Wild canids as sentinels of ecological health: a conservation medicine perspective

Ixodid ticks and zoonotic tick-borne pathogens of the Western Balkans

Ixodid ticks are distributed across all countries of the Western Balkans, with a high diversity of species. Many of these species serve as vectors of pathogens of veterinary and medical importance. Given the scattered data from Western Balkan countries, we have conducted a comprehensive review of available literature, including some historical data, with the aim to compile information about all recorded tick species and associated zoonotic pathogens in this region. Based on the collected data, the tick fauna of the Western Balkans encompasses 32 tick species belonging to five genera: Ixodes, Haemaphysalis, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus and Hyalomma. A range of pathogens responsible for human diseases has also been documented, including viruses, bacteria and parasites. In this review, we emphasize the necessity for integrated surveillance and reporting, urging authorities to foster research by providing financial support. Additionally, international and interdisciplinary collaborations should be encouraged that include the exchange of expertise, experiences and resources. The present collaborative effort can effectively address gaps in our knowledge of ticks and tick-borne diseases.

New Geographic Records for Trichinella nativa and Echinococcus canadensis in Coyotes (Canis latrans) from Insular Newfoundland, Canada

Coyotes (Canis latrans) rapidly expanded across North America during the 20th century and in 1987 colonized insular Newfoundland, Canada. Their arrival brought the potential for new predator-prey interactions and the potential for transmission of parasites to naïve populations. Trichinella spp. and Echinococcus spp. are zoonotic parasites not previously reported from the island of Newfoundland, Canada. Muscle samples (diaphragm and tongue) from 153 coyotes and feces from 35/153 coyotes were collected. Larvae of Trichinella spp. were recovered by muscle digestion from 6/153 coyotes (3.9%) and identified using multiplex PCR and Sanger sequencing as T. nativa. Fecal samples were screened for DNA of Echinococcus spp. using qPCR, and intestines from positive animals were examined for adult cestodes. No fecal samples were positive for DNA of E. multilocularis, and 2/35 (5.7%) samples were positive for E. canadensis, of which one was successfully genotyped as the G10 cervid strain. Echinococcus canadensis has not previously been reported on the island of Newfoundland, historically the only region of Canada where Echinococcus spp. was not known to occur. No species of Trichinella have previously been reported on the island. Both parasites are zoonotic, and hunters, trappers, dog owners, and the general public should be aware of these new risks for public health.

The first report on Hepatozoon canis in dogs and wolves in Poland: clinical and epidemiological features

BACKGROUND

Canine hepatozoonosis caused by Hepatozoon canis is a common infection in dogs, with frequent case reports from the Mediterranean region and more recently from several Central European countries, such as Hungary and Germany. Despite the high prevalence of H. canis in red foxes, no infections have been reported to date in dogs in Poland. We describe here the first autochthonous cases of H. canis infection in dogs, including their clinical features, and report the prevalence of H. canis in grey wolves from different regions of Poland.

METHODS

Thin smears prepared from blood samples collected from dogs were evaluated by microscopic examination. A total of 60 wolves and 47 dogs were tested. Infections were confirmed by PCR and sequencing.

RESULTS

Gamonts of H. canis were found in > 50% of the neutrophils of two dogs and in < 10% of the neutrophils in another five dogs. Molecular typing by PCR sequencing of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene fragment confirmed infections in 11 dogs from different regions of Poland, in 2.7% of dogs attending veterinary practices in central Poland and in 35% of wolves from various geographical regions of Poland. Clinical features manifested mostly in older dogs, and the most common signs were anaemia and apathy. Young dogs usually remained asymptomatic.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of H. canis infection in dogs and wolves in Poland. Although the exact vector of the parasite is not known, veterinary practitioners should be aware of this new parasitosis and should consider appropriate diagnostics to confirm/exclude this infection. Further studies are needed to understand the transmission routes of H. canis in domestic and wild canids in Poland.

Antibiotic Resistance in the Apennine Wolf (Canis lupus italicus): Implications for Wildlife and Human Health

The Apennine wolf (Canis lupus italicus) is a subspecies of gray wolf that is widespread throughout Italy. Due to hunting and habitat loss, their population declined dramatically in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but conservation efforts improved to restore the species to an estimated population of 3300 individuals. The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in Apennine Wolf may pose a risk to its health and survival, as well as the health of other animals in its environment. In this study, we investigated the antibiotic resistance profiles of bacteria collected from Apennine wolves admitted to the Wildlife Research Center of Maiella National Park (Italy) in 2022. A total of 12 bacteria collected from four wolves were isolated and tested for susceptibility to antibiotics used in veterinary medicine and to critically important antibiotics for human health by means of the Vitek 2 system. All isolates were resistant to at least one antibiotic, and six bacteria were multidrug resistant to critically important antibiotics (third-generation cephalosporins, carbapenems and fluoroquinolones). The results of this pilot study have allowed for the characterization of resistant profiles in Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and other bacterial species not previously reported in Apennine wolves. Our findings provide important insights into antibiotic resistance in wildlife and its potential implications for the conservation of biodiversity and public health.

First Morphological and Molecular Identification of Demodex injai in Golden Jackal (Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758) in Romania

Demodicosis is one of the most important external parasitic diseases found in carnivores. Three species of the Demodex mite inhabit the skin of dogs and related species, D. canis being the most prevalent. This paper describes the first case of infestation with D. injai in a golden jackal in Romania. An emaciated golden jackal female body found in Timiș County, western Romania, was examined at Parasitology Department of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Timișoara. The gross lesions were present on different regions of the body: feet, tail, axillary and inguinal areas, and skin folds as well, consisting of erythema, extensive severe alopecia with lichenification, seborrhea, and scaling. In order to establish diagnosis, microscopic examination of skin scrapes, trichogram (hair plucking), acetate tape test (impression), fungal culture, and PCR were performed. Both microscopic measurements and PCR analysis have confirmed the presence of D. injai.

Predictive factors for flea occurrence in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from semi-arid Mediterranean environments

The role of red fox as host for a wide range of parasites, particularly fleas and other arthropods causing vector-borne diseases, in combination with its capability to adapt to anthropized environments, makes this wild canid an epidemiologically remarkable species at the wildlife-domestic-human interface, especially in the present time of rise of emerging and re-emerging diseases. This study evaluated the prevalence and parasite intensity of fleas in 88 foxes from Murcia Region (Southeastern Spain) and determined the geographic distribution of areas with the highest potential risk of flea presence. Pulex irritans, Ctenocephalides felis, Spilopsyllus cuniculi and Nosopsyllus fasciatus were identified. The overall prevalence was 76.13%. This is the first time that N. fasciatus has been reported in foxes from Murcia Region. The predictive model established a certain pattern to determine the areas with the highest risk of acquiring fleas. Positive correlation of daily potential evapotranspiration (ET₀ ) in winter and the opposite effect occurring for ET₀ in summer were obtained, as well as positive correlations for mean daily temperature (T_mean ) in summer and mean precipitation (P_mean ) in winter and summer. The model was also found positively correlated in the forest habitat ecotone areas and the anthropized areas.

Endoparasites of the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and mesocarnivores in Central Portugal

At the end of the nineteenth century, massive population declines were observed in carnivores due to the emergence of infectious diseases. This study aims to investigate, by means of coprological analysis, the prevalence and intensity of the parasites that infect the endangered Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus and two mesocarnivores (the red fox Vulpes vulpes and the stone marten Martes foina) in Central Portugal. In total, 67.2% of the samples screened were infected; Toxascaris leonina (40.6%) was the parasite with the highest prevalence, followed by Ancylostomatidae and Eimeria spp. (28.1%). Eimeria spp. was found in stone marten with the highest infection rate (37,800 OPG), followed by T. leonina (10,100 EPG) in a red fox sample. Moderate to high levels of parasitic infections were identified in 73.3% of red foxes from the western area. Our results highlight the possibility of cross-infection among these carnivore species and cross-contamination in the wildlife-livestock-human interface.

Wild Mesocarnivores as Reservoirs of Endoparasites Causing Important Zoonoses and Emerging Bridging Infections across Europe

Mesocarnivores are small- or mid-sized carnivore species that display a variety of ecologies and behaviours. In Europe, wild mesocarnivores are represented by the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the golden jackal (Canis aureus), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the Mustelidae of the genera Meles, Martes, Mustela, Lutra, the invasive species of raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and American mink (Neogale vison). These abundant animals thrive in various habitats and often develop their activity close to human settlements. Thus, they may play an important role in the introduction, maintenance, and transmission of major parasitic zoonoses and promote bridging infections with domestic animals. Against this background, this article reports and discusses some of the most important endoparasites of wild mesocarnivores living in Europe, on the basis of their actual role as reservoirs, spreaders, or sentinels. The data derived from epizootiological studies in different European countries, and the proven or speculated implications of the detected endoparasites in human and domestic animals' health, are discussed. Through older and recent literature review, the state-of-the-art knowledge on the occurrence and prevalence of the parasites under consideration is presented, showing further, warranted investigations and the need for surveillance and vigilance.

Molecular analysis of blood-associated pathogens in European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) from Germany

European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) have not been investigated in large numbers for blood-associated pathogens in Germany, because wildcats, being a protected species, may not be hunted, and the collection of samples is therefore difficult. Thus, spleen tissue and whole blood from 96 wildcats from Germany found as roadkill or dead from other causes in the years 1998–2020 were examined for the prevalence of blood associated pathogens using molecular genetic tools. PCR was used to screen for haemotrophic Mycoplasma spp., Hepatozoon spp., Cytauxzoon spp., Bartonella spp., Filarioidea, Anaplasmataceae, and Rickettsiales, and positive samples were subsequently sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses were performed for Mycoplasma spp. and Hepatozoon spp. by calculating phylogenetic trees and DNA haplotype networks. The following pathogens were found: Candidatus Mycoplasma haematominutum (7/96), Mycoplasma ovis (1/96), Hepatozoon silvestris (34/96), Hepatozoon felis (6/96), Cytauxzoon europaeus (45/96), and Bartonella spp. (3/96). This study elucidates the prevalence of blood-associated pathogens in wildcats from Germany.

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European wildcats from Germany carry different blood-associated pathogens.

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Pathogens can also affect domestic cats.

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Transmision by vectors or other transmisison routes are possible.

Reproduction in South American wild canids—A review

Canids occupy the top of the food chain and are fundamental in sustaining a wild animal/environmental balance. South America, the most biodiverse continent, has 11 species of canids inhabiting diverse biomes, with or without overlapping territories. Although several species are threatened, little is known about their reproductive biology. Remarkably, basic knowledge regarding ejaculate characteristics, sexual behavior, female reproductive cycles, pregnancy and management, and parturition are scarce or absent. These gaps complicate or preclude development of conservation programs. This review compiles the current knowledge of the reproductive biology of South American canids and discusses implications of this scenario.

Pathology and epidemiology of fatal toxoplasmosis in free-ranging marmosets (Callithrix spp.) from the Brazilian atlantic forest

Toxoplasmosis is an important zoonotic disease that affects a wide range of warm-blooded host species. Neotropical primates (New World Primates; NWP) are highly susceptible, developing a lethal acute systemic disease. Toxoplasmosis in free-ranging NWP is poorly described, with only a few studies based on serosurveys. Herein we performed a retrospective study focusing on the epidemiology and pathology of toxoplasmosis among 1,001 free-ranging marmoset (Callithrix spp.) deaths from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. This study included marmosets necropsied at the Instituto Municipal de Medicina Veterinária Jorge Vaitsman (IJV) from January 2017 to July 2019, which were found dead from all regions in the State of Rio de Janeiro. Histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy were performed to better characterize toxoplasmosis in this free-ranging population. All samples were also tested for Yellow Fever Virus (YFV) RT-qPCR by the official diagnostic service. A total of 1,001 free-ranging marmosets were included in this study, with 16 (1.6%) cases of lethal Toxoplasma gondii infections identified both as individual cases and in outbreaks. Presence of infection was not associated with sex, age, geographical distribution, or year of death, and no co-infection with YFV was observed. The main pathological feature in these cases was random necrotizing hepatitis with detection of intralesional T. gondii zoites in all infected cases. Interstitial pneumonia rich in alveolar foamy macrophages and fibrin deposition, necrotizing myocarditis and necrotizing splenitis were also pathological features in affected marmosets. Therefore, toxoplasmosis was considered the cause of death in 1.6% of free-ranging marmosets in this retrospective series, including some cases associated with outbreaks. Necrotizing random hepatitis was a consistent pathological finding in affected cases and sampling of liver should be ensured from Callitrichid post mortem cases.

Innocent Until Proven Guilty: Systematic Review of the Effect of Livestock on South American Wild Canid Parasites

PURPOSE

Livestock is regarded as a source of parasites to wildlife populations, but no assessment of the nature and magnitude of parasite transmission from livestock to South American canids is available.

METHODS

Here we systematically reviewed articles that evaluate protozoa, helminths and arthropods in wild canids living in areas with and without the presence of livestock.

RESULTS

There is an unbalanced study effort which precludes proper testing of the assumption that livestock increase the incidence and prevalence of parasites in wild canids. Most of the parasites reported are shared with domestic carnivores.

CONCLUSION

Available information strongly suggests that the role played by livestock and their associated dogs on wild canid parasitism should be re-evaluated.

The emergence of Dirofilaria repens in a non-endemic area influenced by climate change: dynamics of transmission using a mathematical model

Dirofilaria repens is a nematode affecting domestic and wild canids, transmitted by several species of mosquitoes of different genera. It usually causes a non-pathogenic subcutaneous infection in dogs and is the principal agent of human dirofilariasis in the Old World. The geographic distribution of D. repens is changing rapidly, and several factors contribute to the spread of the infection to non-endemic areas. A mathematical model for transmission of Dirofilaria spp. was built, using a system of ordinary differential equations that consider the interactions between reservoirs, vectors, and humans. The transmission simulations of D. repens were carried out considering a projection in time, with intervals of 15 and 100 years. For the dynamics of the vector, seasonal variations were presented as series with quarter periodicity during the year. The results of the simulations highlight the peak of contagions in the reservoir and in humans, a product of the action of the vector when it remains active throughout the year. A 300% infection increase in the reservoir was observed during the first decade and remains present in the population with a representative number of cases. When the vector maintains its density and infectivity during the year, the incidence of the infection in humans increases. Accumulated cases amount to 45 per 100,000 inhabitants, which corresponds to a cumulative incidence of 0.05%, in 85 years. This indicates that early prevention of infection in canids would significantly reduce the disease, also reducing the number of accumulated cases of human dirofilariasis by D. repens. The interaction between the simulations generated by the model highlights the sensitivity of the epidemiological curve to the periodicity of seasonality, reaffirming the hypothesis of the probability of movement of the zoonotic disease to non-endemic areas, due to climate change.

New geographic records for Echinococcus canadensis in coyotes and moose from Nova Scotia, Canada

Echinococcus spp. tapeworms can cause serious diseases in mammals, including humans. Within the E. granulosus species complex, metacestodes produce unilocular cysts that are responsible for cystic echinococcosis in animal intermediate hosts. Canids are definitive hosts, harbouring adult cestodes in their intestines. Adult E. canadensis were recovered from the small intestine of 1 of 262 coyotes (Canis latrans) from Nova Scotia, Canada. Subsequently, we found unilocular cysts in lungs and livers of 4 of 8 sympatric moose (Alces alces) from Cape Breton Island. DNA was extracted from three cysts using the Qiagen DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit and assayed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with primers (cest4 and cest5) for a 117-bp region of the small subunit of ribosomal RNA of E. granulosus sensu lato, and further validated as E. canadensis G8 using primers targeting nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) mitochondrial genes. These are the first records of E. canadensis in any of the three Maritime provinces, which include Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. The parasite was thought to be absent in this region due to extirpation of wolves (Canis spp.) in the 1800s. These findings suggest that further wildlife surveillance and risk assessment is warranted.

Host and geographic differences in prevalence and diversity of gastrointestinal helminths of foxes (Vulpes vulpes), coyotes (Canis latrans) and wolves (Canis lupus) in Québec, Canada

Wild canids are hosts to a wide range of parasites and can play a role in transmission of zoonoses. As many parasites are transmitted through food webs, and wild canids are at high trophic levels, parasite prevalence and diversity in wild canids can serve as excellent indicators of ecosystem health. Our main objectives were to update knowledge on the composition of gastrointestinal helminths in wild canids from Québec, Canada, and to describe differences in parasite prevalence and diversity among canid species and regions. Hunters and trappers provided whole carcasses of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) (N = 176), and intestinal tracts of coyotes (Canis latrans) (N = 77) and gray wolves (Canis lupus) (N = 23) harvested for non-research purposes over the winter of 2016-2017. A modified Stoll's centrifugation sucrose flotation on feces of 250 wild canids was used, and eggs of one family and eight genera of parasitic helminths were recovered: diphyllobothriids, Taenia/Echinococcus spp., Capillaria spp., Toxascaris sp., Toxocara sp., Trichuris sp., Uncinaria sp., and Metorchis sp. Adult Taenia spp. cestodes were recovered from 61 of 276 (22%) canids. Six different species (T. hydatigena, T. twitchelli, T. crassiceps, T. polyacantha, T. krabbei, and T. pisiformis-"like") were differentiated based on DNA sequenced from 65 individual adult cestodes using primers for the nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide dehydrogenase subunit 1 (ND1) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) mitochondrial DNA loci. Alaria sp. trematodes infected 89 of 276 canids (32%). A subset were identified as A. americana at the CO1 locus. The marine trematode Cryptocotyle lingua was reported for the first time in foxes in the province of Québec. These results help us understand more fully the predator-prey relationships within this group of canids. This baseline data in regional parasite prevalence and intensity is critical in order to detect future changes following ecological disturbances due to climate and landscape alterations.

Vector-borne zoonotic blood parasites in wildlife from Ecuador: A report and systematic review

Background and Aim:

Ecuador is a hugely diverse country, but information on infectious diseases in local wild animals is scarce. The aim of this study was to screen the presence of blood parasites in free-ranging wild animals admitted to the Wildlife Hospital at Universidad San Francisco de Quito, from April 2012 to January 2019.

Materials and Methods:

We identified blood parasites by microscopic observation of blood smears from free-ranging wildlife species that attended the Wildlife Hospital of Universidad San Francisco de Quito (Ecuador) from April 2012 to January 2019.

Results:

The microscopic evaluations of animals as potential reservoirs for vector-borne zoonotic blood parasites revealed the presence of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Ehrlichia spp., Hepatozoon spp., microfilaria, Mycoplasma spp., and Trypanosoma spp. in previously unreported wildlife species. In addition, we performed a systematic review to understand the current knowledge gaps in the context of these findings.

Conclusion:

Our data contribute to the knowledge of blood parasites in wildlife from Ecuador. Furthermore, the potential transmission of these parasites to humans and domestic animals, current anthropogenic environmental changes in the region, and the lack of information on this suggest the importance of our results and warrant further investigations on infectious diseases in animals and humans and their relationship with environmental health as key domains of the One Health concept.

Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Lemur Gut and Soil Microbiota Along a Gradient of Anthropogenic Disturbance

The overuse of man-made antibiotics has facilitated the global propagation of antibiotic resistance genes in animals, across natural and anthropogenically disturbed environments. Although antibiotic treatment is the most well-studied route by which resistance genes can develop and spread within host-associated microbiota, resistomes also can be acquired or enriched via more indirect routes, such as via transmission between hosts or via contact with antibiotic-contaminated matter within the environment. Relatively little is known about the impacts of anthropogenic disturbance on reservoirs of resistance genes in wildlife and their environments. We therefore tested for (a) antibiotic resistance genes in primate hosts experiencing different severities and types of anthropogenic disturbance (i.e., non-wildlife animal presence, human presence, direct human contact, and antibiotic treatment), and (b) covariation between host-associated and environmental resistomes. We used shotgun metagenomic sequencing of ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) gut resistomes and associated soil resistomes sampled from up to 10 sites: seven in the wilderness of Madagascar and three in captivity in Madagascar or the United States. We found that, compared to wild lemurs, captive lemurs harbored greater abundances of resistance genes, but not necessarily more diverse resistomes. Abundances of resistance genes were positively correlated with our assessments of anthropogenic disturbance, a pattern that was robust across all ten lemur populations. The composition of lemur resistomes was site-specific and the types of resistance genes reflected antibiotic usage in the country of origin, such as vancomycin use in Madagascar. We found support for multiple routes of ARG enrichment (e.g., via human contact, antibiotic treatment, and environmental acquisition) that differed across lemur populations, but could result in similar degrees of enrichment. Soil resistomes varied across natural habitats in Madagascar and, at sites with greater anthropogenic disturbance, lemurs and soil resistomes covaried. As one of the broadest, single-species investigations of wildlife resistomes to date, we show that the transmission and enrichment of antibiotic resistance genes varies across environments, thereby adding to the mounting evidence that the resistance crisis extends outside of traditional clinical settings.

MOLECULAR INVESTIGATION OF VECTOR-BORNE PATHOGENS IN RED FOXES (VULPES VULPES) FROM SOUTHERN FRANCE

Because of their free-ranging nature, the probability of wild animals being exposed to vector-borne pathogens is likely higher than that of humans and pets. Recently, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been suspected as being a reservoir or host of several pathogens of veterinary and public health importance. We conducted a molecular survey on 93 red foxes hunted in 2008-18, in the departments of Bouches-du-Rhône and Var, in southeastern France, for pathogens including Leishmania infantum, Piroplasmida, Hepatozoon spp., nematodes, Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasmataceae. Spleen samples were screened for the presence of vector-borne pathogens by PCR followed by sequencing. Pathogens were detected in 94% (87/93) of red foxes, and coinfections were identified in 24% (22/93) of foxes. We identified DNA from Hepatozoon canis, L. infantum, and Babesia vogeli in 92% (86/93), 15% (14/93), and 3% (3/93) of red foxes, respectively. We also found DNA of nematodes in 3% (3/93) of foxes; Spirocerca vulpis was identified in one fox and Dirofilaria immitis in the two others. Interestingly, C. burnetii genotype 3, previously described in humans from the same region, was identified in 3% (3/93) of foxes and Anaplasma platys in 2% (2/93) of foxes. We did not detect DNA of Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp., or Rickettsia spp. In our study, the prevalence of pathogens did not vary by fox origin, sex, or tick carriage. Molecular evidence of B. vogeli, H. canis, S. vulpis, D. immitis, C. burnetii, and A. platys in red foxes has not previously, to our knowledge, been reported from southern France. We propose that red foxes are potential reservoirs for several pathogens, including major zoonotic agents such as L. infantum. They could be incidental hosts for pathogens, such C. burnetii. The high prevalence for H. canis suggests an important role of foxes in domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) infection. These animals may pose a threat to human and animal health.

Wolf (Canis lupus) as canine adenovirus type 1 (CAdV-1) sentinel for the endangered cantabrian brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos)

Canine adenovirus type 1 (CAdV-1) causes infectious canine hepatitis (ICH) and has recently been described as a cause of death among endangered populations of European brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos) in the Cantabrian mountain range in Asturias, Spain. Sympatric wild and domestic carnivores can act as reservoirs of the virus and likely spread it into the environment and subsequently transmit it to brown bears. The present work investigates the prevalence and geo-temporal distribution of CAdV-1 among free-ranging wolves (Canis lupus) in Asturias from 2009 to 2018, during which three fatal cases of ICH were reported among brown bears in the region. A total of 149 wolves were analysed in this study, of which 21 (14%) were found to have CAdV-1 DNA based on real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of spleen samples. Prevalence of the virus was similar between males and females. All but one of the 20 CAdV-1-positive animals of estimable age were younger than 2 years, and only one of the 46 adult animals (>2 years) tested positive. Prevalence was highest in the western area of Asturias and during 2010 and 2011. Our results confirm that CAdV-1 is circulating in Asturian free-ranging wolves, supporting their possible role as virus reservoirs and sentinels in the region of this emerging disease in brown bears.

A global assessment of Echinococcus multilocularis infections in domestic dogs: proposing a framework to overcome past methodological heterogeneity

Echinococcus multilocularis, the aetiological agent of human Alveolar Echinococcosis, is transmitted between small mammals and wild or domestic canids. Dogs infected with E. multilocularis as dead-end hosts. Whereas E. multilocularis infections in wild hosts and humans have been well-studied in recent decades, infections in domestic dogs are sparsely reported. This literature review and meta-analysis highlighted gaps in the available data and provided a re-assessment of the global distribution of domestic dog E. multilocularis infections. We found 46 published articles documenting the prevalence of E. multilocularis in domestic dogs from 21 countries across Europe, Asia and North America. Apparent prevalence estimates ranged from 0.00% (0.00-0.33%) in Germany to 55.50% (26.67-81.12%) in China. Most studies were conducted in areas of high human Alveolar Echinococcosis. By accounting for reassessed diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, we estimated true prevalence in a subset of studies, which varied between 0.00% (0.00-12.42%) and 41.09% (21.12-65.81%), as these true prevalence estimates were seldom reported in the articles themselves. Articles also showed a heavy emphasis on rural dogs, dismissing urban ones, which is concerning due to the role urbanisation plays in the transmission of zoonotic diseases, especially those utilising pets as definitive hosts. Lastly, population studies on canine Alveolar Echinococcosis were absent, highlighting the relative focus on human rather than animal health. We thus developed a framework for investigating domestic dog E. multilocularis infections and performing risk assessment of dog-associated transmission to fill the gaps found in the literature.

Capillaria plica in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Serbia: Epidemiology and Diagnostic Approaches to Urinary Capillariosis in Domestic Carnivores

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the presence of C. plica in red foxes and to point out the possibilities of different diagnostic methods, that could be used for diagnosis of urinary capillariosis in domestic carnivores.

METHODS

Seventeen red foxes from hunting grounds in the Kolubara District, Republic of Serbia, were examined in February 2019. Animals to be shot were selected based on the criteria of gamekeepers and the permission of the competent Ministry. After hunting, the foxes were examined by ultrasound and autopsied. After the necropsy, biochemical and sediment analysis of urine morphological identification of isolated adult parasites, and macroscopic/microscopic examination of the urinary bladder and kidney tissue were performed.

RESULTS

Adults of C. plica were detected in 3/17 foxes (17.6%) by ultrasound imaging and in 6/17 foxes (35.3%) by necropsy examination. Parasite eggs were found in the urinary sediment of 9/17 foxes (52.9%). The predominant histopathologic changes were amyloid degeneration of the renal glomeruli and proximal tubules (8/17 foxes-47%) as well as acute cystitis (7/17 foxes-41.2%). The occurrence of C. plica was determined in 12/17 (70.6%) of the examined foxes.

DISCUSSION

This study is the first record of the C. plica in red foxes in the Republic of Serbia. Diagnostic methods used in this study could make possible the early revealing of capillariosis in domestic carnivores and could provide reliable clinical and parasitological screening of suspect animals.

CONCLUSION

The study presents the first report of urinary capillariosis in a fox population in Serbia. The established high prevalence of C. plica in foxes could presume its higher prevalence in domestic and wild carnivores in the future.

The importance of long-term studies on wildlife diseases and their interfaces with humans and domestic animals: A review

Long-term wildlife disease research (LTWDR) and its interfaces with humans and domestic animals provide perspective to understand the diseases' main drivers and how they operate. In a systematic review, we analysed the temporal trend of the studies on LTWDR, their aims, and the hosts, pathogens and geographic areas studied. We also evaluated the added value that such studies provide. For analysis, we selected a total of 538 articles from 1993 to 2017 with a study period greater than or equal to 4 consecutive years. A marked increase in the number of studies published during the last 20 years was observed that reflects a growing awareness of the outstanding role of wildlife as a reservoir of diseases. The most studied pathogen agents were viruses (39.2%), bacteria (38.5%) and protozoans (15.8%). Concerning the hosts, mammals (84.9%), particularly ungulates (40%) and carnivores (30.9%), and birds (12.5%) were the most represented in these long-term studies. Most articles reached conclusions concerning the effect of the disease on the infection/host dynamics (98.7%) and over 40% considered the economic consequences or proposed management and control measures. The research was mainly located in the Northern Hemisphere. While the definition of LTWDR is not only determined by the duration of the monitoring, the study must be long enough to: (a) address ecological and epidemiological questions that cannot be resolved with short-term observations or experiments, and (b) clarify the effects of different drivers. This review demonstrates that LTWDR has provided information about the causes and consequences of disease change that otherwise could not have been obtained. It may be used to inform decisions related to the emergence of disease and might help to design early warning systems of disease based on retrospective investigations.

Endoparasitic fauna of two South American foxes in Chile: Lycalopex culpaeus and Lycalopex griseus

Native foxes face serious threats related to anthropic activities and the uncontrolled pets. However, the transmission of several pathogens such as parasites by domestic dogs is an important conservation issue with limited attention in Chile. The lack of a proper identification of the helminths of wild canids in the country, based mostly in coprological studies, limited our knowledge in potential interspecific transmission. Thus, the aim of the present survey was to identify the parasitic fauna of two native canids, the Andean fox (Lycalopex culpaeus) (n=49) and Chilla (Lycalopex griseus) (n=17), from several localities in Chile through a complete parasitological survey. Sixteen different species were identified, 9 of which are new host records for Andean fox and two for Chilla fox in South America, and three are recorded for first time in Chile. Also, five of them are of zoonotic concern and six are known to use domestic dogs as their principal hosts. These findings have implications for public health and the conservation of canids whose interspecific transmission of parasites with domestic dogs is confirmed through these findings. The need for an exhaustive surveillance of wild carnivores is emphasized considering these hosts as important sources of micro- and macroparasites.

Unveiling patterns of viral pathogen infection in free-ranging carnivores of northern Portugal using a complementary methodological approach

Pathogen surveillance in free-ranging carnivores presents challenges due to their low densitie and secretive nature. We combined molecular and serological assays to investigate infections by viral pathogens (Canine parvovirus (CPV), Canine distemper virus (CDV) and Canine coronavirus (CCoV)) in Portuguese carnivores (Canis lupus, Vulpes vulpes, Lutra lutra, Martes foina, M. martes, Meles meles, and Genetta genetta) over a period of 16 years. Additionally we explored spatio-temporal patterns of virus occurrence in Canis lupus. Our study identified CPV DNA in all carnivore species with an overall prevalence of 91.9 %. CPV was detected in all sampled years and seasons in Canis lupus, supporting its enzootic nature. CDV RNA was mainly detected in the Canidae family, with viral nucleic acid recorded between 2005 and 2008 with a peak prevalence of 67 % among the wolf population, followed by a sharp decline, suggesting an epizootic behaviour of the virus. Antibodies show that mustelids and viverrids were often exposed to CDV. CCoV was first recorded by molecular methods in wolf samples in 2002, remaining in the wolf populations with marked fluctuations over time. The dual serological and molecular approach provided important epidemiological data on pathogens of wild carnivores in Portugal. These programmes should also include monitoring of other potential reservoir hosts such as domestic cats and dogs.

Wild carnivores, domestic dogs and ticks: shared parasitism in the Brazilian Cerrado

The increase of contact between natural and rural areas is prominent in Brazil, due to agricultural activities and concern with the environmental conservation. In this context, domestic animals, wild fauna and humans are exposed to mutual exchange of parasites, microorganisms and diseases. We studied tick parasitism of wild carnivores and domestic dogs, and the environmental of questing ticks, in extensive cattle ranch areas intermingled with natural vegetation, and in a natural reserve, both in a region of Cerrado biome, Midwestern Brazil. From 2008 to 2015, we inspected 119 wild carnivores from nine species, and collected six tick species (Amblyomma sculptum, Amblyomma ovale, Amblyomma dubitatum, Amblyomma tigrinum, Dermacentor nitens and Rhipicephalus microplus). The most numerous and infested hosts were Cerdocyon thous, Lycalopex vetulus, Chrysocyon brachyurus, Puma concolor and Conepatus amazonicus. From 139 domestic dogs, we collected A. sculptum, Rhipicephalus sanguineus and R. microplus. From vegetation, samplings resulted in A. sculptum, A. dubitatum, A. ovale, Amblyomma rotundatum and R. microplus, with dominance of A. sculptum. Domestics and wild animals presented high overlapping of infestations by A. sculptum, a generalist and anthropophilic tick species. This tick is the most important vector of the Brazilian spotted fever, a lethal human disease. This fact elicits attention and requires efforts to monitor the presence of pathogens vectored by ticks circulating in this type of agroecosystem, including in other regions of the Brazil, because the most of the natural vegetation remaining have been increasingly immersed in pastures and agricultural matrix.

Molecular identification of Taenia hydatigena and Mesocestoides species based on copro-DNA analysis of wild carnivores in Mongolia

Cyclophyllidean tapeworms obligatorily parasitize numerous mammalian species, including herbivores, domestic animals and humans, of which, the genera Taenia and Mesocestoides are well characterized. However, little is known about these parasitic infections in wild animals. This study aims to investigate the prevalence and distribution of Taenia sp. and Mesocestoides sp. in wild carnivores in Mongolia by identifying tapeworm species based on mtDNA analysis. The field survey was carried out in 2012–2013 in 19 provinces located in different ecological regions. A total of 405 fecal samples from wild carnivores were collected. Specific DNA markers in fecal samples was detected via copro-DNA analysis and tapeworm species were identified by DNA sequencing. From 27.7% (112/405) of samples, cox1 and 12S rRNA genes of tapeworms were amplified. Further, Taenia hydatigena (50.0%, 56/112) and two Mesocestoides species, including Mesocestoides sp.-1 (36.6%, 41/112) and Mesocestoides sp.-2 (13.4%, 15/112) were identified by DNA sequencing. The prevalence of T. hydatigena was 19.9% (27/136), 13.8% (23/167), 4.8% (3/62), and 7.5% (3/40) in wolves, red foxes, corsac foxes, and snow leopards, respectively. The prevalence of Mesocestoides sp.-1 was 14.7% (20/136), 9% (15/167), 9.7% (6/62) in wolves, red foxes, and corsac foxes, while the prevalence of Mesocestoides sp.-2 was 4.4% (6/136), 1.8% (3/167), 3.2% (2/62), and 10.0% (4/40) in wolves, red foxes, corsac foxes, and snow leopards, respectively. T. hydatigena was found throughout all ecological regions, while Mesocestoides sp.-1 was in the mountain taiga, forest-steppe, steppe, desert-steppe, and desert, and Mesocestoides sp.-2 in the alpine, forest-steppe, steppe, and desert-steppe ecoregions. This study revealed the prevalence and distribution of cyclophyllidean tapeworms in wild carnivores in Mongolia; while also confirming that wolves, red foxes, corsac foxes, and snow leopards serve as definitive hosts for unidentified Mesocestoides species.

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Taenia hydatigena and two Mesocestoides species were first identified by copro-DNA analysis in wild carnivores in Mongolia.

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The persistent infections by T. hydatigena and Mesocestoides species in these animals were shown.

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T. hydatigena was detected in all ecoregions in Mongolia.

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Mesocestoides sp.-1 was found in wild carnivores inhabiting in all ecoregion unless in the alpine, and Mesocestoides sp.-2 in the alpine, forest-steppe, steppe, and desert-steppe ecoregions.

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Wolf, red fox, corsac fox, and snow leopard were confirmed as definitive hosts for Mesocestoides species.

Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Serbia

Human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and environmental pollution lead to a reduction in the spatial boundary between wild animals, domestic animals and humans. These activities increase the risk for the emergence of pathogens from the sylvatic cycle in the population of domestic animals and humans. Foxes are recognized as potential reservoirs for a number of bacterial pathogens of medical and public health concern. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and spatial distribution of bacterial tick-borne pathogens from the Anaplasmataceae family, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.), Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii, Francisella tularensis, Bartonella spp., in the red fox population from Serbia and to discuss the obtained results from the epidemiological point of view. Legally hunted red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from 14 localities in Serbia were included in the study and spleen samples from 129 animals were tested with conventional PCR assays for the presence of bacterial tick-borne pathogens. DNA of Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98), Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia lusitaniae, and Borrelia garinii was detected in 6 (4.7%), 1 (0.8%), 2 (1.6%) and 1 (0.8%) animals, respectively. Co-infection by Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and B. garinii was detected in one animal. All samples were negative for other tested bacterial tick-borne pathogens. The results of the present study indicate the potential role of foxes in natural cycles of Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (FU98) and causative agents of Lyme borreliosis in the investigated areas. Further research is required to elucidate the role of foxes in the epidemiology of these and other tick-borne zoonotic pathogens in the Republic of Serbia.

Giardia Infection and Trypanosoma Cruzi Exposure in Dogs in the Bosawás Biosphere Reserve, Nicaragua

Indigenous Mayangna and Miskitu inhabit Nicaragua's remote Bosawás Biosphere Reserve, located in the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region. They are sedentary horticulturists who supplement their diet with wild game, hunting with the assistance of dogs. To test whether hunting dogs increased the risk of human exposure to protozoal zoonotic neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), we sampled dogs from three communities varying in population size and level of contact with other communities. We screened dog feces (n = 58) for Giardia and Cryptosporidium DNA and sera (n = 78) for Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies and DNA. Giardia DNA was detected in 22% (13/58) of samples; sequencing revealed the presence of both zoonotic genotypes (assemblages A and B) and dog-specific genotypes (assemblages C and D). Giardia shedding was associated with community and age. Older dogs and those in the two, more accessible communities had greater odds of shedding parasites. Seroprevalence of T. cruzi antibodies, indicating prior exposure, was 9% (7/78). These results contribute to the limited literature on NTDs in indigenous populations, and suggest hunting dogs can both serve as sentinels of environmental NTDs and pose zoonotic risk for their owners and communities.

ABSENCE OF PARVOVIRUS SHEDDING IN FECES OF THREATENED CARNIVORES FROM MISIONES, ARGENTINA

Since its emergence in the 1970s, canine parvovirus (CPV) has spread worldwide and infects a wide variety of mammalian hosts, including domestic and nondomestic carnivores. Today it is one of the most important pathogenic viruses associated with high morbidity and mortality in domestic dogs ( Canis familiaris). In South America, the range of wild hosts has been scarcely studied and the epidemiology of CPV in wildlife is still unclear. In 2011, feces from five wild carnivores (bush dog [ Speothos venaticus] , jaguar [ Panthera onca], puma [ Puma concolor], oncilla [ Leopardus guttulus], and ocelot [ Leopardus pardalis]) were collected in Misiones, Argentina, using a detection dog. Of the 289 feces collected, 209 (72.3%) had sufficient sample remaining to be used in this study and the majority of these were genetically confirmed to individual (81.3%) and sex (78.4%) level. In fact, these samples represent a minimum of 115 individuals (10 jaguars, 13 pumas, 33 ocelots, 38 oncillas, and 21 bush dogs). Through polymerase chain reaction, a 583-bp fragment in the VP2 gene of CPV was amplified in these samples. While no samples showed evidence of infection, this does not exclude the occurrence of CPV in wild carnivores in the area, as intermittent viral shedding could condition the diagnosis of CPV in feces of infected wild mammals. Locally, it is recommended that long-term monitoring of parvovirus be continued in wildlife and expanded to domestic carnivores. Internationally, this study provides a useful contribution to the approach to the sylvatic cycle of parvovirus in wild carnivores.

First report of Leishmania infantum infection in the endangered orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) in Madrid, Spain

Background

Some wild animals have been recognized as potential reservoirs of Leishmania infantum infection (e.g. carnivores, lagomorphs, rodents, etc.). Leishmania infantum was also identified infecting humans and lagomorphs (i.e. hares and rabbits) over the period of 2009–2016, with the latter acting as the main reservoirs involved in the human leishmaniosis outbreak in Madrid.

Results

Two cases of clinical leishmaniosis are reported in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) housed at two different centres in Madrid. The first is the case of a 36-year-old male orangutan with severe weight loss and apathy. A complete blood count and biochemical profile revealed anaemia, neutropenia, hypoalbuminaemia and elevated transaminases. Hepato-splenomegaly was also observed. Four months later, due to worsening of clinical signs (mainly bilateral epistaxis), blood and bone marrow samples were collected. Amastigotes of L. infantum were detected in macrophages from a bone marrow aspirate and by specific polymerase chain reaction. The second case was a 34-year-old female orangutan with severe weight loss and apathy and no other apparent clinical signs. A complete blood count and biochemical profile revealed anaemia, pancytopenia and hypoalbuminaemia. Splenomegaly and pericardial effusion were also observed. As leishmaniosis was included in the differential diagnosis, both blood and bone marrow samples were collected. Leishmania infantum infection was confirmed by microscopy, molecular diagnosis and serology (immunofluorescence antibody test). Both animals were treated daily with oral miltefosine for 28 days; allopurinol was also given uninterruptedly in Case 2 for at least 6 months. During follow-up, though good clinical recovery was clear, a lack of parasitological cure was confirmed molecularly in both blood and bone marrow samples from the two orangutans. In both habitats, the presence of the sand fly vector identified as Phlebotomus perniciosus was confirmed.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first report of L. infantum infection in great apes and in the endangered species P. p. pygmaeus. We are presently looking for L. infantum in other non-human primates living in the same peri-urban areas. If detected, we will examine the impacts of this serious disease on these critically endangered species.

Leishmania in wolves in northern Spain: A spreading zoonosis evidenced by wildlife sanitary surveillance

Leishmaniosis is, to date, considered the second most important emerging vector-borne protozoal disease in the world after malaria. The form of zoonotic visceral leishmaniosis found in the Mediterranean basin is caused by Leishmania infantum, and its life cycle includes the domestic dog and a phlebotomine sandfly vector. This complex epidemiological cycle and its high prevalence of subclinical infection, hinder the surveillance and control of L. infantum, and allows it to go unnoticed at the geographical endemicity limits of the parasite or in recently colonized areas. We, therefore, tested 102 wolves (Canis lupus) and 47 other wild carnivores in order to detect Leishmania DNA by means of PCR. Samples were collected from 2008 to 2014 in Asturias (northern Spain), a region considered non-endemic for the parasite. The results obtained provided valuable information regarding the prevalence of Leishmania in wild carnivores in Asturias and its geographic distribution in the region: an average prevalence of 33% for wolves and an overall prevalence of 40% for all the wild carnivores studied were reported, with a widespread presence of the parasite in the region and an apparent increase in its prevalence in wolves during the last decade. This suggests the usefulness of the wolf as a sentinel species for the detection and study of Leishmania in the field and confirms the value of wildlife sanitary surveillance programs for the detection and monitoring of hitherto disregarded diseases that affect domestic animals and humans.

Detection of Rickettsia massiliae/Bar29 and Rickettsia conorii in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and their Rhipicephalus sanguineus complex ticks

To determine the prevalence of exposure to Rickettsia massiliae/Bar29 and Rickettsia conorii in wild red foxes, we collected blood samples and ticks from 135 foxes shot in different game reserve areas in Catalonia. To detect SFG rickettsia in Rhipicephalus sanguineus complex ticks collected from the foxes, we used real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to screen for ompA gene and a tick-borne bacteria flow chip technique based on multiplex PCR. Serum samples were positive for antibodies against spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae in 68 (50.3%). Molecular techniques identified R. massiliae in 107 ticks, R. aeschlimannii in 3 ticks, and R. slovaca in one tick; no R. conorii was identified in any of the ticks analyzed. We conclude that red foxes can carry ticks with SFG rickettsia.

Hematology and serum biochemistry of free-ranging and captive Sechuran foxes (Lycalopex sechurae)

Background

Hematologic and serum biochemical reference values obtained from captive or free‐ranging wildlife populations may not be comparable as there can be significant variations due to preanalytic and analytic differences, including methods of capture and restraint, overall management in captivity including diet and composition of animal groups, and analytic methods being used. Hematology and serum biochemistry have never been studied in captive or free‐ranging populations of Sechuran foxes (Lycalopex sechurae).

Objectives

The purposes of the study were to determine hematologic and serum biochemical RI in Sechuran foxes and to explore differences in these variables related to sex and overall life circumstances.

Methods

Blood samples were obtained from 15 free‐ranging and 15 captive Sechuran foxes. Hematology variables were assessed by blood smear examination and automated analyzer methodology. Serum biochemical analysis was performed by automated analyzer methodology. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable. Data obtained from free‐ranging and captive groups were statistically compared and RIs were calculated.

Results

Captive Sechuran foxes had significantly (P < .05) higher MCH, MCHC, and eosinophil counts and significantly lower band neutrophil counts than free‐ranging foxes. Free‐ranging Sechuran foxes had significantly (P < .05) higher serum lipase and globulins and significantly lower albumin, total bilirubin, and indirect bilirubin than captive foxes.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that there are hematologic and serum biochemical differences between captive and free‐ranging Sechuran fox populations. Hence, such differences should be considered when using these variables to assess the health status of this species.

Dental Pathology of the Grey Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)

Museum specimens from 637 grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria. Of the 637 specimens, 569 were included for further examination. The study population included more males (n = 261, 45.9%) than females (n = 196, 34.4%) and animals of unknown sex (n = 112, 19.7%). Additionally, 481 (84.5%) adults, 67 (11.8%) young adults and 21 (3.7%) individuals of unknown age comprised the study population, with juveniles and neonates excluded. The number of teeth present for examination was 23,066 (96.5%) with 624 (2.6%) absent artefactually, 15 (0.06%) absent congenitally and 193 (0.8%) lost ante mortem through acquired tooth loss. No persistent deciduous teeth or temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis were found in any of the specimens. Ten supernumerary teeth from nine (1.6%) specimens were encountered. Teeth with extra roots were found in 61 individuals (10.7%), with 0.4% of all teeth affected. Of the alveoli examined, 1,529 (6.4%) displayed bony changes suggestive of periodontitis, with 276 (48.7%) of individuals affected. Significantly more adults were affected by bony changes associated with stage 3 periodontitis than young adults. All specimens displaying stage 4 periodontitis were adults. Fractures affected 446 (78.4%) of the specimens examined and 3,554 (15.4%) of teeth present. Almost half (n = 10,856, 47.1%) of the teeth available for examination and most specimens (n = 487, 85.6%) displayed some degree of attrition or abrasion. Two individuals (0.4%) exhibited periapical lesions. Traumatic skull injuries affected 56 (9.8%) specimens. Characterizing the dental pathology in the grey fox provides key insight into the ecology of the species and factors contributing to fitness.

A synoptic overview of golden jackal parasites reveals high diversity of species

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) is a species under significant and fast geographic expansion. Various parasites are known from golden jackals across their geographic range, and certain groups can be spread during their expansion, increasing the risk of cross-infection with other carnivores or even humans. The current list of the golden jackal parasites includes 194 species and was compiled on the basis of an extensive literature search published from historical times until April 2017, and is shown herein in synoptic tables followed by critical comments of the various findings. This large variety of parasites is related to the extensive geographic range, territorial mobility and a very unselective diet. The vast majority of these parasites are shared with domestic dogs or cats. The zoonotic potential is the most important aspect of species reported in the golden jackal, some of them, such as Echinococcus spp., hookworms, Toxocara spp., or Trichinella spp., having a great public health impact. Our review brings overwhelming evidence on the importance of Canis aureus as a wild reservoir of human and animal parasites.

Occurrence and diversity of arthropod-transmitted pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in western Austria, and possible vertical (transplacental) transmission of Hepatozoon canis

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most abundant wild canid species in Austria, and it is a well-known carrier of many pathogens of medical and veterinary concern. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the occurrence and diversity of protozoan, bacterial and filarial parasites transmitted by blood-feeding arthropods in a red fox population in western Austria. Blood (n = 351) and spleen (n = 506) samples from foxes were examined by PCR and sequencing and the following pathogens were identified: Babesia canis, Babesia cf. microti (syn. Theileria annae), Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. and Bartonella rochalimae. Blood was shown to be more suitable for detection of Babesia cf. microti, whilst the spleen tissue was better for detection of H. canis than blood. Moreover, extremely low genetic variability of H. canis and its relatively low prevalence rate observed in this study may suggest that the parasite has only recently been introduced in the sampled area. Furthermore, the data presented here demonstrates, for the first time, the possible vertical transmission of H. canis from an infected vixen to the offspring, and this could explain the very high prevalence in areas considered free of its main tick vector(s).

Parasite species of the endangered Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and a sympatric widespread carnivore

Parasites have a profound impact on wildlife population dynamics. However, until some years ago, studies on the occurrence and prevalence of wildlife parasites were neglected comparatively with the studies on humans and domestic animals. In this study, we determined the parasite prevalence of two sympatric wild canids: the endangered Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and the widespread red fox (Vulpes vulpes), in central Portugal. From November 2014 to July 2015, fresh fecal samples from both species were collected monthly in several transects distributed throughout the study area. All samples were submitted to several coprological techniques. In total, 6 helminth parasites (Crenosoma vulpis, Angiostrongylus vasorum, Toxocara canis, Trichuris vulpis, Ancylostomatidae, Toxascaris leonina), and a protozoa (Balantidium coli) were identified based on size and morphology. The red fox was infected by seven different parasites while the Iberian wolf was infected by four. All parasites present in wolf were also present in the red fox. C. vulpis had the higher prevalence in red fox, while Ancylostomatidae were the most prevalent parasites in wolf. To our knowledge, this is the first study in this isolated subpopulation of the Iberian wolf. Our results show that both carnivores carry parasites that are of concern as they are pathogenic to humans and other wild and domestic animals. We suggest that surveillance programs must also include monitoring protocols of wildlife; particularly endangered species.

Role of golden jackals (Canis aureus) as natural reservoirs of Dirofilaria spp. in Romania

BACKGROUND

Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens are mosquito-transmitted zoonotic nematodes, causing heartworm disease and skin lesions, respectively, in carnivores. In Europe, the domestic dog is apparently the main definitive host, but patent infections occur also in other species of carnivores. The rapid spread of the golden jackals (Canis aureus) throughout Europe opens a question of involvement of this species in the sylvatic cycle of pathogens in the colonised territories, including Dirofilaria spp.

METHODS

Between January 2014 and May 2015, 54 golden jackals from 18 localities in Romania were examined by full necropsy for the presence of adult filarioid nematodes and blood samples from all animals were screened for the presence of microfilariae of D. immitis, D. repens and Acanthocheilonema reconditum by multiplex PCR DNA amplification.

RESULTS

Nematodes morphologically identified as D. immitis were found in 18.52% of the animals, originating from the southern part of Romania. No D. repens or A. reconditum were found at necropsy. The molecular prevalence in blood samples from the same animals was 9.26% for D. immitis and 1.85% for D. repens. All samples were negative by PCR for A. reconditum.

CONCLUSION

The relatively high prevalence of Dirofilaria spp. infections in golden jackals from Romania together with the increasing density of the jackal populations highlight their potential role in the transmission of these zoonotic parasites and in the maintenance of natural disease foci.

Urbanization, Grassland, and Diet Influence Coyote (Canis latrans) Parasitism Structure

Land use change can alter the ecological mechanisms that influence infectious disease exposure in animal populations. However, few studies have empirically integrated the environmental, spatial, and dietary patterns of wildlife epidemiology. We investigate how urbanization, habitat type, and dietary behavior are associated with coyote (Canis latrans) parasitism structure along a gradient of rural to urban land cover using multivariate redundancy analyses. Coyote fecal samples were collected in eight urban and six rural sites in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Parasite and diet components were identified using common flotation procedures and fecal dietary analysis, respectively. Redundancy analysis was used to identify the best land cover, connectivity, and dietary predictors. We tested for significance using multiple permutation tests and ANOVAs. Significant factors affecting enteric parasite prevalence included dietary and land cover factors (R (2) = 0.4130, P < 0.05). Variation in dietary behavior was observed between urban and rural sites (R (2) = 0.4712, P < 0.05), as anthropogenic diet items (i.e., garbage, crabapples) were strongly influenced by urbanization. Our research supports that developed habitat, grassland cover, and dietary choice interact to possibly influence the exposure of coyote hosts to enteric parasites and pioneers future investigation of disease ecology for natural populations in anthropogenic landscapes.

Wild Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) as Sentinels of Parasitic Diseases in the Province of Soria, Northern Spain

Four hundred red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were examined for ecto- (arthropods) and endoparasites (Leishmania spp., Trichinella spp., and intestinal parasites). Different species of flea (total prevalence, 40.50%), tick (16.25%), mite (7.25%), and fly (1.50%) were identified. The most prevalent flea was Pulex irritans (found on 29% of the foxes); the most prevalent tick, mite, and fly were Ixodes canisuga (on 5%), Sarcoptes scabiei (on 5.25%), and Hippobosca equina (on 1%), respectively. The endoparasites identified included Leishmania spp. (found in 12% of the foxes), Trichinella spp. (in 15.5%, with T. britovi the most prevalent species in 15.25%), Cestoda (in 72.75%, with Mesocestoides spp. the most prevalent in 69.50%), and intestinal ascarids (in 73.25%, with Ancylostoma caninum the most prevalent in 12.50%). No animal was free of parasites. The present results suggest that foxes can act as sentinels of diseases transmitted by ecto- and endoparasites.

Pearsonema plica (Capillaria plica) infection and associated urinary bladder pathology in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Bosnia and Herzegovina

Pearsonema plica is a widely distributed nematode parasite that occurs in the urinary tract of various domestic and wild carnivores. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and geographical distribution of P. plica and associated urinary bladder pathology in 112 red foxes (70 males, 42 females; 87 adults >1 year, 25 juveniles <1 year) from six different geographical regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The urinary bladders of the red foxes were subjected to gross examination and histopathology. Urine content (n = 40) and mucosal smears (n = 71) of the urinary bladders were examined microscopically for the presence of P. plica. Overall, adults and eggs of P. plica were detected in 65 (58.0 %; 95% CI 48.9-67.2%) of the foxes. Out of the positive foxes, 42 were males (64.6%) and 23 females (35.3%). According to age, 49 adults (75.3%) and 16 juveniles (24.6%) were positive. There were no statistically significant differences in the infection prevalence between the geographical regions (p = 0.701), sex (p = 0.693), or age (p = 0.646) of the host. Also, no significant differences in the prevalence of parasites in urine content (48.7%; 20/41) and mucosal smears (63.3%; 45/71) were observed (p = 0.165). Eosinophilic cystitis characterized with mild to severe infiltrates of eosinophils in the propria of the bladder mucosa accompanied by hyperemia and edema was observed in 36 examined foxes, 24 of which were P. plica positive. Parasites attached and embedded into the mucosa and free in the lumen were recorded in both cystitis positive and negative foxes. Beside clear numerical differences, the influence of P. plica infection on the occurrence of cystitis was not significant (p = 0.309). The results of this study give the first insight into the distribution of P. plica infection among the red fox population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Observed microscopic changes may contribute toward a better understanding of pathology caused by this widely distributed parasite in free-ranging red foxes.

A molecular survey of vector-borne pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Bosnia and Herzegovina

BACKGROUND

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have recently been recognized as potential reservoirs of several vector-borne pathogens and a source of infection for domestic dogs and humans, mostly due to their close vicinity to urban areas and frequent exposure to different arthropod vectors. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and distribution of Babesia spp., Hepatozoon canis, Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., 'Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis', Ehrlichia canis, Rickettsia spp. and blood filaroid nematodes in free-ranging red foxes from Bosnia and Herzegovina.

METHODS

Spleen samples from a total of 119 red foxes, shot during the hunting season between October 2013 and April 2014 throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina, were examined for the presence of blood vector-borne pathogens by conventional PCRs and sequencing.

RESULTS

In the present study, three species of apicomplexan parasites were molecularly identified in 73 red foxes from the entire sample area, with an overall prevalence of 60.8%. The DNA of B. canis, B. cf. microti and H. canis was found in 1 (0.8%), 38 (31.9%) and 46 (38.6%) spleen samples, respectively. In 11 samples (9.2%) co-infections with B. cf. microti and H. canis were detected and one fox harboured all three parasites (0.8%). There were no statistically significant differences between geographical region, sex or age of the host in the infection prevalence of B. cf. microti, although females (52.9%; 18/34) were significantly more infected with H. canis than males (32.9%; 28/85). The presence of vector-borne bacteria and filaroid nematodes was not detected in our study.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report of B. canis, B. cf. microti and H. canis parasites in foxes from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the data presented here provide a first insight into the distribution of these pathogens among the red fox population. Moreover, the relatively high prevalence of B. cf. microti and H. canis reinforces the assumption that this wild canid species might be a possible reservoir and source of infection for domestic dogs.

Wildlife parasites in a One Health world

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One Health emphasizes the interdependence of human, animal, and environmental health.

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Wildlife parasites are ubiquitous; how do we decide which are One Health issues?

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We propose questions to help to prioritize wildlife parasites in a One Health context.

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We suggest principles for taking action on wildlife parasites with One Health significance.

One Health has gained a remarkable profile in the animal and public health communities, in part owing to the pressing issues of emerging infectious diseases of wildlife origin. Wildlife parasitology can offer insights into One Health, and likewise One Health can provide justification to study and act on wildlife parasites. But how do we decide which wildlife parasites are One Health issues? We explore toxoplasmosis in wildlife in the Canadian Arctic as an example of a parasite that poses a risk to human health, and that also has potential to adversely affect wildlife populations of conservation concern and importance for food security and cultural well-being. This One Health framework can help communities, researchers, and policymakers prioritize issues for action in a resource-limited world.