The roles of the classical and alternative nuclear factor-kappaB pathways: potential implications for autoimmunity and rheumatoid arthritis

The impacts of obesity in rheumatoid arthritis and insights into therapeutic purinergic modulation

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune condition responsible for the impairment of synovia and joints, endangering the functionality of individuals and contributing to mortality. Currently, obesity is increasing worldwide, and recent studies have suggested an association between such condition and RA. In this sense, obese individuals present a lower capacity for achieving remission and present more intense symptoms of the disease, demonstrating a link between both disorders. Different studies aim to understand the possible connection between the conditions; however, few is known in this sense. Therefore, knowing that obesity can alter the activity of multiple body systems, this work's objective is to evaluate the main modifications caused by obesity, which can be linked to the pathophysiology of RA, highlighting as relevant topics obesity's negative impact triggering systemic inflammation, intestinal dysbiosis, endocrine disbalances. Furthermore, the relationship between oxidative stress and obesity also deserves to be highlighted, considering the influence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in RA exacerbation. Additionally, many of those characteristics influenced by obesity, along with the classic peculiarities of RA pathophysiology, can also be associated with purinergic signaling. Hence, this work suggests possible connections between the purinergic system and RA, proposing potential therapeutic targets against RA to be studied.

Immunomodulatory Compounds from the Sea: From the Origins to a Modern Marine Pharmacopoeia

From sea shores to the abysses of the deep ocean, marine ecosystems have provided humanity with valuable medicinal resources. The use of marine organisms is discussed in ancient pharmacopoeias of different times and geographic regions and is still deeply rooted in traditional medicine. Thanks to present-day, large-scale bioprospecting and rigorous screening for bioactive metabolites, the ocean is coming back as an untapped resource of natural compounds with therapeutic potential. This renewed interest in marine drugs is propelled by a burgeoning research field investigating the molecular mechanisms by which newly identified compounds intervene in the pathophysiology of human diseases. Of great clinical relevance are molecules endowed with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties with emerging applications in the management of chronic inflammatory disorders, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Here, we review the historical development of marine pharmacology in the Eastern and Western worlds and describe the status of marine drug discovery. Finally, we discuss the importance of conducting sustainable exploitation of marine resources through biotechnology.

Lipid mediators obtained from docosahexaenoic acid by soybean lipoxygenase attenuate RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory disease characterized by persistent inflammation and joint destruction. A lipid mediator (LM, namely, 17S-monohydroxy docosahexaenoic acid, resolvin D5, and protectin DX in a ratio of 3:47:50) produced by soybean lipoxygenase from DHA, exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. In this study, we determined the effect of LM on collagen antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA) in mice and receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast formation in RAW264.7 cells. LM effectively downregulated the expression of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) and cathepsin K, inhibited osteoclast formation, and suppressed the NF-κB signaling pathway in vitro. In vivo, LM at 10 μg/kg/day significantly decreased paw swelling and inhibited progression of arthritis in CAIA mice. Moreover, proinflammatory cytokine (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, IL-17, and interferon-γ) levels in serum were decreased, whereas IL-10 levels were increased following LM treatment. Furthermore, LM alleviated joint inflammation, cartilage erosion, and bone destruction in the ankles, which may be related to matrix metalloproteinase and Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activators of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway. Our findings suggest that LM attenuates arthritis severity, restores serum imbalances, and modifies joint damage. Thus, LM represents a promising therapy for relieving RA symptoms.

Nano-platform Strategies of Herbal Components for the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Review on the Battle for Next-Generation Formulations

INTRODUCTION

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease that initially affects small joints and then spreads to the bigger joints. It also affects other organs of the body such as lungs, eyes, kidneys, heart, and skin. In RA, there is destruction of cartilage and joints, and ligaments and tendons become brittle. Damage to the joints leads to abnormalities and bone degradation, which may be quite painful for the patient.

METHOD

The nano-carriers such as liposomes, phytosomes, nanoparticles, microcapsules, and niosomes are developed to deliver the encapsulated phytoconstituents to targeted sites for the better management of RA.

RESULTS

The phytoconstituents loaded nano-carriers have been used in order to increase bioavailability, stability and reduce the dose of an active compound. In one study, the curcumin-loaded phytosomes increase the bioavailability of curcumin and also provides relief from RA symptoms. The drug-loaded nano-carriers are the better option for the management of RA.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, there are many anti-arthritic herbal and synthetic medicine available in the market that are currently used in the treatment of RA. However, chronic use of these medications may result in a variety of side effects. Because therapy for RA is frequently necessary for the rest of ones life. The use of natural products may be a better option for RA management. These phytoconstituents, however, have several disadvantages, including limited bioavailability, low stability, and the need for a greater dosage. These problems can be rectified by using nano-technology.

The Clinical Promise of Microalgae in Rheumatoid Arthritis: From Natural Compounds to Recombinant Therapeutics

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an invalidating chronic autoimmune disorder characterized by joint inflammation and progressive bone damage. Dietary intervention is an important component in the treatment of RA to mitigate oxidative stress, a major pathogenic driver of the disease. Alongside traditional sources of antioxidants, microalgae-a diverse group of photosynthetic prokaryotes and eukaryotes-are emerging as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory food supplements. Several species accumulate therapeutic metabolites-mainly lipids and pigments-which interfere in the pro-inflammatory pathways involved in RA and other chronic inflammatory conditions. The advancement of the clinical uses of microalgae requires the continuous exploration of phytoplankton biodiversity and chemodiversity, followed by the domestication of wild strains into reliable producers of said metabolites. In addition, the tractability of microalgal genomes offers unprecedented possibilities to establish photosynthetic microbes as light-driven biofactories of heterologous immunotherapeutics. Here, we review the evidence-based anti-inflammatory mechanisms of microalgal metabolites and provide a detailed coverage of the genetic engineering strategies to enhance the yields of endogenous compounds and to develop innovative bioproducts.

Molecular pathways of NF-ĸB and NLRP3 inflammasome as potential targets in the treatment of inflammation in diabetic wounds: A review

Diabetic wounds are slow healing wounds characterized by disordered healing processes and frequently take longer than three months to heal. One of the defining characteristics of impaired diabetic wound healing is an abnormal and unresolved inflammatory response, which is primarily brought on by abnormal macrophage innate immune signaling activation. The persistent inflammatory state in a diabetic wound may be attributed to inflammatory pathways such as nuclear factor kappa B (NF-ĸB) and nod-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, which have long been associated with inflammatory diseases. Despite the available treatments for diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) that include debridement, growth factor therapy, and topical anti-bacterial agents, successful wound healing is still hampered. Further understanding of the molecular mechanism of these pathways could be useful in designing potential therapeutic targets for diabetic wound healing. This review provides an update and novel insights into the roles of NF-ĸB and NLRP3 pathways in the molecular mechanism of diabetic wound inflammation and their potential as therapeutic targets in diabetic wound healing.

Characterization of potential probiotic starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria isolated from Ethiopian fermented cereal beverages, Naaqe, and Cheka

AIMS

To test the in vitro probiotic potential and starter culture capacity of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from Naaqe and Cheka, cereal-based Ethiopian traditional fermented beverages.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A total of 44 strains were isolated from spontaneously fermented Ethiopian cereal-based beverages, Naaqe and Cheka with 24 putatively identified as LAB and 14 identified up to the species level. The species Limosilactobacillus fermentum (6/12; 50%) and Weissella confusa (5/12, 41.67%) were the predominant species identified from Naaqe, while the two Cheka isolates were L. fermentum and Pediococcus pentosaceus. Six LAB strains inhibited eight of the nine gastrointestinal indicator key pathogens in Ethiopia, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica var. Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella flexneri, and Listeria monocytogenes. Three of the LAB isolates exhibited strain-specific immunostimulation in human monocytes. Based on these probiotic properties and growth, six strains were selected for in situ evaluation in a mock fermentation of Naaqe and Cheka. During primary fermentations, L. fermentum 73B, P. pentosaceus 74D, L. fermentum 44B, W. confusa 44D, L. fermentum 82C, and Weissella cibaria 83E and their combinations demonstrated higher pH-lowering properties and colony-forming unit counts compared to the control spontaneous fermentation. The same pattern was also observed in the secondary mock fermentation by the Naaqe LAB isolates.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we selected six LAB strains with antipathogenic, immunostimulatory, and starter culture potentials that can be used as autochthonous probiotic starters for Naaqe and Cheka fermentations once their health benefit is ascertained in a clinical trial as a next step.

A novel drug combination of Tofacitinib and Iguratimod alleviates rheumatoid arthritis and secondary osteoporosis

BACKGROUND

The inadequate response of some patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) to current therapies is an issue that needs to be addressed. Patients with refractory RA (RRA) are often accompanied by high Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) expression. We evaluated the synergistic therapeutic effects of the combination of Iguratimod (IGU) and Tofacitinib (TOF) on RRA and secondary osteoporosis.

METHODS

Pathological changes in the ankle joints of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) + TNF model rats were assessed using hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunofluorescence (IF) were used to evaluate pyroptosis-related protein levels in the synovial tissues. Moreover, the knee joint was investigated by performing HE staining, IHC, and micro-computed tomography. Furthermore, in vitro, western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were performed to detect the effects of TOF and IGU on TNF-α-induced pyroptosis in fibroblast-like synoviocytes of RA.

RESULTS

After treatment with TOF and/or IGU, the arthritis scores, inflammatory cell infiltration in synovial tissues, and levels of interleukin (IL)-18, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the plasma were remarkably increased in the CIA + TNF model and dramatically decreased in the combination group. The expression of pyroptosis-related proteins was significantly lower in the combination group than in the CIA + TNF group, and a consistent trend was observed in vitro. Bone destruction was significantly alleviated, and the bone turnover rate was remarkably increased in the combination group compared to that in the CIA + TNF model.

CONCLUSION

TOF + IGU alleviated the severity of RRA in the CIA + TNF rat model, relieving joint inflammation, reducing bone erosion, and suppressing pyroptosis. The combined application of TOF and IGU may have a superimposed therapeutic effect on RRA and secondary osteoporotic bone remodeling.

Melittin acupoint injection in attenuating bone erosion in collagen-induced arthritis mice via inhibition of the RANKL/NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease leading to chronic joint inflammation. Bone erosion is the most serious pathological condition of RA and the main cause of joint deformities and disability. Melittin acupoint injection (MAI) is an effective traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) method for RA treatment. This study aimed to investigate the effect of MAI on RA bone erosion and to elucidate the underlying mechanism.

Methods

A collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model was established as the experimental subject. MAI was administrated once every other day for 28 days to mice with CIA. The effects of MAI on joint diseases were assessed by body weight, arthritis index (AI) score, swollen joint count (SJC) score, and hind paw thickness. Ankle radiological changes were captured by micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and histological changes were observed by pathological staining. Organ histological changes, spleen index, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and creatinine (Crea) levels of serum were tested to evaluate the toxicity of MAI. Cytokine expression levels were confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to evaluate the immunity of CIA mice.

Results

MAI administration markedly improved the clinical signs of CIA in mice, including hind paw thickness, AI, and the number of swollen paw joints (most of them P<0.05 or even <0.01). According to histopathological analysis, MAI ameliorated inflammatory cell infiltration, synovial hyperplasia, pannus formation, and bone erosion (all P<0.01). Micro-CT and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining (P<0.01) also revealed that MAI could relieve bone erosion via reducing the formation of osteoclasts. Not only could MAI relieve the immunological boost [P<0.05 for the high-dose MAI (HM) group], but also it had no liver or kidney side effects (P>0.05). In addition, it decreased the serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and increased the serum levels of IL-4 and IL-10 (the majority of P<0.05 or even <0.01). Transcriptome sequencing results indicated that MAI affected the expression of osteoclast differentiation pathway genes, which was connected with the receptor activator of the nuclear factor κB ligand/nuclear factor kappa B (RANKL/NF-κB) pathway.

Conclusions

Based on our findings, MAI could suppress joint inflammation and inhibit RANKL/NF-κB-mediated osteoclast differentiation to rescue bone erosion in CIA mice, suggesting that MAI can be a potentially therapeutic substance for RA.

NF-κB: a mediator that promotes or inhibits angiogenesis in human diseases?

The nuclear factor of κ-light chain of enhancer-activated B cells (NF-κB) signaling pathway, which is conserved in invertebrates, plays a significant role in human diseases such as inflammation-related diseases and carcinogenesis. Angiogenesis refers to the growth of new capillary vessels derived from already existing capillaries and postcapillary venules. Maintaining normal angiogenesis and effective vascular function is a prerequisite for the stability of organ tissue function, and abnormal angiogenesis often leads to a variety of diseases. It has been suggested that NK-κB signalling molecules under pathological conditions play an important role in vascular differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis and tumourigenesis by regulating the transcription of multiple target genes. Many NF-κB inhibitors are being tested in clinical trials for cancer treatment and their effect on angiogenesis is summarised. In this review, we will summarise the role of NF-κB signalling in various neovascular diseases, especially in tumours, and explore whether NF-κB can be used as an attack target or activation medium to inhibit tumour angiogenesis.

Therapeutic effects of columbianadin from Angelicae Pubescentis radix on the progression of collagen-induced rheumatoid aarthritis by regulating inflammation and oxidative stress

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Angelicae pubescentis radix (APR) has a long history in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in China. It has the effects of dispelling wind to eliminate dampness, removing arthralgia and stopping pain in the Chinese Pharmacopeia, but its mechanisms was remained unclear. Columbianadin (CBN), one of the main bioactive compounds of APR, was reported that it has many pharmacological effects including anti-inflammatory and immunosuppression. However, little study has been investigated therapeutic effect of CBN on RA.

AIM OF THE STUDY

A comprehensive strategy via incorporating pharmacodynamics, microbiomics, metabolomics, and multiple molecular biological methods was adopted to evaluated the therapeutic effects of CBN on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice and explored the potential mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A variety of pharmacodynamic methods were used to evaluate the therapeutic effect of CBN on CIA mice. The microbial and metabolic characteristics of CBN anti-RA were obtained by metabolomics and 16S rRNA sequencing technology. The potential mechanism of CBN anti-RA was predicted through bioinformatics network analysis, and verified by a variety of molecular biology methods.

RESULTS

CBN effectively improve symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis in CIA mice, including paw swelling and arthritic scores. The inflammatory factors and oxidative stress markers were effectively regulated by the treatment of CBN. The fecal microbial communities and serum and urine metabolic compositions were significantly altered in CIA mice, CBN ameliorated the CIA-associated gut microbiota dysbiosis, and regulated the disturbance of serum and urine metabolome and reversed the changes of key CIA and gut microbiota-related metabolites. The acute toxicity test, results showed that the LD50 of CBN is greater than 2000 mg kg^-1, which confirmed the security of CBN.

CONCLUSIONS

CBN exert anti-RA effects from four perspectives: inhibiting inflammatory response, regulating oxidative stress, and improving changes in gut microbiota and metabolites. The JAK1/STAT3, NF-κB and Keap1/Nrf2 pathway may be an important mechanism for CBN's inflammatory response and oxidative stress activity. CBN could be considered as a potential anti-RA drug for further study.

The chaperone system in cancer therapies: Hsp90

The chaperone system (CS) of an organism is composed of molecular chaperones, chaperone co-factors, co-chaperones, and chaperone receptors and interactors. It is present throughout the body but with distinctive features for each cell and tissue type. Previous studies pertaining to the CS of the salivary glands have determined the quantitative and distribution patterns for several members, the chaperones, in normal and diseased glands, focusing on tumors. Chaperones are cytoprotective, but can also be etiopathogenic agents causing diseases, the chaperonopathies. Some chaperones such as Hsp90 potentiate tumor growth, proliferation, and metastasization. Quantitative data available on this chaperone in salivary gland tissue with inflammation, and benign and malignant tumors suggest that assessing tissue Hsp90 levels and distribution patterns is useful for differential diagnosis-prognostication, and patient follow up. This, in turn, will reveal clues for developing specific treatment centered on the chaperone, for instance by inhibiting its pro-carcinogenic functions (negative chaperonotherapy). Here, we review data on the carcinogenic mechanisms of Hsp90 and their inhibitors. Hsp90 is the master regulator of the PI3K-Akt-NF-kB axis that promotes tumor cell proliferation and metastasization. We discuss pathways and interactions involving these molecular complexes in tumorigenesis and review Hsp90 inhibitors that have been tested in search of an efficacious anti-cancer agent. This targeted therapy deserves extensive investigation in view of its theoretical potential and some positive practical results and considering the need of novel treatments for tumors of the salivary glands as well as other tissues.

Antibacterial and Immunostimulatory Activity of Potential Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Ethiopian Fermented Dairy Products

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) form a group of bacteria to which most probiotics belong and are commonly found in fermented dairy products. Fermented foods and beverages are foods made through desired microbial growth and enzymatic conversions of food components. In this study, 43 LAB were isolated from Ethiopian traditional cottage cheese, cheese, and yogurt and evaluated for their functional and safety properties as candidate probiotics. Twenty-seven isolates, representative of each fermented food type, were selected and identified to the species level. Limosilactobacillus fermentum was found to be the predominant species in all samples studied (70.4%), while 11.1% of isolates were identified as Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. All 27 isolates tested showed resistance to 0.5% bile salt, while 26 strains were resistant to pH 3. The LAB isolates were also evaluated for antagonistic properties against key pathogens, with strain-specific features observed for their antimicrobial activity. Five strains from cottage cheese (Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 54B, 54C, and 55A, Lactiplantibacillus pentosus 55B, and Pediococcus pentosaceus 95E) showed inhibitory activity against indicator pathogens that are key causes of gastrointestinal infections in Ethiopia, i.e., Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica var. Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella flexneri, and Listeria monocytogenes. Strain-specific immunomodulatory activity monitored as nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and interferon regulatory factor (IRF) activation was documented for Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 54B, 55A and P. pentosaceus 95E. Antibiotic susceptibility testing confirmed that all LAB isolates were safe concerning their antibiotic resistance profiles. Five isolates (especially Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 54B, 54C, and 55A, Lactiplantibacillus pentosus 55B, and P. pentosaceus 95E) showed promising results in all assays and are novel probiotic candidates of interest for clinical trial follow-up.

Biological impact of sequential exposures to allergens and ultrafine particle-rich combustion aerosol on human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells at the air liquid interface

The prevalence of allergic diseases is constantly increasing since few decades. Anthropogenic ultrafine particles (UFPs) and allergenic aerosols is highly involved in this increase; however, the underlying cellular mechanisms are not yet understood. Studies observing these effects focused mainly on singular in vivo or in vitro exposures of single particle sources, while there is only limited evidence on their subsequent or combined effects. Our study aimed at evaluating the effect of subsequent exposures to allergy-related anthropogenic and biogenic aerosols on cellular mechanism exposed at air-liquid interface (ALI) conditions. Bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells were exposed to UFP-rich combustion aerosols for 2 h with or without allergen pre-exposure to birch pollen extract (BPE) or house dust mite extract (HDME). The physicochemical properties of the generated particles were characterized by state-of-the-art analytical instrumentation. We evaluated the cellular response in terms of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and in-depth gene expression profiling. We observed that single exposures with UFP, BPE, and HDME cause genotoxicity. Exposure to UFP induced pro-inflammatory canonical pathways, shifting to a more xenobiotic-related response with longer preincubation time. With additional allergen exposure, the modulation of pro-inflammatory and xenobiotic signaling was more pronounced and appeared faster. Moreover, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling activation showed to be an important feature of UFP toxicity, which was especially pronounced upon pre-exposure. In summary, we were able to demonstrate the importance of subsequent exposure studies to understand realistic exposure situations and to identify possible adjuvant allergic effects and the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Establishment and verification of a nomogram and a preliminary study on predicting the clinical response of conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (csDMARDs) in rheumatoid arthritis patients

Background

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoinflammatory disease, its core treatment principle is to achieve remission as soon as possible. There is no good prediction model that can accurately predict the remission rate of patients to choose a good treatment scheme. Here, we aimed to verify the prognostic value of some inflammatory indicators in RA and establish a prediction model to predict the remission rate after treatment.

Methods

A total of 223 patients were enrolled at Qilu Hospital from June 2014 to June 2020. Baseline clinical data were collected and plasma was obtained to detect the inflammatory indicators. All patients were treated with conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (csDMARDs). All patients were followed up and were recorded the time to reach the disease activity score-28 with erythrocyte sedimentation rate (DAS28-ESR) of <2.6. A total of 156 patients were randomly assigned to the development cohort, and 67 patients were assigned to the validation cohort. Inflammatory indicators in plasma were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The predictive factors were screeded by using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) and Cox regression. The model was created and verified by using the standard method. A total of 6 independent risk factors were analyzed to construct a nomogram to predict the remission rate in 3, 6 and 12 months.

Results

The remission rates after treatment in 3, 6 and 12 months were 38.76%, 58.91%, and 81.40%, respectively. Patient age, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin (IL)-6, galectin-9 (Gal-9), health assessment questionnaire (HAQ), and DAS28-ESR were included in the prognostic model to predict the remission rate. The resulting model had good discrimination ability in both the development cohort (C-index, 0.729) and the validation cohort (C-index, 0.710). Time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, calibration analysis, and decision curve analysis (DCA) showed that the model has significant discriminant power and clinical practicability in predicting the remission rate.

Conclusions

We established a new predictive model and validated it. The model can predict the remission rate in 3, 6 and 12 months after receiving csDMARDs treatment. By using this model, we can facilitate the identification of high-risk patients early and intervene with them as soon as possible.

The Chaperone System in Salivary Glands: Hsp90 Prospects for Differential Diagnosis and Treatment of Malignant Tumors

Salivary gland tumors represent a serious medical problem and new tools for differential diagnosis and patient monitoring are needed. Here, we present data and discuss the potential of molecular chaperones as biomarkers and therapeutic targets, focusing on Hsp10 and Hsp90. The salivary glands are key physiological elements but, unfortunately, the information and the means available for the management of their pathologies, including cancer, are scarce. Progress in the study of carcinogenesis has occurred on various fronts lately, one of which has been the identification of the chaperone system (CS) as a physiological system with presence in all cells and tissues (including the salivary glands) that plays a role in tumor-cell biology. The chief components of the CS are the molecular chaperones, some of which belong to families of evolutionarily related molecules named heat shock protein (Hsp). We are quantifying and mapping these molecular chaperones in salivary glands to determine their possible role in the carcinogenetic mechanisms in these glands and to assess their potential as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Here, we report recent findings on Hsp10 and Hsp90 and show that the quantitative and topographic patterns of tissue Hsp90 are distinctive of malignant tumors and differentiate benign from malignant lesions. The Hsp90 results show a correlation between quantity of chaperone and tumor progression, which in turn calls for negative chaperonotherapy, namely, elimination/inhibition of the chaperone to stop the tumor. We found that in vitro, the Hsp90 inhibitor Ganetespib is cytotoxic for the salivary gland UM-HACC-2A cell line. The drug, by interfering with the pro-survival NF-κB pathway, hampers cellular proliferation and migration, and favors apoptosis, and can, therefore, be considered a suitable candidate for future experimentation to develop a treatment for salivary gland tumors.

Interplay of Environmental, Individual and Genetic Factors in Rheumatoid Arthritis Provocation

In this review, we explore systemization of knowledge about the triggering effects of non-genetic factors in pathogenic mechanisms that contribute to the development of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Possible mechanisms involving environmental and individual factors in RA pathogenesis were analyzed, namely, infections, mental stress, sleep deprivation ecology, age, perinatal and gender factors, eating habits, obesity and smoking. The non-genetic factors modulate basic processes in the body with the impact of these factors being non-specific, but these common challenges may be decisive for advancement of the disease in the predisposed body at risk for RA. The provocation of this particular disease is associated with the presence of congenital loci minoris resistentia. The more frequent non-genetic factors form tangles of interdependent relationships and, thereby, several interdependent external factors hit one vulnerable basic process at once, either provoking or reinforcing each other. Understanding the specific mechanisms by which environmental and individual factors impact an individual under RA risk in the preclinical stages can contribute to early disease diagnosis and, if the factor is modifiable, might be useful for the prevention or delay of its development.

NF-κB Inducing Kinase Regulates Intestinal Immunity and Homeostasis

Intestinal immunity and homeostasis are maintained through the regulation of cytokine trafficking, microbiota, necrosis and apoptosis. Intestinal immunity and homeostasis participate in host defenses and inflammatory responses locally or systemically through the gut-organ axis. NF-κB functions as a crucial transcription factor mediating the expression of proteins related to the immune responses. The activation of NF-κB involves two major pathways: canonical and non-canonical. The canonical pathway has been extensively studied and reviewed. Here, we present the current knowledge of NIK, a pivotal mediator of the non-canonical NF-κB pathway and its role in intestinal immunity and homeostasis. This review also discusses the novel role of NIK signaling in the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Control of excessive mitochondrial oxidative stress could provide new targets for both preventive and therapeutic interventions in the treatment of chronic inflammation or any pathology that develops under an inflammatory scenario, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Increasing evidence has demonstrated the role of mitochondrial alterations in autoimmune diseases mainly due to the interplay between metabolism and innate immunity, but also in the modulation of inflammatory response of resident cells, such as synoviocytes. Thus, mitochondrial dysfunction derived from several danger signals could activate tricarboxylic acid (TCA) disruption, thereby favoring a vicious cycle of oxidative/mitochondrial stress. Mitochondrial dysfunction can act through modulating innate immunity via redox-sensitive inflammatory pathways or direct activation of the inflammasome. Besides, mitochondria also have a central role in regulating cell death, which is deeply altered in RA. Additionally, multiple evidence suggests that pathological processes in RA can be shaped by epigenetic mechanisms and that in turn, mitochondria are involved in epigenetic regulation. Finally, we will discuss about the involvement of some dietary components in the onset and progression of RA.

NF-κB in control of regulatory T cell development, identity, and function

Regulatory T cells (Treg cells) act as a major rheostat regulating the strength of immune responses, enabling tolerance of harmless foreign antigens, and preventing the development of pathogenic immune responses in various disease settings such as cancer and autoimmunity. Treg cells are present in all lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues, and the latter often fulfill important tasks required for the physiology of their host organ. The activation of NF-κB transcription factors is a central pathway for the reprogramming of gene expression in response to inflammatory but also homeostatic cues. Genetic mouse models have revealed essential functions for NF-κB transcription factors in modulating Treg development and function, with some of these mechanistic insights confirmed by recent studies analyzing Treg cells from patients harboring point mutations in the genes encoding NF-κB proteins. Molecular insights into the NF-κB pathway in Treg cells hold substantial promise for novel therapeutic strategies to manipulate dysfunctional or inadequate cell numbers of immunosuppressive Treg cells in autoimmunity or cancer. Here, we provide an overview of the manifold roles that NF-κB factors exert in Treg cells.

Effects of Artemisia annua L. Essential Oil on Osteoclast Differentiation and Function Induced by RANKL

Objective

This study aimed to assess the main components of Artemisia annua L. essential oil (AEO) and determine their effect on the proliferation and differentiation of RAW264.7 cells induced by receptor activator for nuclear factor-ligand (RANKL) in vitro. Then, we tried to explain part of the function of its possible mechanisms.

Materials and Methods

Essential oil was extracted from Artemisia annua L. Osteoclasts were induced in vitro by RANKL in mouse RAW264.7 cells. The experimental group was treated with different concentrations of AEO, while the control group was not treated with AEO. CCK8 was used to detect osteoclast proliferation. The osteoclasts were stained with TRAP. Western blot was used to detect protein in the MAPK pathway and the NF-κB pathway after treatment with different concentrations of AEO. RT-PCR was used to determine the expression of osteoclast-related mRNA in cells.

Results

The GC-MS analysis was used to obtain the main components of AEO, including camphor, borneol, camphor, borneol, terpinen-4-ol, p-cymene, eucalyptol, deoxyartemisinin, and artemisia ketone. The CCK8 results showed that the AEO volume ratio of 1 : 4000, 1 : 5000, and 1 : 6000 did not affect the proliferation of RAW264.7 cells. However, TRAP staining showed that AEO decreased osteoclast formation. Western blot results showed that the expression of protein TRAF6, p-p38, p-ERK, p-p65, and NFATc1 decreased in the MAPK pathway and the NF-κB pathway affected by AEO. Furthermore, RT-PCR results showed that the expression of osteoclast resorption-related mRNAs (MMP-9, DC-STAMP, TRAP, and CTSK) and osteoclast differentiation-related mRNAs (OSCAR, NFATc1, c-Src, and c-Fos) also decreased in the experimental group.

Conclusions

AEO inhibits osteoclast differentiation in vitro, probably by reducing TRAF6 activation, acting on the MAPK pathway and NF-κB pathway, and inhibiting the expression of osteoclast-related genes.

Piceatannol suppresses inflammation and promotes apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis‑fibroblast‑like synoviocytes by inhibiting the NF‑κB and MAPK signaling pathways

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease that mainly targets the synovial membrane, thus causing stiffness, deformity and dysfunction of joints. To date, no effective anti-inflammatory treatments are available for RA. Piceatannol (PIC) is a natural derivative of resveratrol, which has been reported to attenuate the inflammatory response. To evaluate the effect of PIC on RA and to determine the underlying molecular target of PIC, both in vitro and in vivo experiments were performed in the present study. A CIA rat model was established to evaluate the therapeutic effects of PIC. TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels in blood were measured by ELISA. Western blotting, immunofluorescence analysis and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) were used to analyze the expression levels of protein and mRNA. In vitro, RA-fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) were pretreated with PIC and subsequently stimulated with TNF-α. The results revealed that PIC significantly upregulated the expression levels of proapoptotic proteins such as Bax and cleaved caspase-3. PIC also significantly reduced the production of proinflammatory cytokines, including PGE2, IL-6 and IL-1β, and significantly downregulated the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 at both the mRNA and protein expression levels. Furthermore, PIC downregulated the expression of MMP-3 and MMP-13, which have been found to be highly expressed in the synovium of patients with RA. Mechanistically, PIC was capable of significantly downregulating the expression levels of proteins involved in the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. The results of the in vivo experiments using a rat collagen-induced arthritis model demonstrated that PIC decreased the arthritis score and exerted beneficial effects in cartilage and significantly reduced the expression of MMP-13. In conclusion, the findings of the present study revealed that PIC could suppress the inflammatory response, promote apoptosis, and exert a significant regulatory effect on the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways in RA-FLSs. Therefore, PIC may represent a potential drug for the future treatment of RA.

Effects and Mechanisms of Rhus chinensis Mill. Fruits on Suppressing RANKL-Induced Osteoclastogenesis by Network Pharmacology and Validation in RAW264.7 Cells

Rhus chinensis Mill. fruits are a kind of widely distributed edible seasoning, which have been documented to possess a variety of biological activities. However, its inhibitory effect on osteoclast formation has not been determined. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the fruits on osteoclast differentiation of RAW264.7 cells, induced by receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) and to illuminate the potential mechanisms using network pharmacology and western blots. Results showed that the extract containing two organic acids and twelve phenolic substances could effectively inhibit osteoclast differentiation in RANKL-induced RAW264.7 cells. Network pharmacology examination and western blot investigation showed that the concentrate essentially decreased the expression levels of osteoclast-specific proteins, chiefly through nuclear factor kappa-B, protein kinase B, and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways, particularly protein kinase B α and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 targets. Moreover, the extract likewise directly down regulated the expression of cellular oncogene Fos and nuclear factor of activated T-cells cytoplasmic 1 proteins. Citric acid, quercetin, myricetin-3-O-galactoside, and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside were considered as the predominant bioactive ingredients. Results of this work may provide a scientific basis for the development and utilization of R. chinensis fruits as a natural edible material to prevent and/or alleviate osteoporosis-related diseases.

Administration of an adeno-associated viral vector expressing interferon-β in patients with inflammatory hand arthritis, results of a phase I/II study

OBJECTIVE

Inflammatory hand arthritis (IHA) results in impaired function. Local gene therapy with ART-I02, a recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) serotype 5 vector expressing interferon (IFN)-β, under the transcriptional control of nuclear factor κ-B responsive promoter, was preclinically shown to have favorable effects. This study aimed to investigate the safety and tolerability of local gene therapy with ART-I02 in patients with IHA.

METHODS

In this first-in-human, dose-escalating, cohort study, 12 IHA patients were to receive a single intra-articular (IA) injection of ART-I02 ranging 0.3 × 10¹²-1.2 × 10¹³ genome copies in an affected hand joint. Adverse events (AEs), routine safety laboratory and the clinical course of disease were periodically evaluated. Baseline- and follow-up contrast enhanced magnetic resonance images (MRIs), shedding of viral vectors in bodily fluids, and AAV5 and IFN-β immune responses were evaluated. A data review committee provided safety recommendations.

RESULTS

Four patients were enrolled. Long-lasting local AEs were observed in 3 patients upon IA injection of ART-I02. The AEs were moderate in severity and could be treated conservative. Given the duration of the AEs and their possible or probable relation to ART-I02, no additional patients were enrolled. No systemic treatment emergent AEs were observed. The MRIs reflected the AEs by (peri)arthritis. No T-cell response against AAV5 or IFN-β, nor IFN-β antibodies could be detected. Neutralizing antibody titers against AAV5 raised post-dose.

CONCLUSION

Single IA doses of 0.6 × 10¹² or 1.2 × 10¹² ART-I02 vector genomes were administered without systemic side effects or serious AEs. However, local tolerability was insufficient for continuation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT02727764.

Anti-inflammatory effect of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) essential oil prepared during different plant phenophases on THP-1 macrophages

BACKGROUND

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common Gram-negative bacterium associated with nosocomial respiratory infections. Lavender essential oil is mainly used in aromatherapy, but it has several pharmacological and therapeutic properties. Furthermore, it possesses antifungal and antibacterial activities. The anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils may depend on the composition and the ratio of the compounds. The constitution of the essential oils extracted from the different stages of flowering period varies, which makes it plausible that the collection time of the flowers influences the anti-inflammatory effects. Different types of essential oils reduce inflammation acting similarly by modulating the activity and action of the NFκB signalling pathway, which is the major regulator of the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

METHODS

Lavender essential oils were distilled from lavender plant cultivated in Hungary and the flowers were harvested at the beginning and at the end of flowering period. The experiments were carried out on THP-1 human monocyte/macrophage cell line as in vitro cell culture model for monitoring the effects of lavender essential oils and the main compound linalool on P. aeruginosa LPS stimulated inflammation. The mRNA and protein levels of four pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-8 and TNFα were determined by Real Time PCR and ELISA measurements. The effects of essential oils were compared to the response to two NFκB inhibitors, luteolin and ACHP.

RESULTS

Linalool and lavender essential oil extracted from plants at the beginning of flowering period were successful in decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokine production following LPS pretreatment. In case of IL-8 and IL-1β lavender oil showed stronger effect compared to linalool and both of them acted similarly to NFκB inhibitors. Pretreatments with linalool and lavender essential oil/beginning of flowering period prevented pro-inflammatory cytokine production compared to LPS treatment alone. Although lavender essential oil/end of flowering period decreased IL-6, IL-1β and IL-8 mRNA expression in case of LPS pretreatment, it was not capable to reduce cytokine secretion.

CONCLUSION

Based on our results it has been proven that lavender essential oil extracted at the beginning of flowering period is a potent inhibitor of the synthesis of four pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, IL-β and TNFα of THP-1 cells. This supports the relevance of the collection of the lavender flowers from early blooming period for essential oil production and for the utilization as an anti-inflammatory treatment.

Roburic acid attenuates osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption by targeting RANKL-induced intracellular signaling pathways

Excessive activity of osteoclasts contributes to skeletal diseases such as osteoporosis and osteolysis. However, current drugs targeting osteoclast have various deficiencies, placing natural compounds as substitutions of great potential. Roburic acid (RA) is a triterpenoid exacted from Radix Gentianae Macrophyllae, which exhibits inhibitory effects on inflammation and oxidation. By employing an in vitro osteoclastogenesis model, this study investigates the effects and mechanisms of RA on intracellular signaling induced by receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL). As expected, RA at a concentration scope from 1 to 10 μM dampened the osteoclast differentiation of bone marrow macrophages (BMMs) but without cell toxicity. Interestingly, RA showed no effect on osteoblastogenesis in vitro. Furthermore, RA mitigated F-actin ring formation, hydroxyapatite resorption, and gene expression in osteoclasts. Mechanistically, RA suppressed TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6), the crucial adaptor protein following RANKL-RANK binding. On the one hand, RA downregulated the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activity, extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK) phosphorylation, and calcium oscillations. On the other hand, RA upregulated the antioxidative response element (ARE) response and the protein expression of heme oxygenase (HO)-1. These upstream alterations eventually led to the suppression of the nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFATc1) activity and the expression of proteins involved in osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. Furthermore, by using an ovariectomized (OVX) mice model, RA was found to have therapeutic effects against bone loss. On account of these findings, RA could be used to restrain osteoclasts for treating osteoporosis and other osteolytic diseases.

Differential inflammation-mediated function of prokineticin 2 in the synovial fibroblasts of patients with rheumatoid arthritis compared with osteoarthritis

Prokineticin 2 (PK2) is a secreted protein involved in several pathological and physiological processes, including the regulation of inflammation, sickness behaviors, and circadian rhythms. Recently, it was reported that PK2 is associated with the pathogenesis of collagen-induced arthritis in mice. However, the role of PK2 in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or osteoarthritis (OA) remains unknown. In this study, we collected synovial tissue, plasma, synovial fluid, and synovial fibroblasts (SF) from RA and OA patients to analyze the function of PK2 using immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and tissue superfusion studies. PK2 and its receptors prokineticin receptor (PKR) 1 and 2 were expressed in RA and OA synovial tissues. PKR1 expression was downregulated in RA synovial tissue compared with OA synovial tissue. The PK2 concentration was higher in RA synovial fluid than in OA synovial fluid but similar between RA and OA plasma. PK2 suppressed the production of IL-6 from TNFα-prestimulated OA-SF, and this effect was attenuated in TNFα-prestimulated RA-SF. This phenomenon was accompanied by the upregulation of PKR1 in OA-SF. This study provides a new model to explain some aspects underlying the chronicity of inflammation in RA.

Association of GTF2I, NFKB1, and TYK2 Regional Polymorphisms With Systemic Sclerosis in a Chinese Han Population

Objectives

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is an uncommon autoimmune disease that varies with ethnicity. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the GTFSI, NFKB1, and TYK2 genes have been reported to be associated with SSc in other populations and in individuals with various autoimmune diseases. This study aimed to investigate the association between these SNPs and susceptibility to SSc in a Chinese Han population.

Method

A case-control study was performed in 343 patients with SSc and 694 ethnically matched healthy controls. SNPs in GTF2I, NFKB1, and TYK2 were genotyped using a Sequenom MassArray iPLEX system. Association analyses were performed using PLINK v1.90 software.

Result

Our study demonstrated that the GTF2I rs117026326 T allele and the GTF2I rs73366469 C allele were strongly associated with patients with SSc (P = 6.97E-10 and P = 1.33E-08, respectively). Patients carrying the GTF2I rs117026326 TT genotype and the GTF2I rs73366469 CC genotype had a strongly increased risk of SSc (P = 6.25E-09 and P = 1.67E-08, respectively), and those carrying the NFKB1 rs1599961 AA genotype had a suggestively significantly increased risk of SSc (P = 0.014). Moreover, rs117026326 and rs73366469 were associated with SSc in different genetic models (additive model, dominant model, and recessive model) (P < 0.05) whereas rs1599961 was associated with SSc in the dominant genetic model but not in the addictive and recessive models (P = 0.0026). TYK2 rs2304256 was not significantly associated with SSc in this study.

Conclusion

GTF2I rs117026326 and rs73366469 SNPs were strongly associated with SSc in this Chinese Han population. NFKB1 rs1599961 showed a suggestive association with SSc, and no significant association was found between TYK2 rs2304256 and SSc in this Chinese Han population.

The role of miRNAs in the regulation of autophagy in autoimmune diseases

Autoimmune diseases (AD), which are classified as chronic injuries, are caused by a specific auto-reactive reaction. The etiology of most ADs is not well understood. Meanwhile, Autophagy is a protective response defining as a catabolic method by lysosomes tending to maintain homeostasis acts by recycling and discrediting cell compartments. Autophagy plays a crucial role in controlling immune homeostasis by eliminating intracellular pathogens and presenting antigens to immune cognition. MicroRNAs are commonly known as endogenous non-coding small RNAs, which span 18-25 nt and take part in the gene expression at the post-transcriptional level regulation. miRNAs play important roles in different processes like, cell differentiation, duplicating, and apoptosis. Moreover, miRNAs are the critical molecules for the regular function of the immune system by modulating immune tolerance mechanisms and autoimmunity. Recent findings support the role of dysregulated miRNAs in the pathogenesis of ADs and in the regulation of autophagy. In this review, we will focus on the role of the miRNAs in the regulation of autophagy and then will explain the role of dysregulated miRNAs in the initiation of the ADs by modulating autophagy.

ZhiJingSan Inhibits Osteoclastogenesis via Regulating RANKL/NF-κB Signaling Pathway and Ameliorates Bone Erosion in Collagen-Induced Mouse Arthritis

Bone erosion is the most evident pathological condition of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), which is the main cause of joint deformities and disability in RA patients. At present, the conventional RA drugs have not achieved satisfactory effect in improving bone erosion. ZhiJingSan (ZJS), which is a traditional Chinese prescription composed of scolopendra (dried body of Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans L. Koch, scolopendridae) and scorpion (dried body of Buthus martensii Karsch, Buthus), exhibits anti-rheumatism, analgesic and joint deformities improvement effects. This study aimed to assess the therapeutic effect of ZJS on RA bone erosion and to elucidate the underlying mechanism. The effect of ZJS on RA bone erosion was investigated in a murine model of bovine collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), and the underlying mechanism was investigated in vitro in an osteoclast differentiation cell model. Administration of ZJS delayed the onset of arthritis, alleviated joint inflammation, and attenuated bone erosion in the CIA mice. Meanwhile, ZJS decreased the serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and anti-bovine collagen II-specific antibodies. Furthermore, ZJS treatment reduced the number of osteoclasts and the expression of cathepsin K in the ankle joints of CIA mice. ZJS also inhibited receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast differentiation and the expression of MMP9 and cathepsin K in vitro. Mechanistically, ZJS blocked RANKL-induced p65 phosphorylation, nucleation, and inhibited the expression of downstream NFATc1 and c-Fos in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs). Taken together, ZJS exerts a therapeutic effect on bone erosion in CIA mice by inhibiting RANKL/NF-κB-mediated osteoclast differentiation, which suggested that ZJS is a promising prescription for treating RA bone erosion.

Tunisian Olea europaea L. leaf extract suppresses Freund's complete adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis and lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Olea europaea L. (olive) is traditionally used as a folk remedy and functional food in Europe and Mediterranean countries to treat inflammatory diseases. O. europaea contains phenolic compounds and have been reported to prevent cartilage degradation. However, the function and mechanism of O. europaea in rheumatoid arthritis are not known.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we aimed to examine anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects of Tunisian O. europaea L. leaf ethanol extract (Oe-EE).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To do this, we employed an in vitro macrophage-like cell line and an in vivo Freund's complete adjuvant (AIA)-induced arthritis model. Levels of inflammatory genes and mediators were determined from in vivo samples.

RESULTS

The Oe-EE clearly reduced the production of the lipopolysaccharide-mediated inflammatory mediators, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), in RAW264.7 cells. The results of HPLC showed that Oe-EE contained many active compounds such as oleuropein and flavonoids. In AIA-treated rats, swelling of paws, pain, and cartilage degeneration were alleviated by oral Oe-EE administration. Correlating with in vitro data, PGE₂ production was significantly reduced in paw samples. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism of Oe-EE was dissected, and Oe-EE regulated the gene expression of interleukin (IL)-6, inducible NO synthase (iNOS), and MMPs and inflammatory signaling activation.

CONCLUSION

Consequently, Oe-EE possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-rheumatic effects and is a potential effective treatment for rheumatoid arthritis.

Research progress on the protection and detoxification of phytochemicals against aflatoxin B1-Induced liver toxicity

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a potent hepatotoxic toxin, which can cause hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver immunological damage. It has been involved in the etiology of human hepatocellular carcinoma. AFB₁ can cause oxidative stress in the body's metabolism process, and then cause cytotoxicity, such as apoptosis and DNA damage. Scientific research has discovered that phytochemicals can induce the detoxification pathway of AFB₁ through its biotransformation, thereby reducing the damage of AFB₁ to the human body. In clinical treatment, certain phytochemicals have been effectively used in the treatment of liver injury due to the advantages of multiple targets, multiple pathways, low toxicity and side effects. Therefore, the article summarizes the toxic mechanism of AFB₁-induced hepatoxicity, and the related research progress of phytochemicals for preventing and treating its cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. We also look forward to the existing problems and application prospects of phytochemicals in the pharmaceutical industry, in order to provide theoretical reference for the prevention and treatment of AFB₁ poisoning in future research work.

Differential Signals From TNFα-Treated and Untreated Embryos in Uterine Tissues and Splenic CD4+ T Lymphocytes During Preimplantation Pregnancy in Mice

The main aim of this study was to examine if a female mouse body in preimplantation pregnancy can distinguish between embryos of normal and impaired biological quality in the local and peripheral compartments. Normal (control group) and TNFα (tumor necrosis factor-α)-treated embryos (experimental group) at the morula stage were non-surgically transferred into the uteri of CD-1 strain [Crl:CD1(Icr)] female murine recipients. Twenty-four hours after the embryo transfer, females were euthanised, and uteri and spleens were dissected. In uterine tissues (local compartment), we assessed the expression of 84 genes comprising nine signal transduction pathways, using a modified RT² Profiler PCR Array. In the spleen (peripheral compartment), we determined the proteome of splenic CD4⁺ lymphocytes using 2D protein electrophoresis with subsequent protein identification by mass spectrometry. Sample clustering and differential gene expression analyses within individual signal transduction pathways revealed differential expression of genes in the uteri of females after transplantation of normal vs. TNFα-treated embryos. The most affected signal transduction cascade was the NFKB (Nuclear factor NF-kappa-B) pathway, where 87.5% of the examined genes were significantly differentially expressed. Proteomic analysis of splenic CD4⁺ T lymphocytes revealed significant differential expression of 8 out of 132 protein spots. Identified proteins were classified as proteins influenced by cell stress, proteins engaged in the regulation of cytoskeleton stabilization and cell motility, and proteins having immunomodulatory function. These results support the hypothesis that even before embryo implantation, the body of pregnant female mice can sense the biological quality of an embryo both at the local and peripheral level.

An Overview of the NF-kB mechanism of pathophysiology in rheumatoid arthritis, investigation of the NF-kB ligand RANKL and related nutritional interventions

Nuclear Factor Kappa-Β (NF-kB) is recognized as one of the main inflammatory pathways in the Autoimmune Disease (AD) Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), which exhibits high levels of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, TNFa and IL-6 linked to bone erosion and disease progression. NF-kB is also the most studied pathophysiological mechanism in RA, however, over the last few decades, a more recently discovered Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor Kappa-Β Ligand (RANKL), also linked to NF-kB activation and bone erosion, has been the topic of interest for research in the area of AD management. As the non-discriminative long term suppression of the NF-kB pathway by pharmacological agents in the management of RA has been linked with a number of side effects and with the discovery of the RANKL mechanism, which may present a more targeted approach to the management of the AD, there has been renewed interest in research on the potential impact of nutritional interventions influencing the NF-kB pathway, RANKL as well as RA disease outcomes. Existing research highlights the potential utility of nutrients such as Omega 3 and Vitamin D, which may lower NF-kB activation in RA. There is, however, a gap in the knowledge of the effects of nutritional interventions on pathophysiological mechanisms contributing to RA and a more robust systematic analysis of whether nutrients or specific vitamins can have an effect on the NF-kB and RANKL main drivers of pathology in RA. Findings from this study suggest the potential of Vitamin D supplementation in lowering the levels of RANKL and related markers/cytokines such as Th17 cell levels, OPG/RANKL ratio and CXCL10 pathway, which may present as a viable nutrition intervention for the management of RA. The methodology of this review involved a Systematic Search of the Literature with a Critical Appraisal of papers. It incorporated three tranche searches of 1. review, 2. animal/in vitro and 3. intervention peer reviewed research published in the last 10 years, resulting in a total of 119 papers. Results provide an overview of the NF-kB pathway, a detailed mechanistic examination of the Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor Kappa-Β Ligand (RANKL) which is linked to bone erosion, and finally a review of nutritional interventions relating to this mechanism of pathophysiology. The accepted papers were critically appraised using SIGN50 for human studies and the ARRIVE guidelines for animal studies; the narrative was and the extracted information coded into key themes.

Identification of Compounds With Glucocorticoid Sparing Effects on Suppression of Chemokine and Cytokine Production by Rheumatoid Arthritis Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes

In recent years target based drug discovery has expanded our therapeutic armamentarium in the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Despite these advances and adverse effects, glucocorticoids remain reliable agents that are used in many of these diseases. The anti-inflammatory mechanisms of glucocorticoids include the suppression of transcription factor activity like nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). By reanalyzing data from two prior high throughput screens (HTS) that utilized a NF-κB reporter construct in THP-1 cells, we identified 1824 small molecule synthetic compounds that demonstrated NF-κB suppressive activities similar to the glucocorticoids included in the original >134,000 compound libraries. These 1824 compounds were then rescreened for attenuating NF-κB activity at 5 and 16 h after LPS stimuli in the NF-κB THP-1 reporter cells. After a “Top X” selection approach 122 hit compounds were further tested for toxicity and suppression of LPS induced CXCL8 release in THP-1 cells. Excluding cytotoxic compounds, the remaining active compounds were grouped into chemotype families using Tanimoto based clustering. Promising representatives from clustered chemotype groups were commercially purchased for further testing. Amongst these index compounds a lead chemotype: 1H-pyrazolo [3,4 d] pyrimidin-4-amine, effectively suppressed CXCL8, and TNF production by THP-1 cells when stimulated with LPS, TNF or IL-1ß. Extending these studies to primary cells, these lead compounds also reduced IL-6 and CXCL8 production by TNF stimulated fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Importantly a lead 1H-pyrazolo [3,4 d] pyrimidin-4-amine compound demonstrated synergistic effects with dexamethasone when co-administered to TNF stimulated THP-1 cells and RA FLS in suppressing chemokine production. In summary, a cell based HTS approach identified lead compounds that reduced NF-κB activity and chemokine secretion induced by potent immunologic stimuli, and one lead compound that acted synergistically with dexamethasone as an anti-inflammatory agent showing a dose-sparing effect.

Cardio-Rheumatology: Cardiovascular Complications in Systemic Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases / Is Inflammation the Common Link and Target?

In the current Thematic Issue of Current Vascular Pharmacology (CVP), entitled "Systemic Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases and Cardiology", presented in two parts, Part 1 and Part 2, review articles are included from specialists in cardiology, rheumatology, immunology and related fields. These reviews discuss the cardiovascular complications of the main systemic Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases (ARDs). For example, the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms, the role of cardiovascular imaging and recommendations for prevention and management. These articles place inflammation as the key process, linking cardiovascular complications with ARDs. From all these reviews, the conclusion is the need for collaboration between the disciplines of Rheumatology and Cardiology to establish the emerging field of Cardio- Rheumatology. This will aid to fine-tune risk stratification and optimize preventive strategies and pharmacological therapies for patients with ARDs.

Cardio-Rheumatology: Two Collaborating Disciplines to Deal with the Enhanced Cardiovascular Risk in Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases

In Part 1 of this Thematic Issue entitled "Systemic Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases and Cardiology", a panel of specialists and experts in cardiology, rheumatology, immunology and related fields discussed the cardiovascular complications of spondyloarthritides, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome and vasculitides, as well as relevant cardiovascular issues related to non-biologic and biologic disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), and provided their recommendations for prevention and management of these complications. In part 2 of this Thematic Issue, experts discuss the enhanced cardiovascular risk conferred by additional autoimmune rheumatic diseases (ARDs), including systemic lupus erythematosus, the antiphospholipid syndrome, psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis and juvenile idiopathic arthritis. These, and the previous articles, place inflammation as the key common link to explain the enhanced risk of cardiovascular complications in patients with ARDs. It follows that treatment should probably target inflammation. From all these contemporary reviews, the conclusion that is derived further supports the notion of the emerging field of Cardio- Rheumatology where physicians and experts from these two disciplines collaborate in risk stratification and optimization of preventive strategies and drug therapies in patients with ARDs.

Clinical case of Bloch — Sulzberger syndrome

Purpose.To present a clinical case of Bloch Sulzberger syndrome. Material and methods. The examinations were performed to diagnose the disease: а visual examination of the skin, cytological analysis of the gallbladder fluid, general and biochemical blood tests, genetic research. Results.During a visual examination of the skin, a differential diagnosis was made with infectious dermatitis, toxic-allergic dermatitis, epidermolysis bullosa and linear IgA-dependent dermatosis in children. Crucial in the diagnosis belonged to a genetic study, after which a deletion of exons 410 of the IKBKG gene was detected, which confirmed Bloch Sulzberger syndrome. Conclusion.Newborns with vesicle-bullous rashes entering the neonatal pathology department and observed by neonatologists require a thorough examination, a mandatory consultation of a dermatologist inorder to determine further management tactics.

Modulation of antioxidant enzymes, SIRT1 and NF-κB by resveratrol and nicotinamide in alcohol-aflatoxin B1-induced hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide and is associated with poor prognosis. The current study aimed to assess the therapeutic efficacy of resveratrol when administered alone and in combination with nicotinamide against alcohol-aflatoxin B1-induced HCC. Results reveal that during the development and progression of cancer, there was a decline in the level of antioxidant enzymes catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase (GR), antioxidant glutathione, and glutathione S-transferase, which is an enzyme of detoxification pathways. Treatment of resveratrol restored the level of catalase and glutathione peroxidase toward normal in alcohol-aflatoxin B1-induced HCC; however, nicotinamide worked in concert with resveratrol only in upregulating the activity of glutathione reductase, glutathione level, and glutathione S-transferase. SIRT1 agonist resveratrol was observed to modulate the activity of antioxidant enzymes by negatively regulating the expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in alcohol-aflatoxin B1-induced HCC, thereby suggesting a cross-talk between antioxidant enzymes SIRT1 and NF-κB during the development and progression of HCC and its therapeutics by resveratrol and nicotinamide.

Medicinal plants used against various inflammatory biomarkers for the management of rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVES

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic autoimmune disease manifested clinically by polyarthralgia associated with joint dysfunction triggering the antibodies targeting against the self-neoepitopes determined by autoimmune responses associated with chronic arthritic attacks. The activation of macrophages and other defence cells in response to self-epitopes as biomarkers in RA provides a better understanding of pathogenesis of disease and has led to the development of novel therapeutic approaches acting as potent inhibitors of these cells.

KEY FINDINGS

The current review retrieved the various medicinal plants possessing an active phytoconstituents with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which tends to be effective alternative approach over the synthetic drugs concerned with high toxic effects. The current available literature provided an evident data concluding that the active constituents like fatty acids, flavonoids, terpenes and sesquiterpene lactones attenuate the RA symptoms by targeting the inflammatory biomarkers involved in the pathogenesis of RA.

SUMMARY

Despite the various synthetic treatment approaches targeting immune cells, cytokines improved the quality of life but still the drug management is challenging due to toxic and chronic teratogenic effects with anti-arthritic drugs. The current review has elaborated the selected traditionally used herbal medicinal plants with phytoconstituents possessing anti-inflammatory activity by suppressing the inflammatory biomarkers with lesser side effects and providing the future exploration of natural drug therapy for rheumatoid arthritis.

Hymenialdisine: A Marine Natural Product That Acts on Both Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts and Prevents Estrogen-Dependent Bone Loss in Mice

Excessive osteoclast (OC) activity together with relatively weak osteoblast (OB) function are strongly connected to osteolytic diseases, including osteoporosis, tumor-induced osteolysis, and inflammatory bone erosion. Very few natural products or compounds have been shown to exert therapeutic effects on both OCs and OBs, limiting the potential development of natural compounds for clinical application. Hymenialdisine (HMD) is a marine sponge-derived natural inhibitor of protein kinases with previously reported anti-osteoarthritis and anti-cancer properties. However, the roles of HMD in OCs, OBs, and osteoporosis have not yet been well established. Here, we found that HMD not only suppressed osteoclastogenesis but also promoted OB differentiation. HMD exerted dose-dependent inhibitory effects on RANKL-induced OC formation, bone resorption, and OC-specific gene expression. These strong inhibitory effects were achieved by blocking the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, and NFATc1 expression. In addition, HMD potentially stimulated OB differentiation by activating alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and enhancing OB matrix mineralization. We found that HMD can activate the glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β)/β-catenin/T-cell factor (TCF)/lymphoid enhancer factor (LEF) signaling pathway to upregulate Runx-2 expression, the main transcription factor in this pathway. Increased expression of Runx-2 was also correlated with expression of the OB-specific genes Col1a1 and osteocalcin (Ocn). Furthermore, we also evaluated the therapeutic potential of HMD in a female C57BL/6j mouse model of ovariectomy (OVX)-induced systematic bone loss. HMD showed a remarkable ability to prevent decreases in bone volume (BV/TV) and trabecular thickness (Tb.Th). In summary, HMD exerts notable effects in inhibiting OC-related osteolysis and enhancing OB-induced ossification, suggesting the potential application of HMD in osteoporosis treatment. © 2020 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Bcl-3 inhibits lupus-like phenotypes in BL6/lpr mice

Bcl-3 is an atypical member of the IκB family that modulates NF-κB activity in nuclei. lpr mice carry the lpr mutation in Fas, resulting in functional loss of this death receptor; they serve as models for lupus erythematosus and autoimmune lymphoproliferation syndrome (ALPS). To explore the biologic roles of Bcl-3 in this disease model, we generated BL6/lpr mice lacking Bcl-3. Unlike lpr mice on an MRL background, BL6/lpr mice present with very mild lupus- or ALPS-like phenotypes. Bcl-3 KO BL6/lpr mice, however, developed severe splenomegaly, dramatically increased numbers of double negative T cells - a hallmark of human lupus, ALPS, and MRL/lpr mice - and exhibited inflammation in multiple organs, despite low levels of autoantibodies, similar to those in BL6/lpr mice. Loss of Bcl-3 specifically in T cells exacerbated select lupus-like phenotypes, specifically organ infiltration. Mechanistically, elevated levels of Tnfα in Bcl-3 KO BL6/lpr mice may promote lupus-like phenotypes, since loss of Tnfα in these mice reversed the pathology due to loss of Bcl-3. Contrary to the inhibitory functions of Bcl-3 revealed here, this regulator has also been shown to promote inflammation in different settings. Our findings highlight the profound, yet highly context-dependent roles of Bcl-3 in the development of inflammation-associated pathology.

Anti-inflammatory effect of stevioside abates Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA)-induced adjuvant arthritis in rats

Adjuvant arthritis is a chronic, autoimmune and inflammatory disorder of the joints. The occurrence of disorder causes a severe damage to the connective tissue eventually leading to progressive physical disability and eventual death. The recent years of evidence suggests the anti-inflammatory properties of stevioside, a diterpene glycoside. However, the effect of stevioside against adjuvant arthritis, a chronic inflammatory disorder is not known. Hence, the present study was designed to study the effect of stevioside against Freund's complete adjuvant induced arthritis model in rats. The acute anti-inflammatory effect of stevioside also studied by employing carrageenan-induced paw oedema model in rats. The biochemical markers, haematological parameters, lipid peroxidation, myeloperoxidase activity, lipoxygenase activity, the levels of PGE2 and pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-6 & IL-1β) and anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) were analysed. The protein expression of NF-κB (p65) COX-2 and iNOS in paw tissues were estimated by western blotting. Stevioside treatment significantly ameliorates the adjuvant induced arthritic scoring, histological alterations, paw volume, elevation of biochemical (AST, ALT, ALP and glucose levels) and haematological (haemoglobin, differential and platelet count) parameters and restored the endogenous anti-oxidant (SOD, CAT, GSH and GST) activities. Treatment with stevioside also significantly prevented the adjuvant induced elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β), pro-inflammatory protein expressions (iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB (p65) and pIκB/IκB ratio), prevented the increase in myeloperoxidase activity and significantly restored the anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokine level in paw tissues. Collectively, our findings suggest that stevioside may serve as anti-inflammatory agent and could serve as a potential adjunct therapeutic option in treating adjuvant arthritis.

Subacute exposure of PM2.5 induces airway inflammation through inflammatory cell infiltration and cytokine expression in rats

Accumulating evidences support that exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) could cause inflammation of the airway, but its underlying mechanisms are less known. Our study aimed to explore the potential effect of non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathway in airway inflammation, which caused by PM_2.5, and the possible regulatory relationship between miR-6747-5p and NF-κB2. The histological analysis from in vivo study manifested that PM_2.5 could induce the exudation and infiltration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs). Immunohistochemistry results of lung tissues showed that PM_2.5 increased ICAM-1, 6Ckine, SDF-1 and BAFF positive staining with a dose-dependent manner. In addition, PM_2.5 could induce the p52 nuclear translocation to trigger non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathway in lung tissues and BEAS-2B cells. Targetscan reporter gene assay showed that there was a target regulatory relationship between miR-6747-5p and NF-κB2. Besides, the chemical mimics of miR-6747-5p weakened the activation of non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathway induced by PM_2.5. In summary, exposure to PM_2.5 could trigger airway inflammation by activating the non-canonical NF-κB signaling pathway, which may be related to the negative feedback regulation mechanism of miR-6747-5p. Our findings will give new ideas into the toxic effects of airway inflammation triggered by PM_2.5.

Transcriptional Control of Mature B Cell Fates

The mature naïve B cell repertoire consists of three well-defined populations: B1, B2 (follicular B, FOB), and marginal zone B (MZB) cells. FOB cells are the dominant mature B cell population in the secondary lymphoid organs and blood of both humans and mice. The driving forces behind mature B lineage selection have been linked to B cell receptor (BCR) signaling strength and environmental cues, but how these fate-determination factors are transcriptionally regulated remains poorly understood. We summarize emerging data on the role of transcription factors (TFs) - particularly the ETS and IRF families - in regulating MZB and FOB lineage selection. Indeed, genomic analyses have identified four major groups of target genes that are crucial for FOB differentiation, revealing previously unrecognized pathways that ultimately determine biological responses specific to this lineage.

The p38-interacting protein p38IP suppresses TCR and LPS signaling by targeting TAK1

Negative regulation of immunoreceptor signaling is required for preventing hyperimmune activation and maintaining immune homeostasis. The roles of p38IP in immunoreceptor signaling remain unclear. Here, we show that p38IP suppresses T-cell receptor (TCR)/LPS-activated NF-κB and p38 by targeting TAK1 kinase and that p38IP protein levels are downregulated in human PBMCs from rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients, inversely correlating with the enhanced activity of NF-κB and p38. Mechanistically, p38IP interacts with TAK1 to disassemble the TAK1-TAB (TAK1-binding protein) complex. p38IP overexpression decreases TCR-induced binding of K63-linked polyubiquitin (polyUb) chains to TAK1 but increases that to TAB2, and p38IP knockdown shows the opposite effects, indicating unanchored K63-linked polyUb chain transfer from TAB2 to TAK1. p38IP dynamically interacts with TAK1 upon stimulation, because of the polyUb chain transfer and the higher binding affinity of TAK1 and p38IP for polyUb-bound TAB2 and TAK1, respectively. Moreover, p38IP scaffolds the deubiquitinase USP4 to deubiquitinate TAK1 once TAK1 is activated. These findings reveal a novel role and the mechanisms of p38IP in controlling TCR/LPS signaling and suggest that p38IP might participate in RA pathogenesis.

Transcriptional Regulation of Osteoclastogenesis: The Emerging Role of KLF2

Dysregulation of osteoclastic differentiation and its activity is a hallmark of various musculoskeletal disease states. In this review, the complex molecular factors underlying osteoclastic differentiation and function are evaluated. The emerging role of KLF2 in regulation of osteoclastic differentiation is examined, specifically in the context of rheumatoid arthritis in which it has been most extensively studied among the musculoskeletal diseases. The therapies that exist to manage diseases associated with osteoclastogenesis are numerous and diverse. They are varied in their mechanisms of action and in the outcomes they produce. For this review, therapies targeting osteoclasts will be emphasized, though it should be noted that many therapies exist which bolster the action of osteoblasts. A new targeted molecular approach is under investigation for the future potential therapeutic development of rheumatoid arthritis.