Bacteria and sputum inflammatory cell counts; a COPD cohort analysis

The relevance of eosinophils in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: inflammation, microbiome, and clinical outcomes

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is caused by the inhalation of noxious particles such as cigarette smoke. The pathophysiological features include airway inflammation, alveolar destruction, and poorly reversible airflow obstruction. A subgroup of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease has higher blood eosinophil counts, associated with an increased response to inhaled corticosteroids and increased biomarkers of pulmonary type 2 inflammation. Emerging evidence shows that patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with increased pulmonary eosinophil counts have an altered airway microbiome. Higher blood eosinophil counts are also associated with increased lung function decline, implicating type 2 inflammation in progressive pathophysiology in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. We provide a narrative review of the role of eosinophils and type 2 inflammation in the pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, encompassing the lung microbiome, pharmacological targeting of type 2 pathways in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and the clinical use of blood eosinophil count as a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease biomarker.

Rethinking Blood Eosinophils for Assessing Inhaled Corticosteroids Response in COPD: A Post Hoc Analysis From the FLAME Trial

BACKGROUND

The varied treatment response to inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) in patients with COPD and the associated increased risk of pneumonia necessitate a personalized ICS therapeutic approach. This is informed by blood eosinophil count (BEC), which predicts ICS treatment response. However, BEC appears to change in response to ICS treatment.

RESEARCH QUESTION

Does (1) BEC measured on ICS treatment (2) BEC measured off ICS treatment, or (3) the change in BEC during ICS treatment best predict treatment response to ICS in COPD?

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The Fluticasone Salmeterol on COPD Exacerbations Trial (FLAME), a 52-week, double-blind randomized controlled trial compared long-acting beta-2 agonists (LABAs)/long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMAs) with LABA/ICS. Corticosteroids were prohibited during a 4-week run-in period. We chose patients previously on ICS, thereby allowing BEC before and after the run-in period to represent BEC on and off ICS, respectively. In this post hoc analysis, we revisited outcome data, exploring how the three BEC biomarkers interacted with treatment response to the ICS-containing regimen.

RESULTS

Our study showed that LABA/LAMA combination was superior, or at least noninferior, to LABA/ICS in curbing exacerbations for most FLAME participants. However, higher BEC off ICS, higher BEC on ICS, and significant BEC suppression during ICS treatment corresponded to superior response to LABA/ICS in terms of exacerbation rate, time to first exacerbation, and time to first pneumonia. In a subgroup, including 9% of participants, BEC changed significantly during ICS treatment (≥ 200 cells/μL), and higher BEC on ICS did not predict ICS treatment response. For these patients, BEC off ICS and BEC change proved more predictive. Excess pneumonia risk associated with ICS appeared to be confined to patients who do not benefit from this treatment. BEC was not predictive of treatment effects on lung function and health status.

INTERPRETATION

This exploratory analysis advocates preferentially using BEC off ICS or BEC change during ICS treatment for guiding ICS treatment decisions. BEC measured on ICS is less predictive of treatment response.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov; No.: NCT01782326; URL: www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov.

Exploring the Role of Gut-Lung Interactions in COPD Pathogenesis: A Comprehensive Review on Microbiota Characteristics and Inflammation Modulation

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a paramount contributor to global morbidity and mortality. Over the past decade, the concept of the "gut-lung axis" has emerged, offering a lens through which to examine the intricate interplay between the host, microbiome, and respiratory diseases, including COPD. An expanding body of evidence underscores that the composition of both the gastrointestinal and respiratory microbiome deviates in COPD patients compared to healthy individuals, leading to distinct host immune responses and clinical manifestations. The objective of this review is to provide a concise overview of the role both gut and respiratory microbiome play in the development of COPD. This was accomplished by compiling current literature on the microbiome profile in stable and exacerbated cases of COPD, as well as exploring the biological mechanisms through a discussion of relevant experiments conducted on murine models. Hallmark characteristics of the microbial profile in COPD encompass reduced Prevotella species in the respiratory microbiome, culminating in a loss of anti-inflammatory protection, and diminished Bacteroidetes in the gut microbiome, leading to a decrease in protective short-chain fatty acids. The proliferation of Proteobacteria, particularly the Haemophilus species, Moraxellaspecies, and Pseudomonas species contribute to COPD pathologies via recognition of proinflammatory lipopolysaccharide via Toll-like receptors. As a consequence, deteriorated pulmonary function, enhanced severity, increased onset of exacerbations, and elevated mortality were observed.

Human genetic associations of the airway microbiome in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Little is known about the relationships between human genetics and the airway microbiome. Deeply sequenced airway metagenomics, by simultaneously characterizing the microbiome and host genetics, provide a unique opportunity to assess the microbiome-host genetic associations. Here we performed a co-profiling of microbiome and host genetics with the identification of over 5 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) through deep metagenomic sequencing in sputum of 99 chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and 36 healthy individuals. Host genetic variation was the most significant factor associated with the microbiome except for geography and disease status, with its top 5 principal components accounting for 12.11% of the microbiome variability. Within COPD individuals, 113 SNPs mapped to candidate genes reported as genetically associated with COPD exhibited associations with 29 microbial species and 48 functional modules (P < 1 × 10-5), where Streptococcus salivarius exhibits the strongest association to SNP rs6917641 in TBC1D32 (P = 9.54 × 10-8). Integration of concurrent host transcriptomic data identified correlations between the expression of host genes and their genetically-linked microbiome features, including NUDT1, MAD1L1 and Veillonella parvula, TTLL9 and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and LTA4H and Haemophilus influenzae. Mendelian randomization analyses revealed a potential causal link between PARK7 expression and microbial type III secretion system, and a genetically-mediated association between COPD and increased relative abundance of airway Streptococcus intermedius. These results suggest a previously underappreciated role of host genetics in shaping the airway microbiome and provide fresh hypotheses for genetic-based host-microbiome interactions in COPD.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the airway microbiome: A review for clinicians

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a complex heterogeneous disease characterized by progressive airflow limitation and chronic inflammation. The progressive development and long-term repeated acute exacerbation of COPD make many patients still unable to control the deterioration of the disease after active treatment, and even eventually lead to death. An increasing number of studies have shown that the occurrence and development of COPD are closely related to the composition and changes of airway microbiome. This article reviews the interaction between COPD and airway microbiome, the potential mechanisms of interaction, and the treatment methods related to microbiome. We elaborated the internal correlation between airway microbiome and different stages of COPD, inflammatory endotypes, glucocorticoid and antibiotic treatment, analyze the pathophysiological mechanisms such as the "vicious cycle" hypothesis, abnormal inflammation-immune response of the host and the "natural selection" of COPD to airway microbiome, introduce the treatment of COPD related to microbiome and emphasize the predictive value of airway microbiome for the progression, exacerbation and prognosis of COPD, as well as the guiding role for clinical management of patients, in order to provide a new perspective for exploring the pathogenesis of COPD, and also provide clues and guidance for finding new treatment targets.

High Blood Eosinophil Count at Stable State is Not Associated with Airway Microbiota Distinct Profile in COPD

Purpose

The heterogeneity of clinical features in COPD at stable state has been associated with airway microbiota. Blood eosinophil count (BEC) represents a biomarker for a pejorative evolution of COPD, including exacerbations and accelerated FEV1 decline. We aimed to analyse the associations between BEC and airway microbiota in COPD at stable state.

Patients and Methods

Adult COPD patients at stable state (RINNOPARI cohort) were included and characterised for clinical, functional, biological and morphological features. BEC at inclusion defined 2 groups of patients with low BEC <300/mm3 and high BEC ≥300/mm3. Sputa were collected and an extended microbiological culture was performed for the identification of viable airway microbiota.

Results

Fifty-nine subjects were included. When compared with the low BEC (n=40, 67.8%), the high BEC group (n=19, 32.2%) had more frequent exacerbations (p<0.001) and more pronounced cough and sputum (p<0.05). The global composition, the number of bacteria per sample and the α-diversity of the microbiota did not differ between groups, as well as the predominant phyla (Firmicutes), or the gender repartition.

Conclusion

In our study, high BEC in COPD at stable state was associated with a clinical phenotype including frequent exacerbation, but no distinct profile of viable airway microbiota compared with low BEC.

Targeting respiratory microbiomes in COPD and bronchiectasis

INTRODUCTION

This review summarizes our current understanding of the respiratory microbiome in COPD and Bronchiectasis. We explore the interplay between microbial communities, host immune responses, disease pathology, and treatment outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

We detail the dynamics of the airway microbiome, its influence on chronic respiratory diseases, and analytical challenges. Relevant articles from PubMed and Medline (January 2010-March 2024) were retrieved and summarized. We examine clinical correlations of the microbiome in COPD and bronchiectasis, assessing how current therapies impact upon it. The potential of emerging immunotherapies, antiinflammatories and antimicrobial strategies is discussed, with focus on the pivotal role of commensal taxa in maintaining respiratory health and the promising avenue of microbiome remodeling for disease management.

EXPERT OPINION

Given the heterogeneity in microbiome composition and its pivotal role in disease development and progression, a shift toward microbiome-directed therapeutics is appealing. This transition, from traditional 'pathogencentric' diagnostic and treatment modalities to those acknowledging the microbiome, can be enabled by evolving crossdisciplinary platforms which have the potential to accelerate microbiome-based interventions into routine clinical practice. Bridging the gap between comprehensive microbiome analysis and clinical application, however, remains challenging, necessitating continued innovation in research, diagnostics, trials, and therapeutic development pipelines.

How inhaled corticosteroids target inflammation in COPD

Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are the most commonly used anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of COPD. COPD has been previously described as a "corticosteroid-resistant" condition, but current clinical trial evidence shows that selected COPD patients, namely those with increased exacerbation risk plus higher blood eosinophil count (BEC), can benefit from ICS treatment. This review describes the components of inflammation modulated by ICS in COPD and the reasons for the variation in response to ICS between individuals. There are corticosteroid-insensitive inflammatory pathways in COPD, such as bacteria-induced macrophage interleukin-8 production and resultant neutrophil recruitment, but also corticosteroid-sensitive pathways including the reduction of type 2 markers and mast cell numbers. The review also describes the mechanisms whereby ICS can skew the lung microbiome, with reduced diversity and increased relative abundance, towards an excess of proteobacteria. BEC is a biomarker used to enable the selective use of ICS in COPD, but the clinical outcome in an individual is decided by a complex interacting network involving the microbiome and airway inflammation.

Early diagnostic BioMARKers in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: protocol of the exploratory, prospective, longitudinal, single-centre, observational MARKED study

INTRODUCTION

Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD) play a pivotal role in the burden and progressive course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). As such, disease management is predominantly based on the prevention of these episodes of acute worsening of respiratory symptoms. However, to date, personalised prediction and early and accurate diagnosis of AECOPD remain unsuccessful. Therefore, the current study was designed to explore which frequently measured biomarkers can predict an AECOPD and/or respiratory infection in patients with COPD. Moreover, the study aims to increase our understanding of the heterogeneity of AECOPD as well as the role of microbial composition and hostmicrobiome interactions to elucidate new disease biology in COPD.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The 'Early diagnostic BioMARKers in Exacerbations of COPD' study is an exploratory, prospective, longitudinal, single-centre, observational study with 8-week follow-up enrolling up to 150 patients with COPD admitted to inpatient pulmonary rehabilitation at Ciro (Horn, the Netherlands). Respiratory symptoms, vitals, spirometry and nasopharyngeal, venous blood, spontaneous sputum and stool samples will be frequently collected for exploratory biomarker analysis, longitudinal characterisation of AECOPD (ie, clinical, functional and microbial) and to identify host-microbiome interactions. Genomic sequencing will be performed to identify mutations associated with increased risk of AECOPD and microbial infections. Predictors of time-to-first AECOPD will be modelled using Cox proportional hazards' regression. Multiomic analyses will provide a novel integration tool to generate predictive models and testable hypotheses about disease causation and predictors of disease progression.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This protocol was approved by the Medical Research Ethics Committees United (MEC-U), Nieuwegein, the Netherlands (NL71364.100.19).

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT05315674.

Applying Next-Generation Sequencing and Multi-Omics in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Microbiomics have significantly advanced over the last decade, driven by the widespread availability of next-generation sequencing (NGS) and multi-omic technologies. Integration of NGS and multi-omic datasets allow for a holistic assessment of endophenotypes across a range of chronic respiratory disease states, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Valuable insight has been attained into the nature, function, and significance of microbial communities in disease onset, progression, prognosis, and response to treatment in COPD. Moving beyond single-biome assessment, there now exists a growing literature on functional assessment and host-microbe interaction and, in particular, their contribution to disease progression, severity, and outcome. Identifying specific microbes and/or metabolic signatures associated with COPD can open novel avenues for therapeutic intervention and prognosis-related biomarkers. Despite the promise and potential of these approaches, the large amount of data generated by such technologies can be challenging to analyze and interpret, and currently, there remains a lack of standardized methods to address this. This review outlines the current use and proposes future avenues for the application of NGS and multi-omic technologies in the endophenotyping, prognostication, and treatment of COPD.

Benefits of Budesonide/Glycopyrronium/Formoterol Fumarate Dihydrate on COPD Exacerbations, Lung Function, Symptoms, and Quality of Life Across Blood Eosinophil Ranges: A Post-Hoc Analysis of Data from ETHOS

Purpose

Blood eosinophil (EOS) count can guide treatment decisions for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In the 52-week ETHOS study (NCT02465567), budesonide/glycopyrronium/formoterol fumarate dihydrate (BGF) triple therapy at two inhaled corticosteroid doses reduced moderate/severe exacerbation rates and improved lung function, symptoms, and disease-related quality of life (QoL) versus dual therapy with glycopyrronium/formoterol fumarate dihydrate (GFF) or budesonide/formoterol fumarate dihydrate (BFF) in patients with moderate-to-very severe COPD. This subgroup analysis evaluated treatment benefits in ETHOS by baseline EOS count.

Methods

Patients (40-80 years) with a COPD history were randomly assigned 1:1:1:1 to receive BGF 320/14.4/10 µg, BGF 160/14.4/10 µg, GFF 14.4/10 µg, or BFF 320/10 µg via a metered-dose inhaler. This post-hoc analysis assessed endpoints by baseline EOS count using Global Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease thresholds (<100, ≥100, ≥100-<300, ≥300 cells/mm³), and investigated continuous relationships between treatment effects and EOS count on exacerbations, symptoms, disease-related QoL, lung function, and safety.

Results

In the modified intention-to-treat population (n=8509), 82.6% had EOS counts ≥100 cells/mm³. BGF 320 reduced moderate/severe exacerbation rates versus GFF in the ≥100, ≥100-<300, and ≥300 subgroups; treatment differences increased with EOS count. BGF 320 improved rescue medication use and lung-function outcomes across all subgroups, and St George's Respiratory Questionnaire total score, Transition Dyspnea Index focal score, and Exacerbations of Chronic Pulmonary Disease Tool total score in all except the <100 subgroup versus GFF. Benefits of BGF 320 versus BFF were generally consistent across subgroups. Safety data were comparable across subgroups.

Conclusion

Benefits of BGF versus GFF were observed across EOS counts, particularly at ≥100 cells/mm³; versus BFF, benefits were largely independent of EOS. These findings confirm that benefits of ICS-containing triple therapy are not restricted to EOS counts ≥300 cells/mm³, supporting recommendations to consider triple therapy in patients with an exacerbation history and EOS counts ≥100 cells/mm³.

Chronic Bronchial Infection Is Associated with More Rapid Lung Function Decline in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Rationale: Some patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) suffer accelerated lung function (forced expiratory volume in 1 second [FEV₁]) decline over time. Objectives: To investigate the relationship between chronic bronchial infection (CBI) and, in particular, the isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), and FEV₁ decline in COPD. Methods: Post-hoc analysis of a prospective cohort of 201 patients with COPD followed up every 3-6 months for 84 months. CBI was defined as ⩾3 sputum positive cultures of the same pathogenic micro-organism (PPM) over 1 year. Patients were stratified according to the presence of CBI by any PPM, as well by a single or multiple isolation of PA during follow-up. An adjusted mixed-effects linear regression model was used to investigate the independent effects of CBI and PA isolation on FEV₁ decline over time. Results: During follow-up, PPMs were never isolated in 43.3% of patients, in 23.9% of them PPMs were isolated once, and CBI by any PPM was confirmed in 32.8% of participants. FEV₁ decline in the entire cohort was 33.7 (95% confidence interval [CI], 21.4-46.1) ml/year. This was significantly increased in patients with CBI by any PPM (57.1 [95% CI, 28.5-79.3] ml/year) and in those in whom PA was isolated at least once (48.5 [95% CI, 27.3-88.2] ml/year). Multivariable analysis showed that the presence of both CBI by any PPM, and at least one PA isolation, were independent factors associated with faster FEV₁ decline adjusted by baseline FEV₁, presence of bronchiectasis, body mass index, age, exacerbations, smoking status, symptoms, baseline treatment, and comorbidities. Conclusions: The presence of CBI by any PPM, and one or more PA isolation, were independently associated with FEV₁ decline in patients with COPD.

Identification of COPD Inflammatory Endotypes Using Repeated Sputum Eosinophil Counts

Higher blood and sputum eosinophil counts are associated with a greater response to corticosteroids in COPD. Low blood eosinophil counts exhibit greater stability over time whereas higher counts demonstrate more variability. Stability of airway eosinophil levels is less well understood. We have studied the stability of sputum eosinophil counts. Differential cell count data for COPD patients (n = 100) were analysed. Subjects with two sputum eosinophil counts, 6 months apart, were included in the analysis. Patients were stratified based on baseline sputum eosinophil count into ‘low’, ‘intermediate’ and ‘high’ groups: eosinophilLOW (<1%), eosinophilINT (1−3%) and eosinophilHIGH (≥3%). Sputum eosinophil counts showed good stability (rho = 0.61, p < 0.0001, ICC of 0.77), with 67.4% of eosinophilLOW patients remaining in the same category on repeat sampling. Bland−Altman analysis of the whole cohort (median difference between measurements = 0.00%, 90th percentile = −1.4 and 4.7%) showed greater variation at higher counts. This was confirmed by the wider 90th centiles in the eosinophilINT (−1.50 to 5.65) and eosinophilHIGH groups (−5.33 to 9.80) compared to the eosinophilLOW group (−0.40 to 1.40). The repeatability of sputum eosinophil counts was related to the baseline eosinophil count; sputum eosinophilLOW COPD patients were relatively stable over time, while the eosinophilHIGH group showed greater variability. These results can facilitate the identification of COPD endotypes with differential responses to treatment.

Gallium protoporphyrin as an antimicrobial for non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae in COPD patients

AIMS

Colonisation with non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) is common in COPD. Iron is required by bacteria for nutrition. Gallium is imported into bacteria using iron import proteins. Gallium cannot fulfill key metabolic functions, causing bactericidal effects. We tested the efficacy of gallium compounds as antimicrobials against NTHi in hemin rich conditions, and their ability to reduce NTHi induced pro-inflammatory responses in macrophages.

MAIN METHODS

NTHi was cultured with the free iron analogue gallium nitrate (GaN) and heme iron analogue gallium protoporphyrin (GaPP) (0.5-4 μM; 24 h). Growth of NTHi reference strain (NCTC 12699) and 6 clinical isolates from COPD patients (including antibiotic resistant isolates) was assessed by optical density, and viability by Miles Misra. Monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs) were treated with GaPP before/after NTHi exposure. Viable intracellular NTHi was assessed by gentamicin protection assay. GaN or GaPP was added to NTHi cultures prior to culture with MDMs. Cytokine gene expression (qPCR) and protein secretion (ELISA) were measured.

KEY FINDINGS

NTHi growth and viability were reduced by GaPP but not GaN. GaPP inhibited growth of COPD isolates (4 μM: 87 % reduction). GaPP reduced intracellular viability of NTHi in macrophage infection models. MDM cytokine gene expression and protein secretion (TNF-α, IL-6 and CXCL8) in response to NTHi was reduced (82, 66 and 86 % for gene expression) when cultured with GaPP 4 μM.

SIGNIFICANCE

GaPP is an effective antimicrobial for NTHi while GaN showed no effect on growth or viability. Culture of NTHi with GaPP also reduced the pro-inflammatory cytokine response in MDMs.

The human lung microbiome-A hidden link between microbes and human health and diseases

Once thought to be sterile, the human lung is now well recognized to harbor a consortium of microorganisms collectively known as the lung microbiome. The lung microbiome is altered in an array of lung diseases, including chronic lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, and bronchiectasis, acute lung diseases caused by pneumonia, sepsis, and COVID-19, and other lung complications such as those related to lung transplantation, lung cancer, and human immunodeficiency virus. The effects of lung microbiome in modulating host immunity and inflammation in the lung and distal organs are being elucidated. However, the precise mechanism by which members of microbiota produce structural ligands that interact with host genes and pathways remains largely uncharacterized. Multiple unique challenges, both technically and biologically, exist in the field of lung microbiome, necessitating the development of tailored experimental and analytical approaches to overcome the bottlenecks. In this review, we first provide an overview of the principles and methodologies in studying the lung microbiome. We next review current knowledge of the roles of lung microbiome in human diseases, highlighting mechanistic insights. We finally discuss critical challenges in the field and share our thoughts on broad topics for future investigation.

The Microbiome in COPD: Emerging Potential for Microbiome-Targeted Interventions

The aim of interventions over the respiratory microbiome in COPD is to preserve the original microbial flora, focusing in taxa with a demonstrated impact on the prognosis of the disease. Inhaled therapy is the main treatment for COPD, and chronic corticosteroid use is recommended for patients with frequent exacerbations. This therapy, however, increases both the bronchial microbial load and the abundance of potentially pathogenic bacteria in patients with low peripheral eosinophil counts, and to minimize its use in patients without peripheral eosinophilia, when possible, may avoid increases in bacterial loads of microorganisms as Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae. In exacerbations antibiotics determine a decrease in the microbial diversity, a change that persists during stability periods in frequent exacerbators. High-diversity bronchial microbiomes are enriched in non-dominant genera and determine low exacerbation frequencies and survival improvement. Limiting the antibiotic use to the treatment of exacerbations which would clearly benefit would favor the diversity of the respiratory microbiome and may have a positive impact on quality of life and survival. Oral antiseptics have shown and effect on the bronchial microbiome that was associated with improvements in quality of life, and the gut microbiome may be also modified through the oral administration of probiotics or prebiotics, that potentially may determine decreases in lung inflammation and bronchial hyperreactivity. High fiber diets also favor the production of anti-inflammatory molecules by the digestive flora, which would reach the respiratory system through the bloodstream. Interventional approaches favoring the preservation of the respiratory microbiome in COPD need first to select accurately the patients who would benefit from long-term inhaled corticosteroids and antibiotic treatments during exacerbations, under the hypothesis that keeping a respiratory microbiome close to the healthy subject would favor the respiratory health. Additionally, high fiber diets may be able to modify the gut microbiome and influence the respiratory system through the gut-lung axis. Therapeutic approaches targeting the microbiome to improve COPD, however, still require clinical validation and the identification of patient subtypes who would benefit the most with their use.

Validation of Sputum Biomarker Immunoassays and Cytokine Expression Profiles in COPD

Immunoassays are commonly used to assess airway inflammation in sputum samples from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients. However, assay performance and validation in this complex matrix is inconsistently reported. The aim of this study was to assess the suitability of various immunoassays for use with sputum samples, followed by use of validated immunoassays to evaluate biomarker levels in COPD patients. Assays were assessed for recombinant reference standard suitability, optimal sample dilution, standard recovery in the biological matrix and reproducibility. Validated assays were used to assess sputum supernatants in Cohort A (n = 30 COPD, n = 10 smokers, n = 10 healthy) and Cohort B (n = 81 COPD, n = 15 smokers, n = 26 healthy). Paired baseline and exacerbation samples from 14 COPD patients were assessed in cohort A, and associations with sputum cell counts and bacterial colonisation investigated in cohort B. 25/32 assays passed validation; the primary reason for validation failure was recombinant reference standard suitability and sample dilution effects. Interleukin (IL-)6 and IL-8 were significantly increased in COPD patients compared to healthy subjects and smokers for both cohorts. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)α and IL-1β were higher in COPD compared to smokers using one immunoassay but not another, partly explained by different absolute recovery rates. IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-17A, Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), Interferon (IFN-)γ, Interferon gamma induced protein (IP-)10, Macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, MIP-1β and TNF-α levels correlated with sputum neutrophil percentage in COPD patients. IL-1β, IL-4, IL-8, G-CSF and IFN-γ levels were associated with Haemophilus influenzae colonisation in COPD patients. Current smokers had lower levels of IL-1β, IL-4, IL-8, G-CSF, IFN-γ, IP-10, Monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, MIP-1α, MIP-1β and TNF-α. Validated immunoassays applied to sputum supernatants demonstrated differences between COPD patients and controls, the effects of current smoking and associations between Haemophilus influenzae colonisation and higher levels of selected cytokines. Immunoassay validation enabled inflammatory mediators associated with different COPD characteristics to be determined.

Potential Implications of the Lung Microbiota in Patients with Chronic Obstruction Pulmonary Disease and Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Recently, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been considered as a common risk factor of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, very few studies have been conducted on the effects of COPD on the lung microbiota in patients with NSCLC. To identify the lung microbiota in patients with COPD and NSCLC (CN), the microbiome of the induced sputa of 90 patients was analyzed using 16S rDNA sequencing. The results showed no significant differences in the bacterial diversities of induced sputa among patients with COPD, NSCLC, and CN and no intrinsic differences among patients with different pathological types of lung cancer. After surgical operation, the diversities of the induced sputa in patients with CN significantly decreased. More remarkably, both the microbial community phenotypes and the components of the induced sputa in patients with CN obviously differed from those in patients with COPD or NSCLC. The relative abundances of Streptococcus, Veillonella, Moraxella, and Actinomyces significantly decreased, but those of Neisseria and Acinetobacter significantly increased in patients with CN compared with those in patients with COPD or NSCLC alone, resulting in increased Gram-negative microbiota and, therefore, in potential pathogenicity and stress tolerance, as well as in enhancement of microbial glycolipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and oxidative stress. Although COPD did not affect the number of pulmonary flora species in patients with NSCLC, these significant alterations in the microbial populations, phenotypes, and functions of induced sputa due to COPD would contribute to inflammation-derived cancer progression in patients with CN.

Blood Eosinophils and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A GOLD Science Committee 2022 Review

COPD is a heterogeneous condition. Some patients benefit from treatment with inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) but this requires a precision medicine approach, based on clinical characteristics (phenotyping) and biological information (endotyping) in order to select patients most likely to benefit. The GOLD 2019 report recommended using exacerbation history combined with blood eosinophil counts (BEC) to identify such patients. Importantly, the relationship between BEC and ICS effects is continuous; no / small effects are observed at lower BEC, with increasing effects at higher BEC. The GOLD 2022 report has added additional evidence and recommendations concerning the use of BEC in COPD in clinical practice. Notably, associations have been demonstrated in COPD patients between higher BEC and increased levels of type-2 inflammation in the lungs. These differences in type-2 inflammation can explain the differential ICS response according to BEC. Additionally, lower BEC are associated with greater presence of proteobacteria, notably haemophilus, and increased bacterial infections and pneumonia risk. These observations support management strategies that use BEC to help identify subgroups with increased ICS response (higher BEC) or increased risk of bacterial infection (lower BEC). Recent studies in younger individuals without COPD have also shown that higher BEC are associated with increased risk of FEV1 decline and the development of COPD. Here we discuss and summarise the GOLD 2022 recommendations concerning the use of BEC as a biomarker that can facilitate a personalised management approach in COPD.

Differential responses of COPD macrophages to respiratory bacterial pathogens

COPD patients have increased susceptibility to airway bacterial colonisation. Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis and Streptococcus pneumoniae are three of the most common respiratory bacterial species in COPD. H. influenzae colonisation, but not other bacteria, in COPD patients is associated with higher sputum neutrophil counts. Alveolar macrophages are key in clearance of bacteria as well as releasing mediators to recruit and activate other immune cells in response to infection. The aim was to characterise differences in COPD macrophage responses to H. influenzae, M. catarrhalisand S. pneumoniae, focusing on release of inflammatory and chemotactic mediators, and apoptosis regulation.

 Lung macrophages and monocyte-derived macrophages from COPD patients and control subjects were exposed to H. influenzae, M. catarrhalisor S. pneumoniae. Cytokine secretion (tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, CXCL8, CCL5 and IL-1β) were measured by ELISA and quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-qPCR), and apoptosis genes MCL-1, BCL-2, BAX and BAK1 by RT-qPCR. Apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) release were also measured.

 Macrophages responded differentially to the bacterial species, with increased, prolonged production of the neutrophil chemoattractant CXCL8 in response to H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis but not S. pneumoniae. S. pneumoniae initiated macrophage apoptosis and ROS release, H. influenzae and M. catarrhalis did not and increased anti-apoptosis gene expression (BCL-2 5.5-fold and MCL-1 2.4-fold, respectively).

 Differential cytokine responses of macrophages to these bacterial species can explain neutrophilic airway inflammation associated with H. influenzae, but not S. pneumoniae in COPD. Furthermore, delayed macrophage apoptosis is a potential mechanism contributing to inability to clear H. influenzae.

Differential cytokine responses of macrophages to Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis and Streptococcus pneumoniae can explain neutrophilic airway inflammation associated with H. influenzae but not S. pneumoniae in COPDhttps://bit.ly/3950HVZ

Advances in inhaled corticosteroids for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: what is their value today?

INTRODUCTION

As of today, there is still a need to determine which COPD patients may benefit from ICS therapy, whether ICSs are useful in COPD patients without chronic bronchitis, and whether long-acting bronchodilators can reduce the risk of exacerbations in frequent exacerbators even if ICSs are not used, and whether combination therapy including ICSs is helpful in infrequent exacerbators to optimise the use of ICSs in COPD. Nevertheless, in recent years, a fair amount of evidence has been produced that, at least in part, can help define the role of ICSs in COPD better.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, the authors provide an overview of current use of ICS in COPD and discuss their value to the current treatment armamentarium. The article includes discussion of which patients will benefit best from the use of ICSs, their potential uses and adverse effects.

EXPERT OPINION

There is growing agreement on why, in whom, and when ICS therapy can be used in COPD, although the consensus is still lacking because of the heterogeneity of COPD. The use of blood eosinophil counts (BECs) is only helpful in T2 inflammation, while there is a lack of biomarkers indicating the presence of T1 and T17 immunity, which is poorly responsive to ICS. Identifying ICS-sensitive endotypes using specific biomarkers that have yet to be identified and validated is likely to demonstrate that ICSs can influence the natural course of COPD in at least a subset of patients.

Inflammatory Endotype-Associated Airway Resistome in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern in chronic respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The collection of antibiotic resistance genes or resistome in human airways may underlie the resistance. COPD is heterogeneous, and understanding the airway resistome in relation to patient phenotype and endotype may inform precision antibiotic therapy. Here, we characterized the airway resistome for 94 COPD participants at stable disease. Among all demographic and clinical factors, patient inflammatory endotype was associated with the airway resistome. There were distinct resistome profiles between patients with neutrophilic or eosinophilic inflammation, two primary inflammatory endotypes in COPD. For neutrophil-predominant COPD, the resistome was dominated by multidrug resistance genes. For eosinophil-predominant COPD, the resistome was diverse, with an increased portion of patients showing a macrolide-high resistome. The differential antimicrobial resistance pattern was validated by sputum culture and in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Ralstonia and Pseudomonas were the top contributors to the neutrophil-associated resistome, whereas Campylobacter and Aggregatibacter contributed most to the eosinophil-associated resistome. Multiomic analyses revealed specific host pathways and inflammatory mediators associated with the resistome. The arachidonic acid metabolic pathway and matrix metallopeptidase 8 (MMP-8) exhibited the strongest associations with the neutrophil-associated resistome, whereas the eosinophil chemotaxis pathway and interleukin-13 (IL-13) showed the greatest associations with the eosinophil-associated resistome. These results highlight a previously unrecognized link between inflammation and the airway resistome and suggest the need for considering patient inflammatory subtype in decision-making about antibiotic use in COPD and broader chronic respiratory diseases.

IMPORTANCE Antibiotics are commonly prescribed for both acute and long-term prophylactic treatment in chronic airway disorders, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and the rapid growth of antibiotic resistance is alarming globally. The airway harbors a diverse collection of microorganisms known as microbiota, which serve as a reservoir for antibiotic resistance genes or the resistome. A comprehensive understanding of the airway resistome in relation to patient clinical and biological factors may help inform decisions to select appropriate antibiotics for clinical therapies. By deep multiomic profiling and in vitro phenotypic testing, we showed that inflammatory endotype, the underlying pattern of airway inflammation, was most strongly associated with the airway resistome in COPD patients. There were distinct resistome profiles between neutrophil-predominant and eosinophil-predominant COPD that were associated with different bacterial species, host pathways, and inflammatory markers, highlighting the need of considering patient inflammatory status in COPD antibiotic management.

The current understanding and future directions for sputum microbiome profiling in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has deepened our understanding of the respiratory microbiome in health and disease. The number of microbiome studies employing sputum as an airway surrogate has continued to increase over the past decade to include multiple large multicentre and longitudinal studies of the microbiome in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In this review, we summarize the recent advances to our understanding of the bacteriome, virome and mycobiome in COPD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Diverse microbiome profiles are reported in COPD. The neutrophilic Haemophilus-predominant bacteriome remains a prominent COPD phenotype, relatively stable over time and during exacerbations. Studies of the virome remain limited but reveal a potential involvement of viruses and bacteriophages particularly during COPD exacerbations and advancing disease severity. Mycobiome signatures, even in stable COPD are associated with poorer clinical outcomes including mortality.

SUMMARY

The sputum microbiome in COPD is being increasingly recognized for its clinical relevance, even in the stable state. Future studies integrating microbial kingdoms holistically (i.e. bacterial, viral and fungal) will provide deeper insight into its functionality including the relevance of microbial interactions and effect of treatment on microbiome-associated clinical outcomes.

A sputum 6-gene signature predicts airway inflammation endotypes and exacerbation frequency in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Aim: To validate a sputum 6-gene signature (6GS), comprising of CLC, CPA, DNASE1L3, IL-1B, ALPL and CXCR2, for identifying different endotypes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Methodology & results: Sputum cell CLC, CPA3 and DNASE1L3 gene expression correlated with eosinophil percentage, while IL-1B, ALPL and CXCR2 correlated with neutrophil percentage. Hierarchical cluster analyses of IL-1B, ALPL and CXCR2, and CLC, CPA3 and DNASE1L3, identified patient groups that differed in their sputum neutrophil and eosinophil levels, respectively. Multiple logistic regressions demonstrated that the 6GS could distinguish between eosinophil^High and eosinophil^Low patients, as well as neutrophil^High and neutrophil^Low, and could also predict exacerbation history. Conclusion: The 6GS may have applications in clinical practice or for stratifying patients for clinical trials.

Gastrointestinal Microbiota Dysbiosis Associated with SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Colorectal Cancer: The Implication of Probiotics

The complexity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)’s pathophysiology is such that microbial dysbiosis in the lung and gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota may be involved in its pathogenic process. GI microbiota dysbiosis has been associated with respiratory disorders, including COVID-19, as well as sporadic colorectal cancer (CRC) through imbalanced microbiota and compromised immune response. It is pertinent to understand the possible role of probiotics in stabilizing the microbial environment and maintaining the integrity of the respiratory and GI tracts in SARS-CoV-2 induced dysbiosis and colorectal carcinogenesis. The long-term implication of SARS-CoV-2 in GI dysbiosis via microbiota-gut-lung cross-talk could increase the risk of new CRC diagnosis or worsen the condition of previously diagnosed individuals. Recent knowledge shows that the immune-modulatory response to probiotics is shifting the beneficial use of probiotics towards the treatment of various diseases. In this review, we highlight the potential impact of probiotics on SARS-CoV-2 infection associated with CRC through microbiota imbalance in COVID-19 patients.

Treatment Trials in Young Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Pre-Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Patients: Time to Move Forward

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the end result of a series of dynamic and cumulative gene-environment interactions over a lifetime. The evolving understanding of COPD biology provides novel opportunities for prevention, early diagnosis, and intervention. To advance these concepts, we propose therapeutic trials in two major groups of subjects: "young" individuals with COPD and those with pre-COPD. Given that lungs grow to about 20 years of age and begin to age at approximately 50 years, we consider "young" patients with COPD those patients in the age range of 20-50 years. Pre-COPD relates to individuals of any age who have respiratory symptoms with or without structural and/or functional abnormalities, in the absence of airflow limitation, and who may develop persistent airflow limitation over time. We exclude from the current discussion infants and adolescents because of their unique physiological context and COPD in older adults given their representation in prior randomized controlled trials (RCTs). We highlight the need of RCTs focused on COPD in young patients or pre-COPD to reduce disease progression, providing innovative approaches to identifying and engaging potential study subjects. We detail approaches to RCT design, including potential outcomes such as lung function, patient-reported outcomes, exacerbations, lung imaging, mortality, and composite endpoints. We critically review study design components such as statistical powering and analysis, duration of study treatment, and formats to trial structure, including platform, basket, and umbrella trials. We provide a call to action for treatment RCTs in 1) young adults with COPD and 2) those with pre-COPD at any age.

Long-Term Risk of Mortality Associated with Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in COPD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Chronic bronchial infection is frequent in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but the impact of the isolation of pathogenic bacteria, and in particular Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) in respiratory samples on the prognosis of COPD is unclear.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review of prognostic studies including patients with isolation of PA in sputum in stable state or during exacerbations of COPD. The main outcomes were all-cause mortality, respiratory mortality, and number and severity of future exacerbations. Data were expressed as hazard ratio (HR) (95% confidence interval [CI]) whenever possible.

Results

Of 2773 studies, eight were finally included (23,228 individuals). The mean age ranged from 65.5 to 73 years. Six studies reported data for all-cause mortality. The adjusted risk of death was almost double in patients with PA isolation (HR 1.95, 95% CI, 1.34 to 2.84; quality of evidence moderate). Patients with PA isolation showed a three times higher adjusted risk of readmission at 30 days after discharge (OR 3.60, 95% CI, 3.60 to 12.03, 1 study; quality of evidence very low), and more than double adjusted risk of death and hospitalization at two years (HR 2.80, 95% CI, 2.20 to 3.56, 1 study; quality of evidence very low).

Conclusion

There is moderate certainty that the isolation of PA in sputum is associated with an adjusted increased risk of death in patients with COPD.

Investigation on the Pathological Mechanism of Frequent Exacerbators With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Based on the Characteristics of Respiratory Flora

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common obstructive respiratory disease characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and limited airflow due to airway obstruction. The present study investigates the distribution characteristics of respiratory tract flora in both frequent and infrequent exacerbators of COPD. The 16S sequencing technique was adopted to differentiate the inherent differences of respiratory tract flora between frequent exacerbators and infrequent exacerbators. Additionally, cell counting kit 8 (CCK8), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) test, flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and western blot were carried out in human bronchial epithelial cells cultured in vitro and the regulatory effects of differential flora were verified. The results revealed that the observed species index, Chao1 index, and the ACE estimator of COPD frequent exacerbators were markedly higher than those of COPD infrequent exacerbators. The top five strains of COPD frequent exacerbators included g_Streptococcus (15.565%), g_Prevotella (10.683%), g_Veillonella (6.980%), g_Haemophilus (5.601%), and g_Neisseria (4.631%). Veillonella parvula generated obvious cytotoxicity and substantially reduced the activity of human bronchial epithelial cells (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the results of flow cytometry indicated that the proportion of human bronchial epithelial cells in both the S phase and G2 phase decreased following Veillonella parvula treatment indicated that Veillonella parvula inhibited cell proliferation. Meanwhile, being treated using Veillonella parvula, the expressions of interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, Tumor Necrosis Factor α (TNF-α), and p-nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) of the cells were increased markedly (p < 0.01). Taken together, the current research demonstrated that the relative abundance of Veillonella in COPD frequent exacerbators was higher than that of infrequent exacerbators. Veillonella parvula activated the inflammatory pathway, ultimately destroyed the cell viability, and greatly impaired the activity of human bronchial epithelial cells, thereby inhibiting cell proliferation.

Dysregulation of the CD163-Haptoglobin Axis in the Airways of COPD Patients

Pulmonary iron levels are increased in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients. Iron causes oxidative stress and is a nutrient for pathogenic bacteria. Iron may therefore play an important role in the pathophysiology of COPD. The CD163-haptglobin axis plays a central role in the regulation of iron bioavailability. The aim of this study was to examine dysregulation of the CD163-haptglobin axis in COPD. We measured soluble CD163 (sCD163) and haptoglobin levels in sputum supernatants by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and sputum macrophage CD163 and haptoglobin expression by flow cytometry in COPD patients and controls. SCD163 levels were lower in COPD patients compared to controls (p = 0.02), with a significant correlation to forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1)% predicted (rho = 0.5, p = 0.0007). Sputum macrophage CD163 expression was similar between COPD patients and controls. SCD163 levels and macrophage CD163 expression were lower in COPD current smokers compared to COPD ex-smokers. Haptoglobin levels were not altered in COPD patients but were regulated by genotype. Macrophage CD163 and haptolgobin expression were significantly correlated, supporting the role of CD163 in the cellular uptake of haptoglobin. Our data implicates a dysfunctional CD163-haptoglobin axis in COPD, which may contribute to disease pathophysiology, presumably due to reduced clearance of extracellular iron.

Inhaled Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors for the Treatment of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4 inhibitors prevent the metabolism of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, thereby reducing inflammation. Inhaled PDE4 inhibitors aim to restrict systemic drug exposure to enhance the potential for clinical benefits (in the lungs) versus adverse events (systemically). The orally administered PDE4 inhibitor roflumilast reduces exacerbation rates in the subgroup of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients with a history of exacerbations and the presence of chronic bronchitis, but can cause PDE4 related adverse effects due to systemic exposure. CHF6001 is an inhaled PDE4 inhibitor, while inhaled ensifentrine is an inhibitor of both PDE3 and PDE4; antagonism of PDE3 facilitates smooth muscle relaxation and hence bronchodilation. These inhaled PDE inhibitors have both reported positive findings from early phase clinical trials, and have been well tolerated. Longer term trials are needed to firmly establish the clinical benefits of these drugs.

Interrupting the Conversation: Implications for Crosstalk Between Viral and Bacterial Infections in the Asthmatic Airway

Asthma is a heterogeneous, chronic respiratory disease affecting 300 million people and is thought to be driven by different inflammatory endotypes influenced by a myriad of genetic and environmental factors. The complexity of asthma has rendered it challenging to develop preventative and disease modifying therapies and it remains an unmet clinical need. Whilst many factors have been implicated in asthma pathogenesis and exacerbations, evidence indicates a prominent role for respiratory viruses. However, advances in culture-independent detection methods and extensive microbial profiling of the lung, have also demonstrated a role for respiratory bacteria in asthma. In particular, airway colonization by the Proteobacteria species Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) and Moraxella catarrhalis (Mcat) is associated with increased risk of developing recurrent wheeze and asthma in early life, poor clinical outcomes in established adult asthma and the development of more severe inflammatory phenotypes. Furthermore, emerging evidence indicates that bacterial-viral interactions may influence exacerbation risk and disease severity, highlighting the need to consider the impact chronic airway colonization by respiratory bacteria has on influencing host responses to viral infection. In this review, we first outline the currently understood role of viral and bacterial infections in precipitating asthma exacerbations and discuss the underappreciated potential impact of bacteria-virus crosstalk in modulating host responses. We discuss the mechanisms by which early life infection may predispose to asthma development. Finally, we consider how infection and persistent airway colonization may drive different asthma phenotypes, with a view to identifying pathophysiological mechanisms that may prove tractable to new treatment modalities.

Airway Bacteria Quantification Using Polymerase Chain Reaction Combined with Neutrophil and Eosinophil Counts Identifies Distinct COPD Endotypes

BACKGROUND

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) inflammatory endotypes are associated with different airway microbiomes. We used quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis of sputum samples to establish the bacterial load upper limit in healthy controls; these values determined the bacterial colonisation prevalence in a longitudinal COPD cohort. Bacteriology combined with sputum inflammatory cells counts were used to investigate COPD endotypes.

METHODS

Sixty COPD patients and 15 healthy non-smoking controls were recruited. Sputum was analysed by qPCR (for Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Psuedomonas aeruginosa) and sputum differential cell counts at baseline and 6 months.

RESULTS

At baseline and 6 months, 23.1% and 25.6% of COPD patients were colonised with H. influenzae, while colonisation with other bacterial species was less common, e.g., S. pneumoniae-1.9% and 5.1%, respectively. H. influenzae + ve patients had higher neutrophil counts at baseline (90.1% vs. 67.3%, p < 0.01), with similar results at 6 months. COPD patients with sputum eosinophil counts ≥3% at ≥1 visit rarely showed bacterial colonisation.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of H. influenzae colonisation was approximately 25%, with low colonisation for other bacterial species. H. influenzae colonisation was associated with sputum neutrophilia, while eosinophilic inflammation and H. influenzae colonisation rarely coexisted.

Molecular Mechanisms of Lipid Metabolism Disorders in Infectious Exacerbations of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Exacerbations largely determine the character of the progression and prognosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Exacerbations are connected with changes in the microbiological landscape in the bronchi due to a violation of their immune homeostasis. Many metabolic and immune processes involved in COPD progression are associated with bacterial colonization of the bronchi. The objective of this review is the analysis of the molecular mechanisms of lipid metabolism and immune response disorders in the lungs in COPD exacerbations. The complex role of lipid metabolism disorders in the pathogenesis of some infections is only beginning to be understood, however, there are already fewer and fewer doubts even now about its significance both in the pathogenesis of infectious exacerbations of COPD and in general in the progression of the disease. It is shown that the lipid rafts of the plasma membranes of cells are involved in many processes related to the detection of pathogens, signal transduction, the penetration of pathogens into the cell. Smoking disrupts the normally proceeded processes of lipid metabolism in the lungs, which is a part of the COPD pathogenesis.

Lung microbiota dysbiosis and the implications of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnancy

There are a great number of beneficial commensal microorganisms constitutively colonizing the mucosal lining of the lungs. Alterations in the microbiota profile have been associated with several respiratory diseases such as pneumonia and allergies. Lung microbiota dysbiosis might play an important role in the pathogenic mechanisms of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as well as elicit other opportunistic infections associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). With its increasing prevalence and morbidity, SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnant mothers is inevitable. Recent evidence shows that angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) act as an entry receptor and viral spike priming protein, respectively, for SARS-CoV-2 infection. These receptor proteins are highly expressed in the maternal-fetal interface, including the placental trophoblast, suggesting the possibility of maternal-fetal transmission. In this review, we discuss the role of lung microbiota dysbiosis in respiratory diseases, with an emphasis on COVID-19 and the possible implications of SARS-CoV-2 infection on pregnancy outcome and neonatal health.

The relationship between airway immunoglobulin activity and eosinophils in COPD

In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), the effects of inhaled corticosteroids are predicted by blood eosinophil counts. We previously briefly reported increased immunoglobulin (Ig)A and IgM levels in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) of COPD patients with higher (eosinophil^high) compared to lower (eosinophil^low) blood eosinophils (>250/μL versus < 150/μL), suggesting differences in adaptive immune function. An inverse relationship exists between eosinophil counts and airway pathogenic bacteria levels. The mechanistic reasons for these associations between eosinophils, corticosteroids and pathogenic bacteria are unclear. IgA, IgM and IgG levels were assessed in BAL, bronchial biopsies and epithelium collected from eosinophil^high (n = 20) and eosinophil^low (n = 21) patients. Bronchial B‐cell numbers were measured by immunohistochemistry. B‐cell activity was assessed in bronchial samples and following exposure to BAL from eosinophil^high and eosinophil^low patients. BAL levels of non‐typeable Haemophilus influenza (NTHi)‐specific immunoglobulins were quantified. Results showed airway expression of IgA, IgG1 and IgM were lower in eosinophil^low compared to eosinophil^high patients, with lower levels of NTHi‐specific IgA and IgM. Bronchial B‐cell numbers were similar in both groups, but B‐cell activity was lower in eosinophil^low patients. In conclusion, COPD eosinophil^low patients show differences in adaptive immune function compared to COPD eosinophil^high patients. These differences may cause different microbiomes in these COPD phenotypes.