Impact of daily supplementation of Spirulina platensis on the immune system of naïve HIV-1 patients in Cameroon: a 12-months single blind, randomized, multicenter trial

Antiviral potential of spirulina in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus or Hepatis C virus infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Spirulina, a cyanobacterium or blue-green algae that contains phycocyanin, nutritional supplementation has been evaluated in patients living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) due to its antiviral properties. This supplementation may be beneficial in low resource settings when awaiting antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV. This review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of Spirulina supplement in antiviral-naïve HIV- and HCV-infected patients by assessing its immunological effect (Cluster of Differentiation 4 or CD-4 T-cell count) and disease progression (viral load).

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science from inception through January 23, 2024. Two authors independently performed the study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment. We pooled data by using a random-effects model and evaluated publication bias by a funnel plot.

RESULTS

We identified 5552 articles, 5509 excluded at the title and abstract stage with 44 studies making it to the full text review. Of these 6 studies met the eligibility for inclusion in the final analysis as follows: 4 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 2 non-RCTs. The pooled results of the Spirulina intervention found significant improvements in biomarkers of clinical outcomes, viral load (VL) and CD4 T-cell (CD4) counts, in participants of the treatment group compared to controls; the VL had an overall Cohen's d effect size decrease of -2.49 (-4.80, -0.18) and CD4 had an overall effect size increase of 4.09 (0.75, 7.43). [Cohen's d benchmark: 0.2 = small effect; 0.5 = medium effect; 0.8 = large effect].

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this systematic review showed a potential beneficial effect of Spirulina supplementation in HIV- and HCV-infected patients by increasing CD4 counts and decreasing viral load. However, further research in larger controlled clinical trials is needed to fully investigate the effect of this nutritional supplement on clinically relevant outcomes, opportunities for intervention, optimal dose, and cost-benefit of Spirulina supplementation.

Effect of high-dose Spirulina supplementation on hospitalized adults with COVID-19: a randomized controlled trial

Objective

Spirulina (arthrospira platensis) is a cyanobacterium proven to have anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antioxidant effects. However, the effect of high-dose Spirulina supplementation on hospitalized adults with COVID-19 is currently unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of high-dose Spirulina platensis for SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Study Design

We conducted a randomized, controlled, open-label trial involving 189 patients with COVID-19 who were randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to an experimental group that received 15.2g of Spirulina supplement plus standard treatment (44 non-intensive care unit (non-ICU) and 47 ICU), or to a control group that received standard treatment alone (46 non-ICU and 52 ICU). The study was conducted over six days. Immune mediators were monitored on days 1, 3, 5, and 7. The primary outcome of this study was mortality or hospital discharge within seven days, while the overall discharge or mortality was considered the secondary outcome.

Results

Within seven days, there were no deaths in the Spirulina group, while 15 deaths (15.3%) occurred in the control group. Moreover, within seven days, there was a greater number of patients discharged in the Spirulina group (97.7%) in non-ICU compared to the control group (39.1%) (HR, 6.52; 95% CI, 3.50 to 12.17). Overall mortality was higher in the control group (8.7% non-ICU, 28.8% ICU) compared to the Spirulina group (non-ICU HR, 0.13; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.97; ICU, HR, 0.16; 95% CI, 0.05 to 0.48). In non-ICU, patients who received Spirulina showed a significant reduction in the levels of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10, and IP-10 as intervention time increased. Furthermore, in ICU, patients who received Spirulina showed a significant decrease in the levels of MIP-1α and IL-6. IFN-γ levels were significantly higher in the intervention group in both ICU and non-ICU subgroups as intervention time increased. No side effects related to Spirulina supplements were observed during the trial.

Conclusion

High-dose Spirulina supplements coupled with the standard treatment of COVID-19 may improve recovery and remarkably reduce mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19.

Clinical Trial Registration

https://irct.ir/trial/54375, Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials number (IRCT20210216050373N1).

Shedding light on the impacts of Spirulina platensis on gut microbiota and related health benefits

Spirulina (S.) platensis is a blue-green algae with reported nutritional and health-promoting properties, such as immunomodulating, antioxidant, cholesterol-lowering properties, and beneficial effects on inflammatory diseases. Spirulina platensis can improve the function and composition of the gut microbiota and exert systemic beneficial effects. Gut dysbiosis is characterized by an imbalance in the composition and function of gut microbiota and is associated with several diseases. Some dietary bioactive compounds can restore the composition, diversity, and function of the gut microbiota and improve health-related parameters. This review proposes to gather relevant information on the effects of S. platensis supplementation on the modulation of the function and composition of gut microbiota and local and systemic measures related to gut health, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and glucose and lipid metabolism. The body of evidence conducted with animals and clinical studies shows that S. platensis supplementation increased gut microbiota diversity and improved gut microbiota composition, as reported by a decrease in the Firmicutes/Bacteroides ratio, increase in the relative abundance of Prevotella and Lactobacillaceae, increase in short-chain fatty acid production and decrease of gut permeability. Improvements in gut microbiota have been associated with host health benefits such as anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, anti-lipemic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects.

Role of Natural Compounds Modulating Heme Catabolic Pathway in Gut, Liver, Cardiovascular, and Brain Diseases

The crucial physiological process of heme breakdown yields biliverdin (BV) and bilirubin (BR) as byproducts. BV, BR, and the enzymes involved in their production (the "yellow players-YP") are increasingly documented as endogenous modulators of human health. Mildly elevated serum bilirubin concentration has been correlated with a reduced risk of multiple chronic pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory diseases, especially in the elderly. BR and BV per se have been demonstrated to protect against neurodegenerative diseases, in which heme oxygenase (HMOX), the main enzyme in the production of pigments, is almost always altered. HMOX upregulation has been interpreted as a tentative defense against the ongoing pathologic mechanisms. With the demonstration that multiple cells possess YP, their propensity to be modulated, and their broad spectrum of activity on multiple signaling pathways, the YP have assumed the role of an adjustable system that can promote health in adults. Based on that, there is an ongoing effort to induce their activity as a therapeutic option, and natural compounds are an attractive alternative to the goal, possibly requiring only minimal changes in the life style. We review the most recent evidence of the potential of natural compounds in targeting the YP in the context of the most common pathologic condition of adult and elderly life.

Nutritional Supplements for Skin Health-A Review of What Should Be Chosen and Why

Supplementation of micronutrients is considered to be crucial in the reinforcement of the skin's barrier. In this paper, 14 nutritional compounds commonly used in food or pharmaceutic industries were analyzed in terms of influencing skin conditions. The major objective of this paper was to provide a narrative review of the available literature regarding several chosen compounds that are currently widely recommended as supplements that aim to maintain proper and healthy skin conditions. We conducted a review of the literature from PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science until September 2023 without any other restrictions regarding the year of the publication. Ultimately, we reviewed 238 articles, including them in this review. Each of the reviewed compounds, including vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, curcumin, chlorella, Omega-3, biotin,Ppolypodium leucotomos, Simmondsia chinesis, gamma oryzanol, olive leaf extract, spirulina, and astaxanthin, was observed to present some possible effects with promising benefits for a skin condition, i.e., photoprotective radiation. Adding them to the diet or daily routine might have a positive influence on some skin inflammatory diseases such as atopic dermatitis or psoriasis. Further, UV radiation protection facilitated by some supplements and their impact on human cells might be helpful during chemotherapy or in preventing melanoma development. Further research is needed because of the lack of clear consensus regarding the doses of the described compounds that could provide desirable effects on the skin.

Herbal supplement Spirulina stimulates inflammatory cytokine production in patients with dermatomyositis in vitro

Spirulina, an herbal supplement and popular ingredient in health foods, is a potent stimulant of the immune system. Spirulina use is temporally associated with the onset or exacerbation of Dermatomyositis (DM), an autoimmune connective tissue disease that frequently affects the skin and muscle. In this study, we investigated the effect of Spirulina on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in DM and Healthy Controls (HCs), showing that Spirulina stimulates Interferon β (IFNβ), Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), and Interferon γ (IFNγ) production of DM PBMCs primarily via Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) activation using ELISA (enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) and flow cytometry. We show that classical monocytes and monocyte-derived dendritic cells are stimulated by Spirulina and are activated via TLR4. Skin from patients with Spirulina-associated DM exhibits an inflammatory milieu similar to that of idiopathic DM but with a stronger correlation of TLR4 and IFNγ.

A Review of the Health-Promoting Properties of Spirulina with a Focus on athletes' Performance and Recovery

Spirulina species are photosynthetic and filamentous bacteria, commonly called 'blue-green microalgae'. Spirulina has a high nutrient content. It contains 60-70% protein with all essential amino acids present, and is rich in several vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Spirulina is also rich in essential fatty acids, and antioxidants. This rich nutritional content provides to Spirulina several health benefits including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation, and insulin-sensitizing properties as well as positive effects in various diseases which could be also interesting for athletes. This paper mainly aims to review the interest and effects of Spirulina supplementation in athletes at rest, and in relation to exercise/training. Spirulina's biochemical composition, health properties/effects in humans, and effects in athletes including nutritional status, body composition, physical performance and intense exercise-related disorders were discussed in this review. Literature data showed that Spirulina seems to have positive effects on body composition especially in overweight and obese subjects which could not be the case in other pathologies and athletes. Spirulina appears to be also effective in improving aerobic fitness especially in untrained and moderately trained subjects. Results reported in the literature suggest that Spirulina may improve strength and power performance despite the minor or no significant effects in highly trained subjects. Most studies have shown that Spirulina improves antioxidant status, prevents and accelerates the recovery of exercise-induced lipid peroxidation, muscle damage and inflammation in trained and untrained subjects. Taken together, the results from these studies are encouraging and may demonstrate the potential benefits of Spirulina supplementation in athletes despite methodological differences.

Application of Arthrospira platensis for Medicinal Purposes and the Food Industry: A Review of the Literature

Arthrospira platensis is a filamentous cyanobacterium of the class Cyanophyceae and is the most cultivated photosynthetic prokaryote. It is used in the pharmaceutical sector, medicine and the food industry. It has a rich micro- and macro-element composition, containing proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, essential amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals and raw fibers. It is a commonly used ingredient in food products and nutritional supplements. The wide range of biologically active components determines its diverse pharmacological properties (antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antineoplastic, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, photoprotective, antiviral, etc.). This review summarizes research related to the taxonomy, distribution and chemical composition of Arthrospira platensis as well as its potential application in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Attention is drawn to its various medical applications as an antidiabetic and antiobesity agent, with hepatoprotective, antitumor, antimicrobial and antiviral effects as well as regulatory effects on neurodegenerative diseases.

Antiinflammatory Activities of Curcumin and Spirulina: Focus on Their Role against COVID-19

Nutraceuticals have for several years aroused the interest of researchers for their countless properties, including the management of viral infections. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, studies and research on the antiviral properties of nutraceuticals have greatly increased. More specifically, over the past two years, researchers have focused on analyzing the possible role of nutraceuticals in reducing the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection or mitigating the symptoms of COVID-19. Among nutraceuticals, turmeric, extracted from the rhizome of the Curcuma Longa plant, and spirulina, commercial name of the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis, have assumed considerable importance in recent years. The purpose of this review is to collect, through a search of the most recent articles on Pubmed, the scientific evidence on the role of these two compounds in the fight against COVID-19. In the last two years many hypotheses, some confirmed by clinical and experimental studies, have been made on the possible use of turmeric against COVID-19, while on spirulina and its possible role against SARS-CoV-2 infection information is much less. The demonstrated antiviral properties of spirulina and the fact that these cyanobacteria may modulate or modify some mechanisms also involved in the onset of COVID-19, lead us to think that it may have the same importance as curcumin in fighting this disease and to speculate on the possible combined use of these two substances to obtain a synergistic effect.

The Potential of Spirulina platensis to Ameliorate the Adverse Effects of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the most prevalent diseases globally. It is estimated that 37.7 million people are infected with HIV globally, and 8.2 million persons are infected with the virus in South Africa. The highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) involves combining various types of antiretroviral drugs that are dependent on the infected person’s viral load. HAART helps regulate the viral load and prevents its associated symptoms from progressing into acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Despite its success in prolonging HIV-infected patients’ lifespans, the use of HAART promotes metabolic syndrome (MetS) through an inflammatory pathway, excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial dysfunction. Interestingly, Spirulina platensis (SP), a blue-green microalgae commonly used as a traditional food by Mexican and African people, has been demonstrated to mitigate MetS by regulating oxidative and inflammatory pathways. SP is also a potent antioxidant that has been shown to exhibit immunological, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. This review is aimed at highlighting the biochemical mechanism of SP with a focus on studies linking SP to the inhibition of HIV, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Further, we propose SP as a potential supplement for HIV-infected persons on lifelong HAART.

The value of blue-green algae (Spirulina platensis) as a nutritive supplement and toxicant against almond moth [Cadra cautella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)]

Blue-green algae, Spirulina platensis is a well-known algal formulation known for its beneficial effects on the growth and development in several types of organisms. Although it is used as a food supplement, it possesses significant toxic effects on growth and development of organisms. This study assessed the positive/negative impacts of S. platensis on almond moth, Cadra cautella (almond moth) that is a serious pest of date fruits and other grains under laboratory conditions. The S. platensis powder were mixed with diet and newly hatched C. cautella larvae were fed. The larvae were observed on alternate days to record the data. The diet was changed once a week. The S. platensis proved very good nutrition supplement at lower dose. Whereas, moderate and high mortality was noted for 5 and 10% formulations, respectively. Moreover, larval span was significantly altered by different formulations and lower formulation (1%) resulted in shorter larval period compared to the rest of the formulations. Although 33% mortality was recorded under 5% S. platensis formulation, however, the larvae which reached to adult stage, copulated, and females laid more eggs. Furthermore, the highest mortality (90%) was observed under 10% S. platensis formulation and a few larvae reached adult stage; thus, no data on pupal period and reproductive traits was recorded for this formulation. These findings proved that S. platensis can be used as nutritional supplement as well as a toxic substance to manage C. cautella in date storage. However, future studies on this are needed to reach concrete conclusions.

The effects of immunostimulatory herbal supplements on autoimmune skin diseases

The use of herbal supplements that promise to improve immune health has gained popularity among dermatology patients. However, there is little to no evidence that herbal supplements improve dermatologic conditions. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that Spirulina platensis, Aphanizomenon flos-aqua, Chlorella, Echinacea, and alfalfa activate immune cells via certain cytokines and chemokines. Case reports suggest the association of ingesting immunostimulatory herbs and the clinical onset or flares of diseases characterized by an exaggerated immune response such as lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, and autoimmune blistering disorders. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate the prevalence of herbal supplement use in this patient population. In addition, in vitro studies should examine the underlying mechanisms by which herbs stimulate immune pathways that are already overactive in autoimmune patients.

Spirulina platensis reduces the schizophrenic-like symptoms in rat model by restoring altered APO-E and RTN-4 protein expression in prefrontal cortex

AIMS

Schizophrenia (SZ) is recognized as a neuropsychiatric disorder in humans with accelerated mortality and profound morbidity followed with impairments in social as well as vocational functioning. Though various antipsychotics are being considered as approved treatment therapy for the psychotic symptoms of SZ but they also exert adverse effects and also lack efficacy in treating full spectrum of the disorder. Spirulina platensis (blue-green algae), a nutritional supplement, constitutes a variety of multi-nutrients and possesses a large number of neuroprotective activities. Therefore, present experimental work was designed to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of spirulina in ameliorating the psychosis-like symptoms in dizocilpine-induced rat model of SZ.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The spirulina was tested as preventive and therapeutic regimen at the dose of 180 mg/kg. After pre- and post-treatment with spirulina, rats were subjected to behavioral assessments followed by biochemical and neurochemical estimations. Biomarkers including APO-E, RTN-4, TNF-α, and IL-6 were also estimated using ELISA.

KEY FINDINGS

Present results showed that administration of spirulina not only improved behavioral deficits induced by dizocilpine but it also regulates neurotransmission, oligodendrocyte dysfunction and APO-E over expression. Moreover, it also restores the immune response dysfunction by reducing inflammatory cytokines.

SIGNIFICANCE

Thus, from present findings it may be suggested that spirulina aids in ameliorating the psychosis-like symptoms induced by dizocilpine in animal model possibly via regulation of neurotransmission and other biomarkers that are extensively used to uncover the etiopathology of SZ. Hence, blue-green algae can be used as an effective therapy for preventive or therapeutic measures in SZ.

Antiviral Cyanometabolites-A Review

Global processes, such as climate change, frequent and distant travelling and population growth, increase the risk of viral infection spread. Unfortunately, the number of effective and accessible medicines for the prevention and treatment of these infections is limited. Therefore, in recent years, efforts have been intensified to develop new antiviral medicines or vaccines. In this review article, the structure and activity of the most promising antiviral cyanobacterial products are presented. The antiviral cyanometabolites are mainly active against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other enveloped viruses such as herpes simplex virus (HSV), Ebola or the influenza viruses. The majority of the metabolites are classified as lectins, monomeric or dimeric proteins with unique amino acid sequences. They all show activity at the nanomolar range but differ in carbohydrate specificity and recognize a different epitope on high mannose oligosaccharides. The cyanobacterial lectins include cyanovirin-N (CV-N), scytovirin (SVN), microvirin (MVN), Microcystisviridis lectin (MVL), and Oscillatoria agardhii agglutinin (OAA). Cyanobacterial polysaccharides, peptides, and other metabolites also have potential to be used as antiviral drugs. The sulfated polysaccharide, calcium spirulan (CA-SP), inhibited infection by enveloped viruses, stimulated the immune system’s response, and showed antitumor activity. Microginins, the linear peptides, inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), therefore, their use in the treatment of COVID-19 patients with injury of the ACE2 expressing organs is considered. In addition, many cyanobacterial extracts were revealed to have antiviral activities, but the active agents have not been identified. This fact provides a good basis for further studies on the therapeutic potential of these microorganisms.

Docking and in silico toxicity assessment of Arthrospira compounds as potential antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2

A race is currently being launched as a result of the international health situation. This race aims to find, by various means, weapons to counter the Covid-19 pandemic now widespread on all continents. The aquatic world and in particular that of photosynthetic organisms is regularly highlighted but paradoxically little exploited in view of the tremendous possibilities it offers. Computational tools allow not only to clear the existence and activity of many molecules but also to model their relationships with receptors identified in potential hosts. On a routine basis, our laboratory carries out a research activity on functionalities of molecules derived from algae using in silico tools. We have implemented our skills in algae biology and in modeling, as tests in order to identify molecules expressed by the genus Arthrospira showing an antiviral potential and more particularly anti-SARS-CoV-2. Using consensus docking and redocking with Autodock Vina and SwissDock, we were able to identify several promising molecules from Arthrospira: phycocyanobilin, phycoerythrobilin, phycourobilin, and folic acid. These four compounds showed reliable binding energies comprised between - 6.95 and - 7.45 kcal.mol^-1 in Autodock Vina and between - 9.285 and - 10.35 kcal.mol^-1 with SwissDock. Toxicity prediction as well as current regulations provided promising arguments for the inclusion of these compounds in further studies to assess their ability to compete with the SARS-CoV-2/ACE2 complex both in vitro and in vivo.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10811-021-02372-9.

Docking and in silico toxicity assessment of Arthrospira compounds as potential antiviral agents against SARS-CoV-2

A race is currently being launched as a result of the international health situation. This race aims to find, by various means, weapons to counter the Covid-19 pandemic now widespread on all continents. The aquatic world and in particular that of photosynthetic organisms is regularly highlighted but paradoxically little exploited in view of the tremendous possibilities it offers. Computational tools allow not only to clear the existence and activity of many molecules but also to model their relationships with receptors identified in potential hosts. On a routine basis, our laboratory carries out a research activity on functionalities of molecules derived from algae using in silico tools. We have implemented our skills in algae biology and in modeling, as tests in order to identify molecules expressed by the genus Arthrospira showing an antiviral potential and more particularly anti-SARS-CoV-2. Using consensus docking and redocking with Autodock Vina and SwissDock, we were able to identify several promising molecules from Arthrospira: phycocyanobilin, phycoerythrobilin, phycourobilin, and folic acid. These four compounds showed reliable binding energies comprised between - 6.95 and - 7.45 kcal.mol^-1 in Autodock Vina and between - 9.285 and - 10.35 kcal.mol^-1 with SwissDock. Toxicity prediction as well as current regulations provided promising arguments for the inclusion of these compounds in further studies to assess their ability to compete with the SARS-CoV-2/ACE2 complex both in vitro and in vivo.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10811-021-02372-9.

Haematological reference intervals for healthy adults in Bamenda, Cameroon

BACKGROUND

In the era of evidence-based medicine, haematological reference intervals are essential for the interpretation of data for clinical decision-making, monitoring of treatment and research. It is not uncommon that reference intervals used in most African countries have been obtained from published scientific literature, textbooks, reagent/instrument manuals.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine haematological reference intervals of healthy adults in Bamenda, Cameroon.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study conducted between June and November 2015. Participants were voluntary blood donors at the Blood Bank Service of the Regional Hospital Bamenda aged between 18 and 65 years. The mean, median and standard deviation of the mean were calculated for each haematological parameter. The 95th percentile reference intervals were determined using the 2.5th and 97.5th percentile. The differences between gender for all the parameters were evaluated using the Kruskal-Wallis test. Significance was determined at the 95% confidence level.

RESULTS

Out of a total of 340 participants, 202 (59.4%) were men and 138 (40.6%) were women. The median red blood cell, haemoglobin, haematocrit and mean cell haemoglobin concentration were significantly higher in men than women (p < 0.001). The median white blood cell, absolute lymphocytes count, absolute granulocytes and platelet counts for men were significantly lower than those for women (p < 0.011).

CONCLUSION

We propose that the present established haematological reference intervals in this study should be used for clinical management of patients and interpretation of laboratory data for research in Bamenda.

Effects of spirulina and wakame consumption on intestinal cholesterol absorption and serum lipid concentrations in non-hypercholesterolemic adult men and women

PURPOSE

Consumption of the algae spirulina (Arthrospira platensis or maxima) and wakame (Undaria pinnatifida) has been shown to lower LDL cholesterol concentrations in animals and humans, possibly due to the inhibition of intestinal cholesterol absorption. This mechanism, however, has never been investigated in humans. Therefore, we examined in non-hypercholesterolemic men and women the effects of spirulina and wakame consumption on serum markers for intestinal cholesterol absorption.

METHODS

Thirty-five healthy men and women without hypercholesterolemia consumed in a random order daily 4.8 g spirulina, wakame or placebo for 17 days, separated by 14-day washouts. After 17 days, serum cholesterol-standardized campesterol, sitosterol and cholestanol, and lathosterol concentrations were measured as markers for intestinal cholesterol absorption and cholesterol synthesis, respectively. Concentrations of serum total cholesterol, LDL and HDL cholesterol, triacylglycerol, and plasma glucose, and blood pressure were measured as well.

RESULTS

Compared with placebo, spirulina or wakame did not affect serum cholesterol-standardized campesterol (CI - 0.23 to 0.10 μmol/mmol, P = 0.435 and CI - 0.14 to 0.19 μmol/mmol, P = 0.729, respectively), sitosterol (P = 0.314 and P = 0.112), cholestanol (P = 0.610 and P = 0.809), or lathosterol (P = 0.388 and P = 0.102) concentrations. In addition, serum lipid and plasma glucose concentrations, and blood pressure were not changed.

CONCLUSIONS

Daily consumption of 4.8 g spirulina or wakame for 17 days did not affect plasma markers for intestinal cholesterol absorption or cholesterol synthesis in non-hypercholesterolemic men and women. Serum lipid and glucose concentrations, and blood pressure were also not altered.

Carbohidratos y proteínas en microalgas: potenciales alimentos funcionales

Resumen Las microalgas son organismos distribuidos en todo el planeta, con cientos de miles de especies desde que se tienen registros. Sus componentes con potenciales propiedades benéficas en la nutrición y la salud han despertado el interés científico, industrial y comercial. En las últimas décadas se han logrado desarrollar varios productos, entre ellos alimentos funcionales, usando compuestos extraídos de ellas o con la totalidad de su biomasa. Su alta tasa de crecimiento, bajo consumo de nutrientes, relativamente pequeño espacio de producción, plantean un horizonte prometedor como recurso renovable y con grandes beneficios. Las tecnologías para su aprovechamiento se han incrementado y adaptado para mejorar el rendimiento y la calidad, sin embargo, los científicos reconocen que aún existen una serie de desafíos por superar.

Maternal Protein Malnutrition: Current and Future Perspectives of Spirulina Supplementation in Neuroprotection

Malnutrition has been widely recognized as a grave burden restricting the progress of underdeveloped and developing countries. Maternal, neonatal and postnatal nutritional immunity provides an effective approach to decrease the risk of malnutrition associated stress in adulthood. Particularly, maternal nutritional status is a critical contributor for determining the long-term health aspects of an offspring. Maternal malnutrition leads to increased risk of life, poor immune system, delayed motor development and cognitive dysfunction in the children. An effective immunomodulatory intervention using nutraceutical could be used to enhance immunity against infections. The immune system in early life possesses enormous dynamic capacity to manage both genetic and environment driven processes and can adapt to rapidly changing environmental exposures. These immunomodulatory stimuli or potent nutraceutical strategy can make use of early life plasticity to target pathways of immune ontogeny, which in turn could increase the immunity against infectious diseases arising from malnutrition. This review provides appreciable human and animal data showing enduring effects of protein deprivation on CNS development, oxidative stress and inflammation and associated behavioral and cognitive impairments. Relevant studies on nutritional supplementation and rehabilitation using Spirulina as a potent protein source and neuroprotectant against protein malnutrition (PMN) induced deleterious changes have also been discussed. However, there are many futuristic issues that need to be resolved for proper modulation of these therapeutic interventions to prevent malnutrition.

Spirulina maxima Decreases Endothelial Damage and Oxidative Stress Indicators in Patients with Systemic Arterial Hypertension: Results from Exploratory Controlled Clinical Trial

(1) Background: Spirulina (Arthrospira) maxima has shown beneficial effects such as being anti-dyslipidemic, antiviral, antioxidant and antihypertensive. However, there are few and limited clinical studies. (2) Methods: a prospective, randomized, parallel pilot study of 4.5 g administration of Spirulinamaxima or placebo for 12 weeks in 16 patients with systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) undergoing treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors was performed to assess the effects on endothelial damage and oxidative stress indicators. The blood levels of sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, endothelin-1, and sE-selectin were quantified; the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and concentrations of reduced glutathione, oxidized glutathione, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, were also quantified before and after the treatment period. (3) Results: There were statistically significant (p < 0.05) decreases in systolic blood pressure, sVCAM-1, sE-selectin and endothelin-1 levels, and increases in glutathione peroxidase activity and oxidized glutathione levels. (4) Conclusion: The effects found in the present study agree with antihypertensive and antioxidant effects previously reported for Spirulina maxima. However, this is the first report about the effects on indicators of endothelial damage. More research in this field is necessary to gain an insight into the effects of Spirulina on these indicators.

Effects of superfoods on risk factors of metabolic syndrome: a systematic review of human intervention trials

Functional foods can be effective in the prevention of metabolic syndrome and subsequently the onset of cardiovascular diseases and type II diabetes mellitus. More recently, however, another term was introduced to describe foods with additional health benefits: "superfoods", for which, to date, no generally accepted definition exists. Nonetheless, their consumption might contribute to the prevention of metabolic syndrome, for example due to the presence of potentially bioactive compounds. This review provides an overview of controlled human intervention studies with foods described as "superfoods" and their effects on metabolic syndrome parameters. First, an Internet search was performed to identify foods described as superfoods. For these superfoods, controlled human intervention trials were identified until April 2017 investigating the effects of superfood consumption on metabolic syndrome parameters: waist circumference or BMI, blood pressure, or concentrations of HDL cholesterol, triacylglycerol or glucose. Seventeen superfoods were identified, including a total of 113 intervention trials: blueberries (8 studies), cranberries (8), goji berries (3), strawberries (7), chili peppers (3), garlic (21), ginger (10), chia seed (5), flaxseed (22), quinoa (1), cocoa (16), maca (1), spirulina (7), wheatgrass (1), acai berries (0), hemp seed (0) and bee pollen (0). Overall, only limited evidence was found for the effects of the foods described as superfoods on metabolic syndrome parameters, since results were not consistent or the number of controlled intervention trials was limited. The inconsistencies might have been related to intervention-related factors, such as duration or dose. Furthermore, conclusions may be different if other health benefits are considered.

The Protein Extract of Chlorella minutissima Inhibits The Expression of MMP-1, MMP-2 and MMP-9 in Cancer Cells through Upregulation of TIMP-3 and Down Regulation of c-Jun

Objective

Considering the bioactivities exhibited by microalgae, the effect of protein extract of Chlorella minutissimma (CP extract) was investigated on the expression of human matrix metalloproteinases-1 (MMP-1) in the breast cancer cell line MDA-MB231, and that of MMP-2 and -9 in hepatocellular cancer cell line HepG2 at different expression levels. The study aimed identification and analysis of inhibitory activity of microalgal components extracted from Chlorella minutissima against human MMPs.

Materials and Methods

In this experimental study, we analysed the effect of Chlorella extracts on MMP-1, -2, and -9 expression at various levels. Gelatin zymography was performed to study the inhibitory effect of Chlorella exracts on human gelatinases at the activity level, followed by western blotting to analyse the expression of all three MMPs at the protein level. The similar effect at the mRNA level along with the probable mechanism underlying inhibition of MMPs was assessed using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Results

The results reveal that the treatment with CP extract decreased the mRNA expression of MMP-1, MMP-2, and MMP-9 by 0.26-, 0.29-, and 0.40-fold, respectively, at 20 μg/ml concentration as well as inhibited the activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 by 37.56 and 42.64%, respectively, at 15 μg/ml concentration. Additionally, upregulated mRNA expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-3 (TIMP-3) by 1.68-fold was seen in HepG2 cells at 20 μg/ml concentration treatment group. However, CP extract did not induce any change in the mRNA expression of the TIMP-1, -2 and -4 in HepG2 and TIMP-1, -2, -3 and -4 in MDA-MB231 cells. Activator protein-1 (AP-1)-dependent c-Jun-mediated transcriptional regulation of MMP-1, -2, and -9 was also studied to elucidate the appropriate mechanism involved in the inhibition of MMPs.

Conclusion

The CP extract successfully inhibited MMP-1, -2, and -9 at different expression levels through TIMP-3 upregulation and c-Jun downregulation.

Zanthoxylum heitzii Modulates Ferric Nitrilotriacetate-Dependent Oxidative Alterations in Four Vital Organs: An In Vitro Organoprotective Model

Ferric nitrilotriacetate (Fe-NTA) is a highly reactive compound used to induce degenerative disorders through oxidative stress (OS). Zanthoxylum heitzii (Z. heitzii) is a spice used as a medicinal plant to treat a variety of illnesses. This study investigated the ability of extracts from the leaves, fruits, roots, and barks of Z. Heitzii to inhibit Fe-NTA mediated oxidative damage in rats. The supernatant of rat liver homogenates was pretreated with the extracts for one hour before the induction of oxidative damage using a solution of Fe-NTA (400 mM). The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and peroxidases were measured together with the marker of lipid peroxidation and the level of glutathione. The pretreated groups showed a significant increase in the activity of SOD, catalase, and peroxidases. The methanolic extract from the leaves of Z. heitzii (36.78 ± 3.30) and aqueous extract from the fruits (37.01 ± 2.52) showed the highest activities of SOD in the liver. The lowest concentration of MDA was found in the liver, and the glutathione was greater in the brain. Conclusively, these results suggest that Z. heitzii might be a chemoprotector which may be used in for prevention of distinct types of diseases induced by oxidative stress.

Hypolipidemic effect and activation of Lecithin Cholesterol Acyl Transferase (LCAT) by aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis during toxicological investigation

BACKGROUND

Spirulina platensis produced in Nomayos (Cameroon) is used as a dietary supplement. S. platensis is known as a neutraceutical with many beneficial effects on humans like lipid-lowering action. This study aims to investigate the mechanism of hypolipidemic action of aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis (S. platensis) through the toxicological studies.

METHODS

In this study, we included two month old Wistar rats, weighing between 180 and 200 g. Aqueous S. platensis was extracted and prepared using standard methods. The rats received a supplementation of S. platensis at 5000 mg/Kg of body weight as single dose in acute toxicity whereas different doses (250, 500, 1000 mg / kg body weight) were administered in subacute toxicity compared to control. Acute and subacute toxicities were determined according to the guidelines 420 (14 days) and 407 (28 days) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) respectively. Biochemical parameters such as urea, creatinine, total and direct bilirubin, lipid profile and transaminases; and histopathological analysis of the liver and kidneys were used to evaluate the toxicity of S. platensis on these Wistar rats. Plasmatic hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG CoA reductase) and lecithine cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT) were performed to explain the lipid-lowering action of S. platensis. Histopathological analysis of the liver and kidneys was performed.

RESULTS

Our results show a decrease in total cholesterol for male rats (from 84 to 74 mg/dl) when the dose of S. platensis increased; this reduction of the total cholesterol level in male rats was significant at 500 mg/kg. There was also a significant inhibition of HMG CoA reductase in a dose dependent manner between 25 and 84.5 fold compared to the control in both male and female groups. At the dose of 250 mg/kg bw, the level of LCAT was higher compared with other groups and control, but the difference was not statistically significant. A slight inflammation in the liver and the mesangial hyperplasia of the renal glomeruli was revealed by the histopathological investigation in subacute toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Spirulina platensis from Cameroon appears to have little toxic effects and may demonstrate hypolipidemic activity through the activation of LCAT.

Microalgal food supplements from the perspective of Polish consumers: patterns of use, adverse events, and beneficial effects

Microalgal food supplements are becoming increasingly popular due to their promising biological effects and high nutritional value, evidenced in in vitro, in vivo, and human studies. Some products of this kind have, however, raised controversies concerning their safety. At the same time, not much is known about the frequency of adverse events following the use of microalgal supplements, potential factors that may influence them, and general characteristics and behaviours of the consumer group. The present study aimed to fill this gap and surveyed a group of Polish consumers of microalgal products (n = 150) using an online questionnaire. As found, microalgal supplements (Spirulina, Chlorella, and Aphanizomenon) were popular in groups representing lacto-ovo-vegetarianism and veganism and were consumed predominantly for nutritional, immune-boosting, and detoxifying purposes. Their use was rarely discussed with specialists; the Internet constituted the most important source of information regarding these supplements. The most frequently self-reported health-beneficial effects of supplementation included the following: increased immunity, higher vitality, improved hair and skin quality, and better general well-being. Diarrhoea, nausea, abdominal pain, and skin rash were among the most often reported adverse events. Pre-existing medical conditions, namely renal failure and hypothyroidism, but not Hashimoto's thyroiditis, were associated with increased occurrence of side effects. Those individuals who had consulted specialists as to the use of supplements reported adverse events significantly less often. A strikingly high frequency of side effects and very low consumer satisfaction were reported by a group of consumers supplementing Aphanizomenon-based products. In summary, the present study highlights that microalgal consumers may benefit from additional warnings of potential side effects and from consulting a qualified health specialist prior to use.

Antioxidant, Immunomodulating, and Microbial-Modulating Activities of the Sustainable and Ecofriendly Spirulina

The highly nutritional and ecofriendly Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) has hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, and antihypertensive properties. Spirulina contains functional compounds, such as phenolics, phycocyanins, and polysaccharides, with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunostimulating effects. Studies conducted on Spirulina suggest that it is safe in healthy subjects, but attitude to eating probably affects the acceptability of Spirulina containing foods. Although the antioxidant effect of Spirulina is confirmed by the intervention studies, the concerted modulation of antioxidant and inflammatory responses, suggested by in vitro and animal studies, requires more confirmation in humans. Spirulina supplements seem to affect more effectively the innate immunity, promoting the activity of natural killer cells. The effects on cytokines and on lymphocytes' proliferation depend on age, gender, and body weight differences. In this context, ageing and obesity are both associated with chronic low grade inflammation, immune impairment, and intestinal dysbiosis. Microbial-modulating activities have been reported in vitro, suggesting that the association of Spirulina and probiotics could represent a new strategy to improve the growth of beneficial intestinal microbiota. Although Spirulina might represent a functional food with potential beneficial effects on human health, the human interventions used only supplements. Therefore, the effect of food containing Spirulina should be evaluated in the future.

The antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina: an overview

Spirulina is a species of filamentous cyanobacteria that has long been used as a food supplement. In particular, Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima are the most important. Thanks to a high protein and vitamin content, Spirulina is used as a nutraceutical food supplement, although its other potential health benefits have attracted much attention. Oxidative stress and dysfunctional immunity cause many diseases in humans, including atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and hypertension. Thus, the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of these microalgae may play an important role in human health. Here, we discuss the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina in both animals and humans, along with the underlying mechanisms. In addition, its commercial and regulatory status in different countries is discussed as well. Spirulina activates cellular antioxidant enzymes, inhibits lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, scavenges free radicals, and increases the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Notably, there appears to be a threshold level above which Spirulina will taper off the antioxidant activity. Clinical trials show that Spirulina prevents skeletal muscle damage under conditions of exercise-induced oxidative stress and can stimulate the production of antibodies and up- or downregulate the expression of cytokine-encoding genes to induce immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory responses. The molecular mechanism(s) by which Spirulina induces these activities is unclear, but phycocyanin and β-carotene are important molecules. Moreover, Spirulina effectively regulates the ERK1/2, JNK, p38, and IκB pathways. This review provides new insight into the potential therapeutic applications of Spirulina and may provide new ideas for future studies.