodybuilders attempt to reduce body fat stores as much as possible while maintaining fat-free mass (FFM). This is achieved via a sustained negative energy balance, generally induced by a combination of decreased energy intake and increased energy expenditure. This study aimed to assess the ability of bodybuilders to resist fatigue during resistance exercise based German Volume Training (GVT), as well as the affective response after carbohydrate refeed following four weeks of moderate or severe energy restriction. Eleven male bodybuilders (28.4 ± 2.3 years old) with experience in competitions were randomized into two groups: Moderate Energy Restriction (MER; n = 6) or Severe Energy Restriction (SER; n = 5). On the 2nd day (during energy restriction) and 7th day (during refeed) of the fourth week, both groups completed two leg press protocols involving the GVT method. After the first and last workout protocol subjects were assessed for muscle soreness using the visual-analog scale (VAS), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), affective response, lactate, and creatine kinase. Anthropometric analysis indicated that a reduction of 3.7 and 3.2% in body mass corresponded to a loss of 16.0 and 17.6% of fat mass for the MER and SER groups, respectively, with both groups maintaining FFM. Blood CK and VAS values were reduced only in SER. Our results suggest that a carbohydrate refeed may help to attenuate the perception of muscle soreness and maintain exercise performance, especially when severe energy restriction is combined with an intense training protocol such as GVT.

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Male Strength Athletes Who Use Non-prescribed Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids

Background: One sub-population potentially affected by the COVID-19 pandemic are strength athletes who use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS). We examined links between disruption in AAS use and training due to the pandemic and mental health outcomes in this population, hypothesising: (a) the pandemic would be linked with reduced training and AAS use; and (b) athletes perceiving greater impact on their training and AAS use would report increases in detrimental mental health outcomes. Methods: Male strength athletes using AAS (N = 237) from 42 countries completed an online questionnaire in May 2020. A sub-sample (N = 90) from 20 countries participated again 4 months later. The questionnaire assessed pre-pandemic and current AAS use and training, alongside several mental health outcomes. Results: At Time 1, most participants perceived an impact of the pandemic on AAS use (91.1%) and/or training (57.8%). Dependent t-tests demonstrated significant reductions in training frequency (t = 7.78; p < 0.001) and AAS dose (t = 6.44; p < 0.001) compared to pre-pandemic. Linear regression showed the impact of the pandemic on training was a significant positive predictor of excessive body checking (B = 0.35) and mood swings (B = 0.26), and AAS dose was a significant positive predictor of anxiety (B = 0.67), insomnia (B = 0.52), mood swings (B = 0.37). At Time 2, fewer participants perceived an impact of the pandemic on AAS use (29.9%) and/or training (66.7%) than at Time 1. Training frequency (t = 3.02; p < 0.01) and AAS dose (t = 2.11; p < 0.05) were depressed in comparison to pre-pandemic. However, AAS dose had increased compared to Time 1 (t = 2.11; p < 0.05). Linear regression showed the impact of the pandemic on training/AAS use did not significantly predict any mental-health outcomes. However, AAS dose was a significant negative predictor of depressive thoughts (B = -0.83) and mood swings (B = -2.65). Conclusion: Our findings showed impact of the pandemic on the training and AAS use, reflected in reduced training frequency and AAS dose. However, whilst we detected some short-term consequential effects on mental health, these did not appear to be long-lasting.

Metabolic Adaptations to Weight Loss: A Brief Review

ABSTRACT

Martínez-Gómez, MG and Roberts, BM. Metabolic adaptations to weight loss: A brief review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-As the scientific literature has continuously shown, body mass loss attempts do not always follow a linear fashion nor always go as expected even when the intervention is calculated with precise tools. One of the main reasons why this tends to happen relies on our body's biological drive to regain the body mass we lose to survive. This phenomenon has been referred to as "metabolic adaptation" many times in the literature and plays a very relevant role in the management of obesity and human weight loss. This review will provide insights into some of the theoretical models for the etiology of metabolic adaptation as well as a quick look into the physiological and endocrine mechanisms that underlie it. Nutritional strategies and dietetic tools are thus necessary to confront these so-called adaptations to body mass loss. Among some of these strategies, we can highlight increasing protein needs, opting for high-fiber foods or programming-controlled diet refeeds, and diet breaks over a large body mass loss phase. Outside the nutritional aspects, it might be wise to increase the physical activity and thus the energy flux of an individual when possible to maintain diet-induced body mass loss in the long term. This review will examine these protocols and their viability in the context of adherence and sustainability for the individual toward successful body mass loss.

Effects of Two Months of Very Low Carbohydrate Ketogenic Diet on Body Composition, Muscle Strength, Muscle Area, and Blood Parameters in Competitive Natural Body Builders

Background: Ketogenic diet (KD) is a nutritional approach that restricts daily carbohydrates, replacing most of the reduced energy with fat, while maintaining an adequate quantity of protein. Despite the widespread use of KD in weight loss in athletes, there are still many concerns about its use in sports requiring muscle mass accrual. Thus, the present study sought to investigate the influence of a KD in competitive natural body builders. Methods: Nineteen volunteers (27.4 ± 10.5 years) were randomly assigned to ketogenic diet (KD) or to a western diet (WD). Body composition, muscle strength and basal metabolic rate were measured before and after two months of intervention. Standard blood biochemistry, testosterone, IGF-1, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and inflammatory cytokines (IL6, IL1β, TNFα) were also measured. Results: Body fat significantly decreased in KD (p = 0.030); whilst lean mass increased significantly only in WD (p < 0.001). Maximal strength increased similarly in both groups. KD showed a significant decrease of blood triglycerides (p < 0.001), glucose (p = 0.001), insulin (p < 0.001) and inflammatory cytokines compared to WD whilst BDNF increased in both groups with significant greater changes in KD (p < 0.001). Conclusions: KD may be used during body building preparation for health and leaning purposes but with the caution that hypertrophic muscle response could be blunted.

Health aspects of active bodybuilders: monitoring by multidisciplinary team

ABSTRACT Preparation in bodybuilding involves high-intensity workouts and drastic feeding strategies. Little is known about health risks. Athletes (n=510, 59.8% male) were evaluated about health aspects, anthropometry, and blood pressure (BP). Chronic diseases were reported by 6,6%, but 88.9% of them did not treat; 1.9% reported hypertension, with 15.7% having high BP; and 52.5% reported the use of prohibited drugs in the last 6 months. Body mass index was 26.2±2.5 for man and 22.3±2.2 Kg/m2 for woman. Men had lower monitoring than women by physical education professionals, nutritionists, and physicians (p<0.01). Athletes are exposed to health risks factors such as lack of knowledge about diseases, high use of prohibited substances and less monitoring by professionals among men.

Case Study: Body Composition Changes Resulting from a Nutritional Intervention on a Professional Vegan Powerlifter

Powerlifting is a weight-class strength sport where achieving low fat mass (FM) and high fat-free mass (FFM) is desirable to improve performance. Recent studies have evaluated the nutritional considerations of different eating patterns, such as vegan diets (VD), in athlete populations. VD are a challenge for athletes who want to attain body composition changes. The aim of this case study is to report on the body composition changes and subjective feelings of a male professional vegan powerlifter following VD for six weeks. The body mass of the powerlifter decreased from 79.3 to 77.4 kg (2.39%). Along with this, FM decreased from 15.0 to 11.4 kg (24%). Conversely, FFM increased from 64.3 to 66.0 kg (2.64%). Moreover, the powerlifter communicated no subjective feelings of low energy availability during training sessions. The VD might compromise adherence in a nutritional intervention which aims to improve body composition due to the nutritional requirements for fat loss. Therefore, more appropriate health assessments, including blood and psychological tests, are required for professional athletes. This short-term VD intervention was satisfactory for improving body composition and no adverse outcomes were reported.

Management and Prevention Strategies for Non-communicable Diseases (NCDs) and Their Risk Factors

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are of increasing concern for society and national governments, as well as globally due to their high mortality rate. The main risk factors of NCDs can be classified into the categories of self-management, genetic factors, environmental factors, factors of medical conditions, and socio-demographic factors. The main focus is on the elements of self-management and to reach a consensus about the influence of food on risk management and actions toward the prevention of NCDs at all stages of life. Nutrition interventions are essential in managing the risk of NCDs. As they are of the utmost importance, this review highlights NCDs and their risk factors and outlines several common prevention strategies. We foresee that the best prevention management strategy will include individual (lifestyle management), societal (awareness management), national (health policy decisions), and global (health strategy) elements, with target actions, such as multi-sectoral partnership, knowledge and information management, and innovations. The most effective preventative strategy is the one that leads to changes in lifestyle with respect to diet, physical activities, cessation of smoking, and the control of metabolic disorders.

Creatine Supplementation Does Not Influence the Ratio Between Intracellular Water and Skeletal Muscle Mass in Resistance-Trained Men

The authors aimed to compare the effects of creatine (Cr) supplementation combined with resistance training on skeletal muscle mass (SMM), total body water, intracellular water (ICW), and extracellular water (ECW) in resistance-trained men as well as to determine whether the SMM/ICW ratio changes in response to the use of this ergogenic aid. Twenty-seven resistance-trained men received either Cr (n = 14) or placebo (n = 13) over 8 weeks. During the same period, subjects performed two split resistance training routines four times per week. SMM was estimated from appendicular lean soft tissue assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Total body water, ICW, and ECW were determined by spectral bioelectrical impedance. Both groups showed improvements (p < .05) in SMM, total body water, and ICW, with greater values observed for the Cr group compared with placebo. ECW increased similarly in both groups (p < .05). The SMM/ICW ratio did not change in either group (p > .05), whereas the SMM/ECW ratio decreased only in the Cr group (p < .05). A positive correlation was observed (p < .05) between SMM and ICW changes (r = .71). The authors' results suggest that the increase in muscle mass induced by Cr combined with resistance training occurs without alteration of the ratio of ICW to SMM in resistance-trained men.

Effects of cluster training on body composition and strength in resistance-trained men

BACKGROUND: Cluster Training (CL) is an alternative to traditional training where intra-set breaks are incorporated. Positive effects have been reported on sports performance. However, there is little research on body composition in trained subjects. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of three cluster training (CL) protocols comprised of different intra-set rest (RIntra) and blocks of repetitions (BK) on strength, power and body composition in individuals maintaining a high protein diet. METHODS: Twenty-nine resistance-trained male participants were randomized to RIntra 20 s and BK 3 RM (n= 8, CL1), RIntra 40 s and BK 3 RM (n= 7, CL2), RIntra 20 s and BK 6 RM (n= 7, CL3), and control group (n= 7, CG). All participants performed two sessions per week of lower-limb resistance training for 8 weeks. RESULTS: There were significant changes in FFM in CL1 (0.9 ± 0.5 kg, P= 0.001, ES = 0.17), CL2 (0.6 ± 0.5 kg, P= 0.010, ES = 0.14) and CL3 (0.6 ± 0.4 kg, P= 0.011, ES = 0.14) but not in CG (0.4 ± 1.1 kg, P= 0.323, ES = 0.13). Likewise, significant increases were found in the cluster groups (CL1, 14.5 ± 12.3, P= 0.012, ES = 0.80; CL2, 10.1 ± 4.3, P= 0.001, ES = 0.60; CL3, 9.5 ± 4.9, P= 0.002, ES = 0.45) but not in CG (9.0 ± 9.0, P= 0.057, ES = 0.55). There were no significant changes for any group in CMJ. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that a RIntra of ∼ 20 s in CL protocols with 3 RM blocks in multi-joint exercises of the lower-limb is sufficient to elicit significant training adaptations; no additional benefits were obtained using longer rest intervals.