Burden of chronic kidney disease and its risk-attributable burden in 137 low-and middle-income countries, 1990-2019: results from the global burden of disease study 2019

Mind the Gap in Kidney Care: Translating What We Know into What We Do

Historically, it takes an average of 17 years to move new treatments from clinical evidence to daily practice. Given the highly effective treatments now available to prevent or delay kidney disease onset and progression, this is far too long. The time is now to narrow the gap between what we know and what we do. Clear guidelines exist for the prevention and management of common risk factors for kidney disease, such as hypertension and diabetes, but only a fraction of people with these conditions worldwide are diagnosed, and even fewer are treated to target. Similarly, the vast majority of people living with kidney disease are unaware of their condition, because in the early stages it is often silent. Even among patients who have been diagnosed, many do not receive appropriate treatment for kidney disease. Considering the serious consequences of kidney disease progression, kidney failure, or death, it is imperative that treatments are initiated early and appropriately. Opportunities to diagnose and treat kidney disease early must be maximized beginning at the primary care level. Many systematic barriers exist, ranging from patient to clinician to health systems to societal factors. To preserve and improve kidney health for everyone everywhere, each of these barriers must be acknowledged so that sustainable solutions are developed and implemented without further delay.

Mind the gap in kidney care: Translating what we know into what we do

Historically, it takes an average of 17 years to move new treatments from clinical evidence to daily practice. Given the highly effective treatments now available to prevent or delay kidney disease onset and progression, this is far too long. The time is now to narrow the gap between what we know and what we do. Clear guidelines exist for the prevention and management of common risk factors for kidney disease, such as hypertension and diabetes, but only a fraction of people with these conditions worldwide are diagnosed, and even fewer are treated to target. Similarly, the vast majority of people living with kidney disease are unaware of their condition, because in the early stages it is often silent. Even among patients who have been diagnosed, many do not receive appropriate treatment for kidney disease. Considering the serious consequences of kidney disease progression, kidney failure, or death, it is imperative that treatments are initiated early and appropriately. Opportunities to diagnose and treat kidney disease early must be maximized beginning at the primary care level. Many systematic barriers exist, ranging from patient to clinician to health systems to societal factors. To preserve and improve kidney health for everyone everywhere, each of these barriers must be acknowledged so that sustainable solutions are developed and implemented without further delay.

Mind the Gap in Kidney Care: Translating What We Know Into What We do

Historically, it takes an average of 17 years to move new treatments from clinical evidence to daily practice. Given the highly effective treatments now available to prevent or delay kidney disease onset and progression, this is far too long. The time is now to narrow the gap between what we know and what we do. Clear guidelines exist for the prevention and management of common risk factors for kidney disease, such as hypertension and diabetes, but only a fraction of people with these conditions worldwide are diagnosed, and even fewer are treated to target. Similarly, the vast majority of people living with kidney disease are unaware of their condition, because in the early stages, it is often silent. Even among patients who have been diagnosed, many do not receive appropriate treatment for kidney disease. Considering the serious consequences of kidney disease progression, kidney failure, or death, it is imperative that treatments are initiated early and appropriately. Opportunities to diagnose and treat kidney disease early must be maximized beginning at the primary-care level. Many systematic barriers exist, ranging from patient to clinician to health systems to societal factors. To preserve and improve kidney health for everyone everywhere, each of these barriers must be acknowledged so that sustainable solutions are developed and implemented without further delay.

Exploring the unmet needs and experiences of informal caregivers of patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) receiving haemodialysis - a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Patients with end stage kidney disease (ESKD) receiving haemodialysis experience multiple symptoms, which can present physical and emotional challenges for both patients and their informal caregivers. Caregivers can experience anxiety, depression, and social isolation negatively impacting their overall wellbeing and resulting in caregiver burden. The needs of this group of caregivers have been largely neglected, with little emphasis placed on supportive interventions that might assist and support them in their caring role.

AIM

The aim of this study Is to explore the unmet needs and experiences of caregivers of patients with ESKD receiving haemodialysis, and to determine the components of a supportive intervention.

DESIGN

A qualitative study using semi-structured interviews (n = 24) with informal caregivers. An interpretive qualitative framework was employed to generate a rich understanding of the unmet needs and experiences of caregivers. Data was analysed using thematic analysis. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and data management was assisted through NVIVO version 11.

SETTING/PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-four informal caregivers were purposively recruited from two haemodialysis settings within Northern Ireland.

RESULTS

Three themes were identified: (1) The negative impact of distress, anxiety, and isolation on caregivers due to their caregiving responsibilities (2) Inadequate information and knowledge about the complexities of renal care (3) The benefits of spiritual beliefs, stress management and peer support in relieving the caregiving burden.

CONCLUSIONS

Caregivers of patients with ESKD receiving haemodialysis are at increased risk of physical and psychological distress and burden arising from their caregiving role. The unpredictable nature of ESKD and haemodialysis treatment negatively impacts the caregiver experience and adds to the challenges of the role. The information needs of caregivers are not always adequately met and they subsequently lack appropriate knowledge, skills, and guidance to assist them in their caregiving role. Supportive interventions are essential for caregivers to enhance their capability to deliver effective care and improve their quality of life.

Effects of Cranberry Extract (Vaccinium macrocarpon) Supplementation on Lipid Peroxidation and Inflammation in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease (Stages 3-4): A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background

Growing evidence suggests that bioactive compounds in berry fruits may mitigate inflammation in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Objectives

To evaluate cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) supplementation effects on modulation of transcription factors involved in inflammation and oxidative stress in nondialysis (stages 3 and 4) patients with CKD. Design/Participants. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was performed with 30 patients to receive capsules containing cranberry extract (1000 mg/day) or placebo (1000 mg/day of corn starch) for two months. Measurements. The mRNA expression of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) and nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB) was evaluated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were measured in the plasma to assess oxidative stress. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) plasma levels were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and C-reactive protein (CRP) by immunoturbidimetric method.

Results

Twenty-five patients completed the study: 12 in the cranberry group (56.7 ± 7.5 years and body mass index (BMI) of 29.6 ± 5.5 kg/m2) and 13 in the placebo group (58.8 ± 5.1 years and BMI 29.8 ± 5.4 kg/m2). There were no differences in NF-kB or Nrf2 mRNA expressions (p = 0.99 and p = 0.89) or TBARS, CRP, and IL-6 plasma levels after cranberry supplementation.

Conclusions

The cranberry extract administration (1000 mg/day) did not affect Nrf2 and NF-kB mRNA expression, oxidative stress, or inflammatory markers levels in nondialysis CKD patients. This trial is registered with NCT04377919.

Epidemiology and referral patterns of patients living with chronic kidney disease in Johannesburg, South Africa: A single centre experience

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a significant contributor to the global burden of non-communicable disease. Early intervention may facilitate slowing down of progression of CKD; recognition of at-risk patient groups may improve detection through screening. We retrospectively reviewed the clinical records of 960 patients attending a specialist nephrology outpatient clinic during the period 1 January 2011-31 December 2021. A significant proportion (47.8%) of patients were referred with established CKD stage G4 or G5. Non-national immigration status, previous diagnosis with diabetes, and advancing age were associated with late referral; antecedent diagnosis with HIV reduced the odds of late referral. Black African patients comprised most of the sample cohort and were younger at referral and more frequently female than other ethnicities; non-nationals were younger at referral than South Africans. Hypertension-associated kidney disease was the leading ascribed aetiological factor for CKD (40.7% of cases), followed by diabetic kidney disease (DKD) (19%), glomerular disease (12.5%), and HIV-associated kidney disease (11.8%). Hypertension-related (25.9%) and diabetic (10.7%) kidney diseases were not uncommon in people living with HIV. Advancing age and male sex increased the likelihood of diagnosis with hypertensive nephropathy, DKD and obstructive uropathy; males were additionally at increased risk of HIV-associated kidney disease and nephrotoxin exposure, as were patients of Black African ethnicity. In summary, this data shows that hypertension, diabetes, and HIV remain important aetiological factors in CKD in the South African context. Despite the well-described risk of CKD in these disorders, referral to nephrology services occurs late. Interventions and policy actions targeting at-risk populations are required to improve referral practices.

Young-onset chronic kidney disease in Mexico: Secondary analysis of global burden of disease study, 1990-2019

OBJECTIVE

To report the burden of young-onset chronic kidney disease (CKD) in Mexico from 1990 to 2019, and to assess the association between young-onset CKD burden with the Socio-Demographic Index (SDI), and the Healthcare Access and Quality Index (HAQ).

METHODS

Secondary analysis of data using the Global Burden of Disease, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) by sex, age groups, states, and subcauses. Mortality, years of life lost (YLL), years lived with disability (YLD), and disability-adjusted life years (DALY), were obtained.

RESULTS

Between 1990 and 2019, the young-onset CKD mortality rate increased by 87.3% (126.3% for men and 48.1% for women). In 2019, this rate was highest in Tlaxcala, Estado de México, Puebla, Veracruz, Jalisco, and Guanajuato (all above 8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants); Sinaloa and Quintana Roo had the lowest mortality rates (under 3.5 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants). While men had a higher rate of YLL, women were more likely to present YLD due to CKD. In 1990 there was a negative and statistically significant correlation between the HAQ Index and the young-onset CKD DALY rate.

CONCLUSIONS

In the last 30 years, the burden of early-onset chronic CKD has had an unprecedented increase among the Mexican population, compromising the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals. This will be unattainable if actions to promote healthy lifestyles and prevent kidney disease are not immediately established and articulated, starting with the youngest age groups.

Capacity for the management of kidney failure in the International Society of Nephrology South Asia region: report from the 2023 ISN Global Kidney Health Atlas (ISN-GKHA)

The South Asia region is facing a high burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD) with limited health resources and low expenditure on health care. In addition to the burden of CKD and kidney failure from traditional risk factors, CKD of unknown etiologies from India and Sri Lanka compounds the challenges of optimal management of CKD in the region. From the third edition of the International Society of Nephrology Global Kidney Health Atlas (ISN-GKHA), we present the status of CKD burden, infrastructure, funding, resources, and health care personnel using the World Health Organization's building blocks for health systems in the ISN South Asia region. The poor status of the public health care system and low health care expenditure resulted in high out-of-pocket expenditures for people with kidney disease, which further compounded the situation. There is insufficient country capacity across the region to provide kidney replacement therapies to cover the burden. The infrastructure was also not uniformly distributed among the countries in the region. There were no chronic hemodialysis centers in Afghanistan, and peritoneal dialysis services were only available in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Kidney transplantation was not available in Afghanistan, Bhutan, and Maldives. Conservative kidney management was reported as available in 63% (n = 5) of the countries, yet no country reported availability of the core CKM care components. There was a high hospitalization rate and early mortality because of inadequate kidney care. The lack of national registries and actual disease burden estimates reported in the region prevent policymakers' attention to CKD as an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Data from the 2023 ISN-GKHA, although with some limitations, may be used for advocacy and improving CKD care in the region.

Chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology in Africa: A review of the literature

During the last two decades, an epidemic of a severe form of chronic kidney disease (CKD) unrelated to traditional risk factors (diabetes and hypertension) has been recognized in low- to middle-income countries. CKD of unknown aetiology (CKDu) mainly affects young working-age adults, and has become as an important and devastating public health issue. CKDu is a multifactorial disease with associated genetic and environmental risk factors. This review summarizes the current epidemiological evidence on the burden of CKDu and its probable environmental risk factors contributing to CKD in Africa. PubMed/Medline and the African Journals Online databases were searched to identify relevant population-based studies published in the last two decades. In the general population, the burden of CKD attributable to CKDu varied from 19.4% to 79%. Epidemiologic studies have established that environmental factors, including genetics, infectious agents, rural residence, low socioeconomic status, malnutrition, agricultural practise and exposure to agrochemicals, heavy metals, use of traditional herbs, and contaminated water sources or food contribute to the burden of CKD in the region. There is a great need for epidemiological studies exploring the true burden of CKDu and unique geographical distribution, and the role of environmental factors in the development of CKD/CKDu.

Co-exposure of petrochemical workers to noise and mixture of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and styrene: Impact on mild renal impairment and interaction

Epidemiological evidence concerning effects of simultaneous exposure to noise and benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and styrene (BTEXS) on renal function remains uncertain. In 2020, a cross-sectional study was conducted among 1160 petrochemical workers in southern China to investigate effects of their co-exposure on estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and mild renal impairment (MRI). Noise levels were assessed using cumulative noise exposure (CNE). Urinary biomarkers for BTEXS were quantified. We found the majority of workers had exposure levels to noise and BTEXS below China's occupational exposure limits. CNE, trans, trans-muconic acid (tt-MA), and the sum of mandelic acid and phenylglyoxylic acid (PGMA) were linearly associated with decreased eGFR and increased MRI risk. We observed U-shaped associations for both N-acetyl-S-phenyl-L-cysteine (SPMA) and o-methylhippuric acid (2-MHA) with MRI. In further assessing the joint effect of BTEXS (β, -0.164 [95% CI, -0.296 to -0.033]) per quartile increase in all BTEXS metabolites on eGFR using quantile g-computation models, we found SPMA, tt-MA, 2-MHA, and PGMA played pivotal roles. Additionally, the risk of MRI associated with tt-MA was more pronounced in workers with lower CNE levels (P = 0.004). Multiplicative interaction analysis revealed antagonisms of CNE and PGMA on MRI risk (P = 0.034). Thus, our findings reveal negative dose-effect associations between noise and BTEXS mixture exposure and renal function in petrochemical workers. With the exception of toluene, benzene, xylene, ethylbenzene, and styrene are all concerning pollutants for renal dysfunction. Effects of benzene, ethylbenzene, and styrene exposure on renal dysfunction were more pronounced in workers with lower CNE.

Mind the gap in kidney care: translating what we know into what we do

Historically, it takes an average of 17 years to move new treatments from clinical evidence to daily practice. Given the highly effective treatments now available to prevent or delay kidney disease onset and progression, this is far too long. The time is now to narrow the gap between what we know and what we do. Clear guidelines exist for the prevention and management of common risk factors for kidney disease, such as hypertension and diabetes, but only a fraction of people with these conditions worldwide are diagnosed, and even fewer are treated to target. Similarly, the vast majority of people living with kidney disease are unaware of their condition, because in the early stages it is often silent. Even among patients who have been diagnosed, many do not receive appropriate treatment for kidney disease. Considering the serious consequences of kidney disease progression, kidney failure, or death, it is imperative that treatments are initiated early and appropriately. Opportunities to diagnose and treat kidney disease early must be maximized beginning at the primary care level. Many systematic barriers exist, ranging from patient to clinician to health systems to societal factors. To preserve and improve kidney health for everyone everywhere, each of these barriers must be acknowledged so that sustainable solutions are developed and implemented without further delay.

Burden and quality of care index of chronic kidney disease: Global Burden of Disease analysis for 1990-2019

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) imposes a heavy obscure burden on individuals and health systems. Besides its burden, the quality of care of CKD is less well investigated. In this study, we aimed to explore the global, regional and national trends of CKD burden and quality of care.

METHODS

The Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 data were used. Trends of incidence, prevalence, deaths and disability-adjusted life years were studied for the 1990-2019 period in the global aspect. By generating four secondary indices to assess different aspects of quality of care the quality of care index (QCI) was developed to explore the care provided for CKD. Inequities and disparities between various geographic, socio-demographic and age stratifications, and sex were studied using the QCI values.

RESULTS

In 2019, there were 18 986 903 (95% uncertainty interval 17 556 535 to 20 518 156) incident cases of CKD, globally. The overall global QCI score had increased slightly from 78.4 in 1990 to 81.6 in 2019, and it was marginally better in males (QCI score 83.5) than in females (80.3). The highest QCI score was observed in the European region with a score of 92.5, while the African region displayed the lowest QCI with 61.7. Among the age groups, the highest QCI was for children aged between 5 and 9 years old (92.0), and the lowest was in the age group of 20-24 year olds (65.5).

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed that significant disparities remain regarding the quality of care of CKD, and to reach better care for CKD, attention to and care of minorities should be reconsidered. The evidence presented in this study would benefit health policymakers toward better and more efficient control of CKD burden alongside improving the care of this condition.

Spatial associations between chronic kidney disease and socio-economic factors in Thailand

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a persistent, progressive condition characterized by gradual decline of kidney functions leading to a range of health issues. This research used recent data from the Ministry of Public Health in Thailand and applied spatial regression and local indicators of spatial association (LISA) to examine the spatial associations with night-time light, Internet access and the local number of health personnel per population. Univariate Moran's I scatter plot for CKD in Thailand's provinces revealed a significant positive spatial autocorrelation with a value of 0.393. High-High (HH) CKD clusters were found to be predominantly located in the North, with Low-Low (LL) ones in the South. The LISA analysis identified one HH and one LL with regard to Internet access, 15 HH and five LL clusters related to night-time light and eight HH and five LL clusters associated with the number of health personnel in the area. Spatial regression unveiled significant and meaningful connections between various factors and CKD in Thailand. Night-time light displayed a positive association with CKD in both the spatial error model (SEM) and the spatial lag model (SLM), with coefficients of 3.356 and 2.999, respectively. Conversely, Internet access exhibited corresponding negative CKD associations with a SEM coefficient of - 0.035 and a SLM one of -0.039. Similarly, the health staff/population ratio also demonstrated negative associations with SEM and SLM, with coefficients of -0.033 and -0.068, respectively. SEM emerged as the most suitable spatial regression model with 54.8% according to R2. Also, the Akaike information criterion (AIC) test indicated a better performance for this model, resulting in 697.148 and 698.198 for SEM and SLM, respectively. These findings emphasize the complex interconnection between factors contributing to the prevalence of CKD in Thailand and suggest that socioeconomic and health service factors are significant contributing factors. Addressing this issue will necessitate concentrated efforts to enhance access to health services, especially in urban areas experiencing rapid economic growth.

Diabetes and chronic kidney disease in Chinese adults: a population-based cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Cohort evidence of the association of diabetes mellitus (DM) with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is limited. Previous studies often describe patients with kidney disease and diabetes as diabetic kidney disease (DKD) or CKD, ignoring other subtypes. The present study aimed to assess the prospective association of diabetes status (no diabetes, pre-diabetes, screened diabetes, previously diagnosed controlled/uncontrolled diabetes with/without antidiabetic treatment) and random plasma glucose (RPG) with CKD risk (including CKD subtypes) among Chinese adults.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The present study included 472 545 participants from the China Kadoorie Biobank, using baseline information on diabetes and RPG. The incident CKD and its subtypes were collected through linkage with the national health insurance system during follow-up. Cox regression models were used to calculate the HR and 95% CI.

RESULTS

During 11.8 years of mean follow-up, 5417 adults developed CKD. Screened plus previously diagnosed diabetes was positively associated with CKD (HR=4.52, 95% CI 4.23 to 4.83), DKD (HR=33.85, 95% CI 29.56 to 38.76), and glomerulonephritis (HR=1.66, 95% CI 1.40 to 1.97). In those with previously diagnosed diabetes, participants with uncontrolled diabetes represented higher risks of CKD, DKD, and glomerulonephritis compared with those with controlled RPG. The risk of DKD was found to rise in participants with pre-diabetes and increased with the elevated RPG level, even in those without diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

Among Chinese adults, diabetes was positively associated with CKD, DKD, and glomerulonephritis. Screen-detected and uncontrolled DM had a high risk of CKD, and pre-diabetes was associated with a greater risk of DKD, highlighting the significance of lifelong glycemic management.

Kidney Health Plan 2033 in Korea: bridging the gap between the present and the future

In response to the increase in the prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in Korea, the growth of patients requiring renal replacement therapy and the subsequent increase in medical costs, the rapid expansion of patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), and the decrease in patients receiving home therapy, including peritoneal dialysis, the Korean Society of Nephrology has proclaimed the new policy, Kidney Health Plan 2033 (KHP 2033). KHP 2033 would serve as a milestone to bridge the current issues to a future solution by directing the prevention and progression of CKD and ESKD, particularly diabetic kidney disease, and increasing the proportion of home therapy, thereby reducing the socioeconomic burden of kidney disease and improving the quality of life. Here, we provide the background for the necessity of KHP 2033, as well as the contents of KHP 2033, and enlighten the Korean Society of Nephrology's future goals. Together with patients, healthcare providers, academic societies, and national policymakers, we need to move forward with goal-oriented drive and leadership to achieve these goals.

Cost analysis of the management of end-stage renal disease patients in Abuja, Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Although the treatment for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) under Nigeria's National Health Insurance Authority is haemodialysis (HD), the cost of managing ESRD is understudied in Nigeria. Therefore, this study estimated the provider and patient direct costs of haemodialysis and managing ESRD in Abuja, Nigeria.

METHOD

The study was a cross-sectional survey from both healthcare provider and consumer perspectives. We collected data from public and private tertiary hospitals (n = 6) and ESRD patients (n = 230) receiving haemodialysis in the selected hospitals. We estimated the direct providers' costs using fixed and variable costs. Patients' direct costs included drugs, laboratory services, transportation, feeding, and comorbidities. Additionally, data on the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of patients were collected. The costs were summarized in descriptive statistics using means and percentages. A generalized linear model (gamma with log link) was used to predict the patient characteristics associated with patients' cost of haemodialysis.

RESULTS

The mean direct cost of haemodialysis was $152.20 per session (providers: $123.69; and patients: $28.51) and $23,742.96 annually (providers: $19,295.64; and patients: $4,447.32). Additionally, patients spent an average of $2,968.23 managing comorbidities. The drivers of providers' haemodialysis costs were personnel and supplies. Residing in other towns (HD:β = 0.55, ρ = 0.001; ESRD:β = 0.59, ρ = 0.004), lacking health insurance (HD:β = 0.24, ρ = 0.038), attending private health facility (HD:β = 0.46, ρ < 0.001; ESRD: β = 0.75, ρ < 0.001), and greater than six haemodialysis sessions per month (HD:β = 0.79, ρ < 0.001; ESRD: β = 0.99, ρ < 0.001) significantly increased the patient's out-of-pocket spending on haemodialysis and ESRD.

CONCLUSION

The costs of haemodialysis and managing ESRD patients are high. Providing public subsidies for dialysis and expanding social health insurance coverage for ESRD patients might reduce the costs.

Global incidence and death estimates of chronic kidney disease due to hypertension from 1990 to 2019, an ecological analysis of the global burden of diseases 2019 study

BACKGROUND

The intricate relationship between hypertension and chronic kidney disease (CKD) presents a global challenge for prevention of hypertension-related CKD. This study's objective is to analyze age, gender, regional disparities, and evolving trends in the disease burden of hypertension-related CKD. We aim to estimate changing spatial and temporal trends in incidence and mortality rates, considering the socio-demographic index (SDI), to inform health strategies effectively.

METHOD

Age-standardized incidence rates (ASIR) and death rates (ASDR) were collected from the GBD 2019. Trend analysis was conducted by Joinpoint regression of ASRs from 1990 to 2019. Spatial autocorrelation analysis was performed to obtain spatial patterns. The association between SDI and burden of CKD due to hypertension was estimated using a Pearson correlation analysis.

RESULTS

The global ASIR and ASDR due to hypertension-related CKD were 19.45 (95% CI, 17.85 to 21.09) and 5.88 (95% CI, 4.95 to 6.82) per 100 K population in 2019, representing increases of 17.89% and 13.29% compared to 1990, respectively. The elderly population and males were found the highest ASIR and ASDR. The high SDI region had the highest ASIRs, while low SDI regions experienced the highest ASDRs. Joinpoint regression found both global ASIR and ASDR showed increasing trends, with the highest increases observed in middle- and high-SDI regions, respectively. The SDI exhibited a positive association with ASIRs but displayed an inverse V-shaped correlation with the average annual percentage change (AAPC) of ASIRs. Spatial autocorrelation analysis revel significant positive spatial autocorrelation for the AAPC of ASDRs and ASIRs, from 1990 to 2019.

CONCLUSIONS

Results met the objectives, and demonstrated a rising global burden of hypertension-related CKD. Factors such as aging, gender, and regional variations should be considered when designing control measures and developing healthcare systems to effectively address the burden of this complex condition.

Serum Uric Acid Levels and Their Association with Renal Function Decline and Kidney Disease Progression in Middle-Aged and Elderly Populations: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Objective

To evaluate the associations between serum uric acid (SUA) levels and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), with a focus on gender differences, and variations among women pre-and post-menopausal stages.

Design

A retrospective cohort study.

Setting

A large community-based survey was conducted every two years from 2010 to 2018 in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, Southeastern China.

Participants

10,218 participants (40 years or above) without CKD at baseline who underwent three physical examinations were enrolled. CKD was defined as an eGFR of less than 60 mL/min/1.73m2.

Methods

Participants with SUA levels were divided into four groups (Q1-Q4) based on baseline SUA quartiles. The Q1 was the reference. By stratifying participants by gender, the relationships between SUA levels and eGFR were investigated using the generalized additive mixture model. The associations of SUA and the risk of incident CKD were examined using multivariate logistic regression models in the generalized estimating equation.

Results

After adjusting for confounding variables, a nonlinear association between SUA and eGFR was observed in females, while an approximately linear relationship was observed in males, suggesting that elevated SUA levels are associated with renal function decline. Furthermore, the highest quartile of SUA was associated with a 2.16-fold (95% CI: 1.31-3.58) increased risk of CKD in males and a 2.76-fold (95% CI: 1.59-4.78) increased risk in females, compared with the lowest quartile. And the spline curves demonstrated a U-shaped pattern, suggesting a potential threshold effect of SUA on the risk of CKD. Additionally, Subgroup analyses revealed significant associations between elevated SUA levels with CKD in postmenopausal women, but not in premenopausal women.

Conclusion

Elevated SUA levels are associated with an increased risk of CKD development and renal function decline in middle-aged and elderly individuals, particularly in postmenopausal women.

Disease burden of chronic kidney disease attributable to lead exposure: A global analysis of 30 years since 1990

BACKGROUND

Exposure to lead (Pb) is associated with an increased risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, limited studies explored the global burden of CKD attributable to Pb exposure, especially in countries with different development levels. This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the temporal and spatial trend in the disease burden of CKD attributable to Pb exposure in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019.

METHODS

We used the data from Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) 2019 to estimate annual deaths, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR), and age-standardized DALYs rate (ASDR) of CKD attributable to Pb exposure. The annual average percentage change (AAPCs) was calculated using the Joinpoint model to evaluate the changing trend of CKD ASMR and ASDR attributable to Pb exposure from 1990 to 2019. Meanwhile, age-period-cohort (APC) model was used to assess changes in the mortality of CKD attributable to Pb exposure from 1990 to 2019.

RESULTS

Global ASMR for CKD attributable to Pb exposure trended upward from 1990 to 2019. ASMR and ASDR were the highest in low and low-middle SDI regions. With the APC model, we found that global mortality rates for CKD attributable to Pb exposure increased with age. The global period rate ratio showed the highest value in 2000-2004 and the lowest in 2015-2019, while the global cohort rate ratio showed the highest value in 1941-1949 and the lowest during 1986-1994.

CONCLUSIONS

From 1990 to 2019, the global burden of CKD attributable to Pb exposure increased globally, especially in low and low-middle SDI regions, as well as the elderly. Pb exposure is still a great threat to the global burden of CKD, and the implementation of effective prevention measures to reduce Pb exposure in the environment should be continually strengthened.

Sustainable Development Goals: Challenges and the Role of the International Society of Nephrology in Improving Global Kidney Health

The United Nations 2030 agenda for sustainable development includes 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) that represent a universal call to end poverty and protect the planet, and are intended to guide government and private sector policies for international cooperation and optimal mobilization of resources. At the core of their achievement is reducing mortality by improving the global burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. CKD is the only NCD with a consistently rising age-adjusted mortality rate and is rising steadily up the list of the causes of lives lost globally. Kidney disease is strongly affected by social determinants of health, with a strong interplay between CKD incidence and progression and other NCDs and SDGs. Tackling the shared CKD and NCD risk factors will help with progress toward the SDGs and vice versa . Challenges to global kidney health include both preexisting socioeconomic factors and natural and human-induced disasters, many of which are intended to be addressed through actions proposed in the sustainable development agenda. Opportunities to address these challenges include public health policies focused on integrated kidney care, kidney disease surveillance, building strategic partnerships, building workforce capacity, harnessing technology and virtual platforms, advocacy/public awareness campaigns, translational and implementation research, and environmentally sustainable kidney care.

Disease Burden and Epidemiological Trends of Chronic Kidney Disease at the Global, Regional, National Levels from 1990 to 2019

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a serious public health issue worldwide, but the disease burden of CKD caused by different etiologies and changing trends has not been fully examined.

METHODS

We collected data from Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 (GBD 2019), including incident cases, age-standardized incidence rate (ASIR), disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and age-standardized DALY rate between 1990 and 2019 by region, etiology, age, and sex, and calculated the estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) of the rate to evaluate the epidemiological trends.

RESULTS

Globally, incident cases of CKD increased from 7.80 million in 1990 to 18.99 million in 2019, and DALYs increased from 21.50 million to 41.54 million. ASIR increased with an EAPC of 0.69 (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 0.49-0.89) and reached 233.65 per 100,000 in 2019, while the age-standardized DALY rate increased with an EAPC of 0.30 (95% UI 0.17-0.43) and reached 514.86 per 100,000. North Africa and the Middle East, central Latin America, and North America had the highest ASIR in 2019. Central Latin America had the highest age-standardized DALY rate, meanwhile. Almost all countries experienced an increase in ASIR, and over 50% of countries had an increasing trend in age-standardized DALY rate from 1990 to 2019. CKD due to diabetes mellitus type 2 and hypertension accounted for the largest disease burden with 85% incident cases and 66% DALYs in 2019 of known causes, with the highest growth in age-standardized DALY rate and a similar geographic pattern to that of total CKD. Besides, the highest incidence rate of total and four specific CKDs were identified in people aged 70 plus years, who also had the highest DALY rate with a stable trend after 2010. Females had a higher ASIR, while males had a higher age-standardized DALY rate, the gap of which was most distinctive in CKD due to hypertension.

CONCLUSION

The disease burden of CKD remains substantial and continues to grow globally. From 1990 to 2019, global incident cases of CKD have more than doubled and DALYs have almost doubled, and surpassed 40 million years. CKD due to diabetes mellitus type 2 and hypertension contributed nearly 2/3 of DALYs in 2019 of known causes, and had witnessed the highest growth in age-standardized DALY rate. Etiology-specific prevention strategies should be placed as a high priority on the goal of precise control of CKD.

A National Case-Crossover Study on the Risk of Kidney Injury Requiring Dialysis after Sepsis

BACKGROUND

Patients with sepsis-associated acute kidney injury (AKI) are at risk of kidney damage, potentially necessitating acute temporary or chronic dialysis. Our study aims to estimate the odds ratio (OR) of preceding sepsis among patients requiring their first dialysis.

METHODS

A nationwide population-based case-only study was conducted using claims records from the National Health insurance database of Taiwan. All patients over 20 years of age who underwent their first dialysis between 2004 and 2016 were included in the study. The six months prior to their first dialysis served as a self-control period.

RESULTS

The study included 147,201 patients who required acute temporary and 75,031 patients who required chronic dialysis. The odds ratios for patients needing acute temporary dialysis after 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks of exposure periods were 15.8, 10.7, 9.2, and 8.4, respectively. The ORs for patients requiring chronic dialysis were 7.0, 4.1, 4.2, and 3.7, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that sepsis was substantially associated with an increased risk of renal failure. The risk was highest during the first week following sepsis for both acute temporary and chronic dialysis cases.

Understanding Similarities and Differences in CKD and Dialysis Care in Children and Adults

In lower-income settings there is often a dearth of resources and nephrologists, especially pediatric nephrologists, and individual physicians often find themselves caring for patients with chronic kidney diseases and end-stage kidney failure across the age spectrum. The management of such patients in high-income settings is relatively protocolized and permits high-volume services to run efficiently. The basic principles of managing chronic kidney disease and providing dialysis are similar for adults and children, however, given the differences in body size, causes of kidney failure, nutrition, and growth between children and adults with kidney diseases, nephrologists must understand the relevance of these differences, and have an approach to providing quality and safe dialysis to each group. Prevention, early diagnosis, and early intervention with simple therapeutic and lifestyle interventions are achievable goals to manage symptoms, complications, and reduce progression, or avoid kidney failure in children and adults. These strategies currently are easier to implement in higher-resource settings with robust health systems. In many low-resource settings, kidney diseases are only first diagnosed at end stage, and resources to pay out of pocket for appropriate care are lacking. Many barriers therefore exist in these settings, where specialist nephrology personnel may be least accessible. To improve management of patients at all ages, we highlight differences and similarities, and provide practical guidance on the management of children and adults with chronic kidney disease and kidney failure. It is important that children are managed with a view to optimizing growth and well-being and maximizing future options (eg, maintaining vein health and optimizing cardiovascular risk), and that adults are managed with attention paid to quality of life and optimization of physical health.

Global, regional, and national burden of kidney dysfunction from 1990 to 2019: a systematic analysis from the global burden of disease study 2019

OBJECTIVE

We aim to explore the prevalence and temporal trends of the burden of kidney dysfunction (KD) in global, regional and national level, since a lack of related studies.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

MATERIALS

The data of this research was obtained from Global Burden of Diseases Study 2019. The estimation of the prevalence, which was measured by the summary exposure value (SEV), and attributable burden of KD was performed by DisMod-MR 2.1, a Bayesian meta-regression tool. The Spearman rank order correlation method was adopted to perform correlation analysis. The temporal trends were represented by the estimated annual percentage change (EAPC).

RESULTS

In 2019, there were total 3.16 million deaths and 76.5 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) attributable to KD, increased by 101.1% and 81.7% compared with that in 1990, respectively. From 1990 to 2019, the prevalence of KD has increased in worldwide, but decreased in High-income Asia Pacific. Nearly 48.5% of countries globally, such as South Africa, Egypt and Mexico had increased mortality rates of KD from 1990 to 2019 while 44.6% for disability rate. Countries with lower socio-demographic index (SDI) are facing a higher prevalence as well as mortality and disability rate compared with those with higher SDI. Compared with females, the prevalence of KD was lower in males, however the attributable mortality and disability rate were higher in all years from 1990 to 2019.

CONCLUSION

With the progress of senescent, we will face more severe challenges of reducing the prevalence and attributable burden of KD, especially in regions with lower SDI. Effective measures are urgently required to alleviate the prevalence and burden of KD.

Threshold effect of urinary chromium on kidney function biomarkers: Evidence from a repeated-measures study

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a public health concern worldwide, and chromium exposure may be a risk factor due to its potential nephrotoxicity. However, research on the association between chromium exposure and kidney function especially the potential threshold effect of chromium exposure is limited. A repeated-measures study involving 183 adults (641 observations) was conducted from 2017 to 2021 in Jinzhou, China. Urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) were measured as kidney function biomarkers. Generalized mixed models and two-piecewise linear spline mixed models were used to assess the dose-response relationship and potential threshold effect of chromium on kidney function, respectively. Temporal analysis was conducted by the latent process mixed model to depict the longitudinal change of kidney function over age. Urinary chromium was associated with CKD (odds ratio [OR] = 1.29; 95 % confidence interval [CI], 6.41, 14.06) and UACR (Percent change = 10.16 %; 95 % CI, 6.41 %, 14.06 %), and we did not find significant association between urinary chromium and eGFR (Percent change = 0.06 %; 95 % CI, -0.80 %, 0.95 %). The threshold analyses suggested the existence of threshold effects of urinary chromium, with inflection points at 2.74 μg/L for UACR and 3.95 μg/L for eGFR. Furthermore, we found that chromium exposure exhibited stronger kidney damage over age. Our study provided evidence for the threshold effects of chromium exposure on kidney function biomarkers and the heightened nephrotoxicity of chromium in older adults. More attention should be paid to the supervision of chromium exposure concentrations for preventing kidney damage, especially in older adults.

Role of Sex Hormones in Prevalent Kidney Diseases

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a constantly growing global health burden, with more than 840 million people affected worldwide. CKD presents sex disparities in the pathophysiology of the disease, as well as in the epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and disease progression. Overall, while CKD is more frequent in females, males have a higher risk to progress to end-stage kidney disease. In recent years, numerous studies have highlighted the role of sex hormones in the health and diseases of several organs, including the kidney. In this review, we present a clinical overview of the sex-differences in CKD and a selection of prominent kidney diseases causing CKD: lupus nephritis, diabetic kidney disease, IgA nephropathy, and autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. We report clinical and experimental findings on the role of sex hormones in the development of the disease and its progression to end-stage kidney disease.

Burden of chronic kidney diseases and underlying causes in Zambia: evidence from the global burden of disease study 2019

INTRODUCTION

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been a global public health problem and a major source of suffering and poor quality of life for those afflicted. Using data from the global burden of disease (GBD) study 2019, we estimated the magnitude of the burden of CKD as well as the underlying causes of CKD in the Zambian population.

METHOD

The data used for this study were extracted from the GBD 2019 study. The GBD 2019 provides estimates of several metrics of disease burden including the commonly used disability-adjusted life year (DALYs) for over 369 diseases and injuries, and 87 risk factors and combinations of these in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019. We estimated the burden of CKD as the number and rates (per 100,000 population) of DALYs, disaggregated by year, sex, and age group. We examined the underlying causes of CKD by estimating the population attributable fraction as the percentage contributions of risk factors to CKD DALY.

RESULTS

The number of DALYs for CKD was estimated as 76.03 million (95% UI: 61.01 to 93.36) in 2019 compared to 39.42 million (95% UI: 33.09 to 45.90) in 1990, representing 93% increase whereas the DALYs rate per 100,000 population was estimated as 416.89 (95% UI: 334.53 to 511.93) in 2019 compared to 496.38 (95% UI: 416.55 to 577.87) in 1990, representing 16% reduction. CKD due to hypertension accounted for 18.7% of CKD DALYs and CKD due to diabetes (types 1 and 2) accounted for 22.7%, while CKD from glomerulonephritis accounted for the most DALYs at 33%. The age group most impacted from CKD were adolescents and young adults.

CONCLUSION

The burden of CKD remains high in the Zambian population with diabetes, high blood pressure, and glomerulonephritis as important causes. The results highlight the need to develop a comprehensive action plan to prevent and treat kidney disease. Increasing the awareness of CKD among the public as well as adaptation of guidelines for treating patients with end stage kidney disease are important considerations.

Progression of chronic kidney disease among black patients attending a tertiary hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health issue worldwide and is an important contributor to the overall non-communicable disease burden. Chronic kidney disease is usually asymptomatic, and insidiously and silently progresses to advanced stages in resource limited settings.

METHODOLOGY

A prospective longitudinal study was carried out on black patients with CKD attending the kidney outpatient clinic at Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital (CMJAH) in South Africa, between September 2019 to March 2022. Demographic and clinical data were extracted from the ongoing continuous clinic records, as well as measurements of vital signs and interviews at baseline and at follow up. Patients provided urine and blood samples for laboratory investigations as standard of care at study entry (0) and at 24 months, and were followed up prospectively for two (2) years. Data were descriptively and inferentially entered into REDcap and analysed using STATA version 17, and multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify predictors of CKD progression.

RESULTS

A total of 312 patients were enrolled into the study, 297 (95.2%) patients completed the study, 10 (3.2%) patients were lost to follow and 5 (1.6%) patients died during the study period. The prevalence of CKD progression was 49.5%, while that of CKD remission was 33% and CKD regression was 17.5%. For patients with CKD progression the median age at baseline was 58 (46-67) years, the median eGFR was 37 (32-51) mL/min/1.73 m2, median urine protein creatinine ratio (uPCR) was 0.038 (0.016-0.82) g/mmol and the median haemoglobin (Hb) was 13.1 (11.7-14.4) g/dl; 95.2% had hypertension, 40.1% patients had diabetes mellitus and 39.5% had both hypertension and diabetes mellitus. Almost half (48.3%) of patients with CKD progression had severely increased proteinuria and 45.6% had anaemia. Variables associated with higher odds for CKD progression after multivariable logistic regression analysis were severely increased proteinuria (OR 32.3, 95% CI 2.8-368.6, P = 0.005), moderately increased proteinuria (OR 23.3, 95% CI 2.6-230.1, P = 0.007), hypocalcaemia (OR 3.8, 95% CI 1.0-14.8, P = 0.047), hyponatraemia (OR 4.5, 95% CI 0.8-23.6, P = 0.042), anaemia (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.0-4.3, P = 0.048), diabetes mellitus (OR 1.8, 95% CI 0.9-3.6, P = 0.047), elevated HbA1c (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.2-2.8, P = 0.007) and current smoking (OR 2.8, 95% CI 0.9-8.6, P = 0.049).

CONCLUSION

Our study identified a higher prevalence of CKD progression in a prospective longitudinal study of black patients with CKD compared with literature reports. CKD Progression was associated with proteinuria, diabetes mellitus, elevated HbA1c, anaemia, hypocalcaemia, hyponatraemia and current smoking in a cohort of black patients with CKD who had controlled hypertension and diabetes mellitus at baseline.

Efficacy of Lanthanum Carbonate and Sevelamer Carbonate as Phosphate Binders in Chronic Kidney Disease-A Comparative Clinical Study

(1) Background: Hyperphosphatemia is correlated with an increased rate of mortality and morbidity due to cardiovascular diseases in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. It can be improved by restricting dietary intake of phosphate and oral phosphate binders, such as lanthanum carbonate and sevelamer carbonate. (2) Objective: To evaluate the clinical efficacy of sevelamer carbonate in comparison to lanthanum carbonate as phosphate binders for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia in CKD patients. (3) Methods: A randomized control comparative clinical study was conducted for one year on 150 CKD patients associated with hyperphosphatemia, divided into two groups, i.e., Group 1 (n = 75) treated with sevelamer carbonate 800 mg thrice daily and Group 2 (n = 75) treated with lanthanum carbonate 500 mg thrice daily. The patients were assessed at the time of enrollment in the study, after three months and after six months from baseline for different parameters, i.e., complete blood count, liver function tests, renal function tests, electrolytes, and serum phosphate level. (4) Results: 150 CKD patients aged 51-60 participated in the study. The mean age of patients was 54 ± 4.6 years, and males (55.71%) were more common than females (44.29%). Hypertension was the common comorbidity in both groups with chronic kidney disease. After six months of treatment, the mean serum phosphate level was significantly decreased from 8.31 ± 0.09 mg/dL to 5.11 ± 0.18 (38%) in Group 1 and from 8.79 ± 0.28 mg/dl to 4.02 ± 0.12 (54%; p < 0.05) in Group 2, respectively. In both groups, no significant difference was found in other parameters such as parathyroid hormone, calcium, uric acid, LFT, RFT, CBC, etc. (5) Conclusion: Lanthanum carbonate is more efficacious in lowering serum phosphate concentrations and effectively managing hyperphosphatemia as compared to sevelamer carbonate.

Trends in global burden of diseases attributable to lead exposure in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019

Background

Lead hazards are ubiquitous in the environment, and lead exposure has been proved to damage human health. Nevertheless, there is limited data on the global burden of diseases attributable to lead exposure. In this study, we evaluated the temporal-spatial trend of disease burden caused by lead exposure in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2019.

Methods

Based on Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study 2019, deaths, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and DALYs rate (ASDR) were estimated by region, country, sex and age. The estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) was calculated to assess the temporal trends of ASMR and ASDR between 1990 and 2019.

Results

Global deaths increased from 0.53 (95% UI: 0.31, 0.77) to 0.90 (95% UI: 0.55, 1.29) million, and the number of DALYs increased from 16.02 (95% UI: 10.32, 22.17) to 21.68 (95% UI: 13.81, 30.30) million between 1990 and 2019. China, India and Bangladesh were top three countries with the largest number of deaths and DALYs in 2019. The ASMR (per 100,000 population) decreased from 14.47 (95% UI: 8.40, 21.43) to 11.48 (95% UI: 7.00, 16.49) with EAPC of -0.75 (95% UI: -0.87, -0.64), and the ASDR (per 100,000 population) decreased from 378.01 (95% UI: 240.55, 524.18) to 267.52 (95% UI: 170.57, 373.44) with EAPC of -1.19 (95% UI: -1.32, -1.07). Most of disease burden of lead exposure occurred in the men and elderly population. Stroke and ischemic heart disease were two key sources of disease burden of lead exposure. Also, a negative association between sociodemographic index (SDI) and disease burden of lead exposure was observed.

Conclusions

Lead exposure poses a significant disease burden globally, and is still a great threat to public health. Primary prevention measures of reducing lead exposure in the environment are essential.

Major areas of interest of artificial intelligence research applied to health care administrative data: a scoping review

Introduction: The ongoing collection of large medical data has created conditions for application of artificial intelligence (AI) in research. This scoping review aimed to identify major areas of interest of AI applied to health care administrative data.

Methods: The search was performed in seven databases: Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Web of science, IEEE, ICM digital library, and Compendex. We included articles published between January 2001 and March 2021, that described research with AI applied to medical diagnostics, pharmacotherapy, and health outcomes data. We screened the full text content and used natural language processing to automatically extract health areas of interest, principal AI methods, and names of medications.

Results: Out of 14,864 articles, 343 were included. We determined ten areas of interest, the most common being health diagnostic or treatment outcome prediction (32%); representation of medical data, clinical pathways, and data temporality (i.e., transformation of raw medical data into compact and analysis-friendly format) (22%); and adverse drug effects, drug-drug interactions, and medication cascades (15%). Less attention has been devoted to areas such as health effects of polypharmacy (1%); and reinforcement learning (1%). The most common AI methods were decision trees, cluster analysis, random forests, and support vector machines. Most frequently mentioned medications included insulin, metformin, vitamins, acetaminophen, and heparin.

Conclusions: The scoping review revealed the potential of AI application to health-related studies. However, several areas of interest in pharmacoepidemiology are sparsely reported, and the lack of details in studies related to pharmacotherapy suggests that AI could be used more optimally in pharmacoepidemiologic research.

Twenty-Year Mortality Trends in Patients with Kidney Disease in Poland with the Use of the Years of Life Lost Measure, 2000-2019

Due to the significant socioeconomic burden of kidney diseases, we decided to analyse years of life lost (YLLs) from this cause in Poland between the years 2000 and 2019. The standard expected years of life lost (SEYLL) measure was used to calculate the number of YLLs, the value of which was related to the size of the study population and calculated per 100,000 persons (SEYLLp). A time trend analysis was performed using the Joinpoint regression method. In 2000, the number of YLLs for the entire population was 72,795 (SEYLLp = 190.3 years). After a period of minor changes between 2000 and 2011 (increasing at 0.9% per year), the YLL index rapidly declined between 2011 and 2015 (at −15.4% yearly) and then increased in the last years of the study period (at 12.5% yearly). These changes resulted in a decrease in the number of YLLs to 57,278 in 2019 (SEYLLp = 149.2). The deteriorating health status of Poles after 2015 most likely was caused by the aging of the population, as well as the increasing incidence of risk factors, in particular diabetes and arterial hypertension.