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Raines SLM, Falcinelli SD, Peterson JJ, Van Gulck E, Allard B, Kirchherr J, Vega J, Najera I, Boden D, Archin NM, Margolis DM. Nanoparticle delivery of Tat synergizes with classical latency reversal agents to express HIV antigen targets. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2024:e0020124. [PMID: 38829049 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00201-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Limited cellular levels of the HIV transcriptional activator Tat are one contributor to proviral latency that might be targeted in HIV cure strategies. We recently demonstrated that lipid nanoparticles containing HIV tat mRNA induce HIV expression in primary CD4 T cells. Here, we sought to further characterize tat mRNA in the context of several benchmark latency reversal agents (LRAs), including inhibitor of apoptosis protein antagonists (IAPi), bromodomain and extra-Terminal motif inhibitors (BETi), and histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi). tat mRNA reversed latency across several different cell line models of HIV latency, an effect dependent on the TAR hairpin loop. Synergistic enhancement of tat mRNA activity was observed with IAPi, HDACi, and BETi, albeit to variable degrees. In primary CD4 T cells from durably suppressed people with HIV, tat mRNA profoundly increased the frequencies of elongated, multiply-spliced, and polyadenylated HIV transcripts, while having a lesser impact on TAR transcript frequencies. tat mRNAs alone resulted in variable HIV p24 protein induction across donors. However, tat mRNA in combination with IAPi, BETi, or HDACi markedly enhanced HIV RNA and protein expression without overt cytotoxicity or cellular activation. Notably, combination regimens approached or in some cases exceeded the latency reversal activity of maximal mitogenic T cell stimulation. Higher levels of tat mRNA-driven HIV p24 induction were observed in donors with larger mitogen-inducible HIV reservoirs, and expression increased with prolonged exposure time. Combination LRA strategies employing both small molecule inhibitors and Tat delivered to CD4 T cells are a promising approach to effectively target the HIV reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel L M Raines
- Department of Medicine and UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Shane D Falcinelli
- Department of Medicine and UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jackson J Peterson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ellen Van Gulck
- Janssen Infectious Diseases, Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Brigitte Allard
- Department of Medicine and UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jennifer Kirchherr
- Department of Medicine and UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jerel Vega
- Arcturus Therapeutics, Science Center Drive, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Isabel Najera
- Janssen Infectious Diseases, Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Daniel Boden
- Janssen Infectious Diseases, Janssen Research and Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Nancie M Archin
- Department of Medicine and UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - David M Margolis
- Department of Medicine and UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Hasler MF, Speck RF, Kadzioch NP. Humanized mice for studying HIV latency and potentially its eradication. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2024; 19:157-167. [PMID: 38547338 DOI: 10.1097/coh.0000000000000855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW The quest for an HIV cure faces a formidable challenge: the persistent presence of latent viral infections within the cells and tissues of infected individuals. This review provides a thorough examination of discussions surrounding HIV latency, the use of humanized mouse models, and strategies aimed at eliminating the latent HIV reservoir. It explores the hurdles and advancements in understanding HIV pathogenesis, mainly focusing on establishing latent reservoirs in CD4 + T cells and macrophages. Introducing the concepts of functional and sterile cures, the review underscores the indispensable role of humanized mouse models in HIV research, offering crucial insights into the efficacy of cART and the ongoing pursuit of an HIV cure. RECENT FINDINGS Here, we highlight studies investigating molecular mechanisms and pathogenesis related to HIV latency in humanized mice and discuss novel strategies for eradicating latent HIV. Emphasizing the importance of analytical cART interruption in humanized mouse studies to gauge its impact on the latent reservoir accurately, the review underlines the ongoing progress and challenges in harnessing humanized mouse models for HIV research. SUMMARY This review suggests that humanized mice models provide valuable insights into HIV latency and potential eradication strategies, contributing significantly to the quest for an HIV cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moa F Hasler
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Baroncini L, Bredl S, Nicole KP, Speck RF. The Humanized Mouse Model: What Added Value Does It Offer for HIV Research? Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12040608. [PMID: 37111494 PMCID: PMC10142098 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12040608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In the early 2000s, novel humanized mouse models based on the transplantation of human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) into immunocompromised mice were introduced (hu mice). The human HSPCs gave rise to a lymphoid system of human origin. The HIV research community has greatly benefitted from these hu mice. Since human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 infection results in a high-titer disseminated HIV infection, hu mice have been of great value for all types of HIV research from pathogenesis to novel therapies. Since the first description of this new generation of hu mice, great efforts have been expended to improve humanization by creating other immunodeficient mouse models or supplementing mice with human transgenes to improve human engraftment. Many labs have their own customized hu mouse models, making comparisons quite difficult. Here, we discuss the different hu mouse models in the context of specific research questions in order to define which characteristics should be considered when determining which hu mouse model is appropriate for the question posed. We strongly believe that researchers must first define their research question and then determine whether a hu mouse model exists, allowing the research question to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Baroncini
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon Bredl
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kadzioch P Nicole
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roberto F Speck
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
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Colas C, Volodina O, Béland K, Pham TNQ, Li Y, Dallaire F, Soulard C, Lemieux W, Colamartino ABL, Tremblay-Laganière C, Dicaire R, Guimond J, Vobecky S, Poirier N, Patey N, Cohen ÉA, Haddad E. Generation of functional human T cell development in NOD/SCID/IL2rγ null humanized mice without using fetal tissue: Application as a model of HIV infection and persistence. Stem Cell Reports 2023; 18:597-612. [PMID: 36736326 PMCID: PMC9969074 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2023.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Humanization of mice with functional T cells currently relies on co-implantation of hematopoietic stem cells from fetal liver and autologous fetal thymic tissue (so-called BLT mouse model). Here, we show that NOD/SCID/IL2rγnull mice humanized with cord blood- derived CD34+ cells and implanted with allogeneic pediatric thymic tissues excised during cardiac surgeries (CCST) represent an alternative to BLT mice. CCST mice displayed a strong immune reconstitution, with functional T cells originating from CD34+ progenitor cells. They were equally susceptible to mucosal or intraperitoneal HIV infection and had significantly higher HIV-specific T cell responses. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) robustly suppressed viremia and reduced the frequencies of cells carrying integrated HIV DNA. As in BLT mice, we observed a complete viral rebound following ART interruption, suggesting the presence of HIV reservoirs. In conclusion, CCST mice represent a practical alternative to BLT mice, broadening the use of humanized mice for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Colas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Olga Volodina
- Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Kathie Béland
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Tram N Q Pham
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Yuanyi Li
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Frédéric Dallaire
- Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Clara Soulard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - William Lemieux
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Aurélien B L Colamartino
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Camille Tremblay-Laganière
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Renée Dicaire
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | | | - Suzanne Vobecky
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Nancy Poirier
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Natasha Patey
- CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada; Department of Pathology, CHU Sainte-Justine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Éric A Cohen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; Montreal Clinical Research Institute (IRCM), Montreal, QC H2W 1R7, Canada.
| | - Elie Haddad
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1J4, Canada; CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada.
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Scully EP, Aga E, Tsibris A, Archin N, Starr K, Ma Q, Morse GD, Squires KE, Howell BJ, Wu G, Hosey L, Sieg SF, Ehui L, Giguel F, Coxen K, Dobrowolski C, Gandhi M, Deeks S, Chomont N, Connick E, Godfrey C, Karn J, Kuritzkes DR, Bosch RJ, Gandhi RT. Impact of Tamoxifen on Vorinostat-Induced Human Immunodeficiency Virus Expression in Women on Antiretroviral Therapy: AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5366, The MOXIE Trial. Clin Infect Dis 2022; 75:1389-1396. [PMID: 35176755 PMCID: PMC9555843 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciac136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biological sex and the estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) modulate human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) activity. Few women have enrolled in clinical trials of latency reversal agents (LRAs); their effectiveness in women is unknown. We hypothesized that ESR1 antagonism would augment induction of HIV expression by the LRA vorinostat. METHODS AIDS Clinical Trials Group A5366 enrolled 31 virologically suppressed, postmenopausal women on antiretroviral therapy. Participants were randomized 2:1 to receive tamoxifen (arm A, TAMOX/VOR) or observation (arm B, VOR) for 5 weeks followed by 2 doses of vorinostat. Primary end points were safety and the difference between arms in HIV RNA induction after vorinostat. Secondary analyses included histone 4 acetylation, HIV DNA, and plasma viremia by single copy assay (SCA). RESULTS No significant adverse events were attributed to study treatments. Tamoxifen did not enhance vorinostat-induced HIV transcription (between-arm ratio, 0.8; 95% confidence interval [CI], .2-2.4). Vorinostat-induced HIV transcription was higher in participants with increases in H4Ac (fold increase, 2.78; 95% CI, 1.34-5.79) vs those 9 who did not (fold increase, 1.04; 95% CI, .25-4.29). HIV DNA and SCA plasma viremia did not substantially change. CONCLUSIONS Tamoxifen did not augment vorinostat-induced HIV RNA expression in postmenopausal women. The modest latency reversal activity of vorinostat, postmenopausal status, and low level of HIV RNA expression near the limits of quantification limited assessment of the impact of tamoxifen. This study is the first HIV cure trial done exclusively in women and establishes both the feasibility and necessity of investigating novel HIV cure strategies in women living with HIV. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION NCT03382834.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen P Scully
- Departement of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Evgenia Aga
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Athe Tsibris
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nancie Archin
- University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kate Starr
- ACTG Clinical Research Site, Ohio State University, Hilliard, Ohio, USA
| | - Qing Ma
- Translational Pharmacology Research Core, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Gene D Morse
- Translational Pharmacology Research Core, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | | | - Bonnie J Howell
- Department of Infectious Disease and Vaccines, Merck and Co, West Point, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Guoxin Wu
- Department of Infectious Disease and Vaccines, Merck and Co, West Point, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Lara Hosey
- ACTG Network Coordinating Center, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Scott F Sieg
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Lynsay Ehui
- Whitman-Walker Health, Washington, D.C., USA
| | - Francoise Giguel
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kendyll Coxen
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Curtis Dobrowolski
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Monica Gandhi
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Steve Deeks
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Nicolas Chomont
- Department of Microbiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Université de Montréal, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM), Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Catherine Godfrey
- Office of the Global AIDS Coordinator, Department of State, Washington D.C., USA
| | - Jonathan Karn
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Daniel R Kuritzkes
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ronald J Bosch
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rajesh T Gandhi
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Crespo R, Rao S, Mahmoudi T. HibeRNAtion: HIV-1 RNA Metabolism and Viral Latency. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:855092. [PMID: 35774399 PMCID: PMC9237370 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.855092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 infection remains non-curative due to the latent reservoir, primarily a small pool of resting memory CD4+ T cells bearing replication-competent provirus. Pharmacological reversal of HIV-1 latency followed by intrinsic or extrinsic cell killing has been proposed as a promising strategy to target and eliminate HIV-1 viral reservoirs. Latency reversing agents have been extensively studied for their role in reactivating HIV-1 transcription in vivo, although no permanent reduction of the viral reservoir has been observed thus far. This is partly due to the complex nature of latency, which involves strict intrinsic regulation at multiple levels at transcription and RNA processing. Still, the molecular mechanisms that control HIV-1 latency establishment and maintenance have been almost exclusively studied in the context of chromatin remodeling, transcription initiation and elongation and most known LRAs target LTR-driven transcription by manipulating these. RNA metabolism is a largely understudies but critical mechanistic step in HIV-1 gene expression and latency. In this review we provide an update on current knowledge on the role of RNA processing mechanisms in viral gene expression and latency and speculate on the possible manipulation of these pathways as a therapeutic target for future cure studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Crespo
- Department of Biochemistry, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Shringar Rao
- Department of Biochemistry, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Tokameh Mahmoudi
- Department of Biochemistry, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Pathology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Urology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Tokameh Mahmoudi,
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Sugawara S, Reeves RK, Jost S. Learning to Be Elite: Lessons From HIV-1 Controllers and Animal Models on Trained Innate Immunity and Virus Suppression. Front Immunol 2022; 13:858383. [PMID: 35572502 PMCID: PMC9094575 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.858383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Although antiretroviral therapy (ART) has drastically changed the lives of people living with human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), long-term treatment has been associated with a vast array of comorbidities. Therefore, a cure for HIV-1 remains the best option to globally eradicate HIV-1/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). However, development of strategies to achieve complete eradication of HIV-1 has been extremely challenging. Thus, the control of HIV-1 replication by the host immune system, namely functional cure, has long been studied as an alternative approach for HIV-1 cure. HIV-1 elite controllers (ECs) are rare individuals who naturally maintain undetectable HIV-1 replication levels in the absence of ART and whose immune repertoire might be a desirable blueprint for a functional cure. While the role(s) played by distinct human leukocyte antigen (HLA) expression and CD8+ T cell responses expressing cognate ligands in controlling HIV-1 has been widely characterized in ECs, the innate immune phenotype has been decidedly understudied. Comparably, in animal models such as HIV-1-infected humanized mice and simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV)-infected non-human primates (NHP), viremic control is known to be associated with specific major histocompatibility complex (MHC) alleles and CD8+ T cell activity, but the innate immune response remains incompletely characterized. Notably, recent work demonstrating the existence of trained innate immunity may provide new complementary approaches to achieve an HIV-1 cure. Herein, we review the known characteristics of innate immune responses in ECs and available animal models, identify gaps of knowledge regarding responses by adaptive or trained innate immune cells, and speculate on potential strategies to induce EC-like responses in HIV-1 non-controllers.
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Bromodomain and Extra-Terminal Inhibitor BMS-986158 Reverses Latent HIV-1 Infection In Vitro and Ex Vivo by Increasing CDK9 Phosphorylation and Recruitment. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15030338. [PMID: 35337136 PMCID: PMC8952190 DOI: 10.3390/ph15030338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Latent reservoir persistence remains a major obstacle for curing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Thus, strategies for the elimination of latent HIV-1 are urgently needed. As a bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) inhibitor, BMS-986158 has been used in clinical trials for advanced solid tumors and hematological malignancies. Here, we found that BMS-986158 reactivated latent HIV-1 in three types of HIV-1 latency cells in vitro, and in combination antiretroviral therapy (cART)-treated patient-derived peripheral blood mononuclear cells ex vivo, without influencing global immune cell activation. BMS-986158 reactivated latent HIV-1 by increasing phosphorylation of CDK9 at Thr186 and promoting recruitment of CDK9 and RNA polymerase II to the HIV-1 long terminal repeat in J-Lat cells. Furthermore, BMS-986158 exerted strong synergism in reactivating latent HIV-1 when combined with prostratin and vorinostat and enhanced the antiviral activity of anti-HIV-1 drugs. Finally, BMS-986158 showed antiviral activity in an HIV-1 acute infection model, possibly by arresting the cell cycle in infected cells. Thus, these results suggest that BMS-986158 is a potential candidate for AIDS/HIV-1 therapy.
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Kleinman AJ, Pandrea I, Apetrei C. So Pathogenic or So What?-A Brief Overview of SIV Pathogenesis with an Emphasis on Cure Research. Viruses 2022; 14:135. [PMID: 35062339 PMCID: PMC8781889 DOI: 10.3390/v14010135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV infection requires lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) to control disease progression. Although ART has greatly extended the life expectancy of persons living with HIV (PWH), PWH nonetheless suffer from an increase in AIDS-related and non-AIDS related comorbidities resulting from HIV pathogenesis. Thus, an HIV cure is imperative to improve the quality of life of PWH. In this review, we discuss the origins of various SIV strains utilized in cure and comorbidity research as well as their respective animal species used. We briefly detail the life cycle of HIV and describe the pathogenesis of HIV/SIV and the integral role of chronic immune activation and inflammation on disease progression and comorbidities, with comparisons between pathogenic infections and nonpathogenic infections that occur in natural hosts of SIVs. We further discuss the various HIV cure strategies being explored with an emphasis on immunological therapies and "shock and kill".
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J. Kleinman
- Division of Infectious Diseases, DOM, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA;
| | - Ivona Pandrea
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA;
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Cristian Apetrei
- Division of Infectious Diseases, DOM, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA;
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA;
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10
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McMahon JH, Evans VA, Lau JSY, Symons J, Zerbato JM, Chang J, Solomon A, Tennakoon S, Dantanarayana A, Hagenauer M, Lee S, Palmer S, Fisher K, Bumpus N, Heck CJS, Burger D, Wu G, Zuck P, Howell BJ, Zetterberg HH, Blennow K, Gisslen M, Rasmussen TA, Lewin SR. Neurotoxicity with high-dose disulfiram and vorinostat used for HIV latency reversal. AIDS 2022; 36:75-82. [PMID: 34586085 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000003091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to examine whether administering both vorinostat and disulfiram to people with HIV (PWH) on antiretroviral therapy (ART) is well tolerated and can enhance HIV latency reversal. DESIGN Vorinostat and disulfiram can increase HIV transcription in PWH on ART. Together, these agents may lead to significant HIV latency reversal. METHODS Virologically suppressed PWH on ART received disulfiram 2000 mg daily for 28 days and vorinostat 400 mg daily on days 8-10 and 22-24. The primary endpoint was plasma HIV RNA on day 11 relative to baseline using a single copy assay. Assessments included cell-associated unspliced RNA as a marker of latency reversal, HIV DNA in CD4+ T-cells, plasma HIV RNA, and plasma concentrations of ART, vorinostat, and disulfiram. RESULTS The first two participants (P1 and P2) experienced grade 3 neurotoxicity leading to trial suspension. After 24 days, P1 presented with confusion, lethargy, and ataxia having stopped disulfiram and ART. Symptoms resolved by day 29. After 11 days, P2 presented with paranoia, emotional lability, lethargy, ataxia, and study drugs were ceased. Symptoms resolved by day 23. CA-US RNA increased by 1.4-fold and 1.3-fold for P1 and P2 respectively. Plasma HIV RNA was detectable from day 8 to 37 (peak 81 copies ml-1) for P2 but was not increased in P1 Antiretroviral levels were therapeutic and neuronal injury markers were elevated in P1. CONCLUSION The combination of prolonged high-dose disulfiram and vorinostat was not safe in PWH on ART and should not be pursued despite evidence of latency reversal.
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Affiliation(s)
- James H McMahon
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Monash University
| | - Vanessa A Evans
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jillian S Y Lau
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Monash University
| | - Jori Symons
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jennifer M Zerbato
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Judy Chang
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ajantha Solomon
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Surekha Tennakoon
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashanti Dantanarayana
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michelle Hagenauer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Monash University
| | - Sulggi Lee
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Sarah Palmer
- The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | - Katie Fisher
- The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | | | | | - David Burger
- Department of Pharmacy, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Guoxin Wu
- Department of Infectious Disease & Vaccine Research, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey, USA
| | - Paul Zuck
- Department of Infectious Disease & Vaccine Research, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey, USA
| | - Bonnie J Howell
- Department of Infectious Disease & Vaccine Research, Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, New Jersey, USA
| | - Henrik H Zetterberg
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, Queen Square
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, UK
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, the Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Magnus Gisslen
- Department of Infectious Diseases at Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Region Västra Götaland, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Infectious Diseases, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Thomas A Rasmussen
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sharon R Lewin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Monash University
- The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne and Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria
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11
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Di Y, Lavender KJ. Inducing Long-Term HIV-1 Latency in the TKO-BLT Mouse Model. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2407:253-273. [PMID: 34985670 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1871-4_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Multiple humanized mouse models have been produced for the study of HIV-1 infection and treatment. Humanized mice produced using the bone marrow, liver, thymus (BLT) method particularly have well-reconstituted and functional human immune systems, providing an excellent model for HIV-1 cure strategies that aim to harness the human immune system as part of the cure approach. The TKO-BLT humanized mouse model is especially useful for long-term studies as it is highly resistant to the wasting syndrome and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD ) that can limit the use of other BLT-models. Here we describe the methods used to induce latency in TKO-BLT mice, using both injectable and free-fed combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) regimens, for use in the study of HIV-1 latency and evaluation of HIV-1 cure interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunyun Di
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Kerry J Lavender
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
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12
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Larragoite ET, Nell RA, Martins LJ, Barrows LR, Planelles V, Spivak AM. Histone deacetylase inhibition reduces deleterious cytokine release induced by ingenol stimulation. Biochem Pharmacol 2022; 195:114844. [PMID: 34801521 PMCID: PMC8712404 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Latency reversing agents (LRAs), such as protein kinase C (PKC) agonists, constitute a promising strategy for exposing and eliminating the HIV-1 latent reservoir. PKC agonists activate NF-κB and induce deleterious pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Adjuvant pharmacological agents, such as ruxolitinib, a JAK inhibitor, have previously been combined with LRAs to reduce deleterious pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion without inhibiting HIV-1 reactivation in vitro. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are known to dampen pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in the context of other diseases and synergize with LRAs to reactivate latent HIV-1. This study investigates whether a panel of epigenetic modifiers, including HDACi, could dampen PKC-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion during latency reversal. We screened an epigenetic modifier library for compounds that reduced intracellular IL-6 production induced by the PKC agonist Ingenol-3,20-dibenzoate. We further tested the most promising epigenetic inhibitor class, HDACi, for their ability to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactivate latent HIV-1 ex vivo. We identified nine epigenetic modulators that reduced PKC-induced intracellular IL-6. In cells from aviremic individuals living with HIV-1, the HDAC1-3 inhibitor, suberohydroxamic acid (SBHA), reduced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-5, IL-2r, and IL-17 but did not significantly reactivate latent HIV-1 when combined with Ingenol-3,20-dibenzoate. Combining SBHA and Ingenol-3,20-dibenzoate reduces deleterious cytokine production during latency reversal but does not induce significant viral reactivation in aviremic donor PBMCs. The ability of SBHA to reduce PKC-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines when combined with Ingenol-3,20-dibenzoate suggests SBHA can be used to reduced PKC induced pro-inflammatory cytokines but not to achieve latency reversal in the context of HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin T. Larragoite
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Racheal A. Nell
- Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Laura J. Martins
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Louis R. Barrows
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Vicente Planelles
- Department of Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, United States
| | - Adam M. Spivak
- Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, United States, Corresponding Author: Adam M. Spivak, 50 North Medical Drive, Division of Infectious Diseases, Room 4B319, Department of Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, Phone: 801-587-1964, Fax: 801-585-3377,
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13
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Wong LM, Li D, Tang Y, Méndez-Lagares G, Thompson GR, Hartigan-O'Connor DJ, Dandekar S, Jiang G. Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Latency Reversal via the Induction of Early Growth Response Protein 1 to Bypass Protein Kinase C Agonist-Associated Immune Activation. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:836831. [PMID: 35359743 PMCID: PMC8960990 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.836831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV) remains a global health challenge due to the latent HIV reservoirs in people living with HIV (PLWH). Dormant yet replication competent HIV harbored in the resting CD4+ T cells cannot be purged by antiretroviral therapy (ART) alone. One approach of HIV cure is the "Kick and Kill" strategy where latency reversal agents (LRAs) have been implemented to disrupt latent HIV, expecting to eradicate HIV reservoirs by viral cytopathic effect or immune-mediated clearance. Protein Kinase C agonists (PKCa), a family of LRAs, have demonstrated the ability to disrupt latent HIV to an extent. However, the toxicity of PKCa remains a concern in vivo. Early growth response protein 1 (EGR1) is a downstream target of PKCa during latency reversal. Here, we show that PKCa induces EGR1 which directly drives Tat-dependent HIV transcription. Resveratrol, a natural phytoalexin found in grapes and various plants, induces Egr1 expression and disrupts latent HIV in several HIV latency models in vitro and in CD4+ T cells isolated from ART-suppressed PLWH ex vivo. In the primary CD4+ T cells, resveratrol does not induce immune activation at the dosage that it reverses latency, indicating that targeting EGR1 may be able to reverse latency and bypass PKCa-induced immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilly M Wong
- UNC HIV Cure Center, Institute of Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Dajiang Li
- UNC HIV Cure Center, Institute of Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Yuyang Tang
- UNC HIV Cure Center, Institute of Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Gema Méndez-Lagares
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - George R Thompson
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Dennis J Hartigan-O'Connor
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Satya Dandekar
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Guochun Jiang
- UNC HIV Cure Center, Institute of Global Health and Infectious Diseases, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.,Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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14
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Human Hematopoietic Stem Cell (HSC)-Engrafted NSG Mice for HIV Latency Research. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2407:229-251. [PMID: 34985669 PMCID: PMC9617689 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1871-4_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) suppresses HIV in most patients, but it cannot cure HIV infection. The main challenge to a cure is the presence of latent replication-competent HIV in resting CD4+ T cells in blood and tissues, which reignite infection after cART removal. The long half-life of this reservoir is a major barrier to a cure, and its elimination is a main goal of current HIV research. Animal models that recapitulate HIV latency can provide key insights into the establishment of HIV latency and, more importantly, enable the testing of HIV eradication strategies. We describe a protocol for the generation of humanized mice by intrahepatic injection of human cord blood-derived CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) into newborn NSG mice, the HSC-NSG mouse model. We also describe a protocol for establishing HIV latency in this model. HSC-NSG mice have provided proof-of-concept for an approach combining HIV gene editing and HIV suppression in tissues that may cure HIV in infected humans.
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15
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Mbonye U, Leskov K, Shukla M, Valadkhan S, Karn J. Biogenesis of P-TEFb in CD4+ T cells to reverse HIV latency is mediated by protein kinase C (PKC)-independent signaling pathways. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009581. [PMID: 34529720 PMCID: PMC8478230 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The switch between HIV latency and productive transcription is regulated by an auto-feedback mechanism initiated by the viral trans-activator Tat, which functions to recruit the host transcription elongation factor P-TEFb to proviral HIV. A heterodimeric complex of CDK9 and one of three cyclin T subunits, P-TEFb is expressed at vanishingly low levels in resting memory CD4+ T cells and cellular mechanisms controlling its availability are central to regulation of the emergence of HIV from latency. Using a well-characterized primary T-cell model of HIV latency alongside healthy donor memory CD4+ T cells, we characterized specific T-cell receptor (TCR) signaling pathways that regulate the generation of transcriptionally active P-TEFb, defined as the coordinate expression of cyclin T1 and phospho-Ser175 CDK9. Protein kinase C (PKC) agonists, such as ingenol and prostratin, stimulated active P-TEFb expression and reactivated latent HIV with minimal cytotoxicity, even in the absence of intracellular calcium mobilization with an ionophore. Unexpectedly, inhibition-based experiments demonstrated that PKC agonists and TCR-mobilized diacylglycerol signal through MAP kinases ERK1/2 rather than through PKC to effect the reactivation of both P-TEFb and latent HIV. Single-cell and bulk RNA-seq analyses revealed that of the four known isoforms of the Ras guanine nucleotide exchange factor RasGRP, RasGRP1 is by far the predominantly expressed diacylglycerol-dependent isoform in CD4+ T cells. RasGRP1 should therefore mediate the activation of ERK1/2 via Ras-Raf signaling upon TCR co-stimulation or PKC agonist challenge. Combined inhibition of the PI3K-mTORC2-AKT-mTORC1 pathway and the ERK1/2 activator MEK prior to TCR co-stimulation abrogated active P-TEFb expression and substantially suppressed latent HIV reactivation. Therefore, contrary to prevailing models, the coordinate reactivation of P-TEFb and latent HIV in primary T cells following either TCR co-stimulation or PKC agonist challenge is independent of PKC but rather involves two complementary signaling arms of the TCR cascade, namely, RasGRP1-Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK1/2 and PI3K-mTORC2-AKT-mTORC1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uri Mbonye
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail: (UM); (JK)
| | - Konstantin Leskov
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Meenakshi Shukla
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Saba Valadkhan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jonathan Karn
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail: (UM); (JK)
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16
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Atkins AJ, Allen AG, Dampier W, Haddad EK, Nonnemacher MR, Wigdahl B. HIV-1 cure strategies: why CRISPR? Expert Opin Biol Ther 2021; 21:781-793. [PMID: 33331178 PMCID: PMC9777058 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2021.1865302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has transformed prognoses for HIV-1-infected individuals but requires lifelong adherence to prevent viral resurgence. Targeted elimination or permanent deactivation of the latently infected reservoir harboring integrated proviral DNA, which drives viral rebound, is a major focus of HIV-1 research. AREAS COVERED This review covers the current approaches to developing curative strategies for HIV-1 that target the latent reservoir. Discussed herein are shock and kill, broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs), block and lock, Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, immune checkpoint modulation, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) coreceptor ablation, and CRISPR/Cas9 proviral excision. Emphasis is placed on CRISPR/Cas9 proviral excision/inactivation. Recent advances and future directions toward discovery and translation of HIV-1 therapeutics are discussed. EXPERT OPINION CRISPR/Cas9 proviral targeting fills a niche amongst HIV-1 cure strategies by directly targeting the integrated provirus without the necessity of an innate or adaptive immune response. Each strategy discussed in this review has shown promising results with the potential to yield curative or adjuvant therapies. CRISPR/Cas9 is singular among these in that it addresses the root of the problem, integrated proviral DNA, with the capacity to permanently remove or deactivate the source of HIV-1 recrudescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Atkins
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
| | - Alexander G. Allen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
| | - Will Dampier
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
| | - Elias K. Haddad
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Michael R. Nonnemacher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA,Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA,Correspondence should be addressed to B.W. (), 245 N 15th St, Rm 18301, MS1013A, Philadelphia, PA, 19102, Tel: 215-991-8352, Fax: 215-849-4808
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17
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Abeynaike S, Paust S. Humanized Mice for the Evaluation of Novel HIV-1 Therapies. Front Immunol 2021; 12:636775. [PMID: 33868262 PMCID: PMC8047330 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.636775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
With the discovery of antiretroviral therapy, HIV-1 infection has transitioned into a manageable but chronic illness, which requires lifelong treatment. Nevertheless, complete eradication of the virus has still eluded us. This is partly due to the virus’s ability to remain in a dormant state in tissue reservoirs, ‘hidden’ from the host’s immune system. Also, the high mutation rate of HIV-1 results in escape mutations in response to many therapeutics. Regardless, the development of novel cures for HIV-1 continues to move forward with a range of approaches from immunotherapy to gene editing. However, to evaluate in vivo pathogenesis and the efficacy and safety of therapeutic approaches, a suitable animal model is necessary. To this end, the humanized mouse was developed by McCune in 1988 and has continued to be improved on over the past 30 years. Here, we review the variety of humanized mouse models that have been utilized through the years and describe their specific contribution in translating HIV-1 cure strategies to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn Abeynaike
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States.,The Skaggs Graduate Program in Chemical and Biological Sciences, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Silke Paust
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States.,The Skaggs Graduate Program in Chemical and Biological Sciences, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
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18
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Gillgrass A, Wessels JM, Yang JX, Kaushic C. Advances in Humanized Mouse Models to Improve Understanding of HIV-1 Pathogenesis and Immune Responses. Front Immunol 2021; 11:617516. [PMID: 33746940 PMCID: PMC7973037 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.617516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Although antiretroviral therapy has transformed human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) from a deadly infection into a chronic disease, it does not clear the viral reservoir, leaving HIV-1 as an uncurable infection. Currently, 1.2 million new HIV-1 infections occur globally each year, with little decrease over many years. Therefore, additional research is required to advance the current state of HIV management, find potential therapeutic strategies, and further understand the mechanisms of HIV pathogenesis and prevention strategies. Non-human primates (NHP) have been used extensively in HIV research and have provided critical advances within the field, but there are several issues that limit their use. Humanized mouse (Hu-mouse) models, or immunodeficient mice engrafted with human immune cells and/or tissues, provide a cost-effective and practical approach to create models for HIV research. Hu-mice closely parallel multiple aspects of human HIV infection and disease progression. Here, we highlight how innovations in Hu-mouse models have advanced HIV-1 research in the past decade. We discuss the effect of different background strains of mice, of modifications on the reconstitution of the immune cells, and the pros and cons of different human cells and/or tissue engraftment methods, on the ability to examine HIV-1 infection and immune response. Finally, we consider the newest advances in the Hu-mouse models and their potential to advance research in emerging areas of mucosal infections, understand the role of microbiota and the complex issues in HIV-TB co-infection. These innovations in Hu-mouse models hold the potential to significantly enhance mechanistic research to develop novel strategies for HIV prevention and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Gillgrass
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jocelyn M. Wessels
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jack X. Yang
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Charu Kaushic
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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19
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In Vitro Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Modeling of HIV Latency Reversal by Novel HDAC Inhibitors Using an Automated Platform. SLAS DISCOVERY 2021; 26:642-654. [DOI: 10.1177/2472555220983810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy is able to effectively control but not eradicate HIV infection, which can persist, leading to the need for lifelong therapy. The existence of latently HIV-infected cells is a major barrier to the eradication of chronic HIV infection. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis), small molecules licensed for oncology indications, have shown the ability to produce HIV transcripts in vitro and in vivo. The pharmacologic parameters that drive optimal HIV latency reversal in vivo are unknown and could be influenced by such factors as the HDACi binding kinetics, concentration of compound, and duration of exposure. This study evaluates how these parameters affect HIV latency reversal for a series of novel HDACis that differ in their enzymatic on and off rates. Varying cellular exposure, using automated washout methods of HDACi in a Jurkat cell model of HIV latency, led to the investigation of the relationship between pharmacokinetic (PK) properties, target engagement (TE), and pharmacodynamic (PD) responses. Using an automated robotic platform enabled miniaturization of a suspension cell-based washout assay that required multiple manipulations over the 48 h duration of the assay. Quantification of histone acetylation (TE) revealed that HDACis showed early peaks and differences in the durability of response between different investigated HDACis. By expanding the sample times, the shift between TE and PD, as measured by green fluorescent protein, could be fully characterized. The comprehensive data set generated by automating the assays described here was used to establish a PK/PD model for HDACi-induced HIV latency reversal.
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20
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Marsden MD, Zhang TH, Du Y, Dimapasoc M, Soliman MS, Wu X, Kim JT, Shimizu A, Schrier A, Wender PA, Sun R, Zack JA. Tracking HIV Rebound following Latency Reversal Using Barcoded HIV. Cell Rep Med 2020; 1:100162. [PMID: 33377133 PMCID: PMC7762775 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
HIV latency prevents cure of infection with antiretroviral therapy (ART) alone. One strategy for eliminating latently infected cells involves the induction of viral protein expression via latency-reversing agents (LRAs), allowing killing of host cells by viral cytopathic effects or immune effector mechanisms. Here, we combine a barcoded HIV approach and a humanized mouse model to study the effects of a designed, synthetic protein kinase C modulating LRA on HIV rebound. We show that administration of this compound during ART results in a delay in rebound once ART is stopped. Furthermore, the rebounding virus appears composed of a smaller number of unique barcoded viruses than occurs in control-treated animals, suggesting that some reservoir cells that would have contributed virus to the rebound process are eliminated by LRA administration. These data support the use of barcoded virus to study rebound and suggest that LRAs may be useful in HIV cure efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Marsden
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics and Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Tian-hao Zhang
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yushen Du
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Cancer Institute, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Melanie Dimapasoc
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Mohamed S.A. Soliman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Xiaomeng Wu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jocelyn T. Kim
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Akira Shimizu
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Adam Schrier
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Paul A. Wender
- Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Ren Sun
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jerome A. Zack
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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21
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Latency-Reversing Agents Induce Differential Responses in Distinct Memory CD4 T Cell Subsets in Individuals on Antiretroviral Therapy. Cell Rep 2020; 29:2783-2795.e5. [PMID: 31775045 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.10.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Latent proviruses persist in central (TCM), transitional (TTM), and effector (TEM) memory cells. We measured the levels of cellular factors involved in HIV gene expression in these subsets. The highest levels of acetylated H4, active nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), and active positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) were measured in TEM, TCM, and TTM cells, respectively. Vorinostat and romidepsin display opposite abilities to induce H4 acetylation across subsets. Protein kinase C (PKC) agonists are more efficient at inducing NF-κB phosphorylation in TCM cells but more potent at activating PTEF-b in the TEM subset. We selected the most efficient latency-reversing agents (LRAs) and measured their ability to reverse latency in each subset. While ingenol alone has modest activities in the three subsets, its combination with a histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) dramatically increases latency reversal in TCM cells. Altogether, these results indicate that cellular HIV reservoirs are differentially responsive to common LRAs and suggest that combination of compounds will be required to achieve latency reversal in all subsets.
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22
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Abstract
Although antiretroviral therapies (ARTs) potently inhibit HIV replication, they do not eradicate the virus. HIV persists in cellular and anatomical reservoirs that show minimal decay during ART. A large number of studies conducted during the past 20 years have shown that HIV persists in a small pool of cells harboring integrated and replication-competent viral genomes. The majority of these cells do not produce viral particles and constitute what is referred to as the latent reservoir of HIV infection. Therefore, although HIV is not considered as a typical latent virus, it can establish a state of nonproductive infection under rare circumstances, particularly in memory CD4+ T cells, which represent the main barrier to HIV eradication. While it was originally thought that the pool of latently infected cells was largely composed of cells harboring transcriptionally silent genomes, recent evidence indicates that several blocks contribute to the nonproductive state of these cells. Here, we describe the virological and immunological factors that play a role in the establishment and persistence of the pool of latently infected cells and review the current approaches aimed at eliminating the latent HIV reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pierre Gantner
- Department of Microbiology, Infectiology and Immunology and
| | - Rémi Fromentin
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nicolas Chomont
- Department of Microbiology, Infectiology and Immunology and
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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23
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Pache L, Marsden MD, Teriete P, Portillo AJ, Heimann D, Kim JT, Soliman MS, Dimapasoc M, Carmona C, Celeridad M, Spivak AM, Planelles V, Cosford ND, Zack JA, Chanda SK. Pharmacological Activation of Non-canonical NF-κB Signaling Activates Latent HIV-1 Reservoirs In Vivo. Cell Rep Med 2020; 1:100037. [PMID: 33205060 PMCID: PMC7659604 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
"Shock and kill" strategies focus on purging the latent HIV-1 reservoir by treating infected individuals with therapeutics that activate the latent virus and subsequently eliminating infected cells. We have previously reported that induction of non-canonical nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling through a class of small-molecule antagonists known as Smac mimetics can reverse HIV-1 latency. Here, we describe the development of Ciapavir (SBI-0953294), a molecule specifically optimized for HIV-1 latency reversal that was found to be more efficacious as a latency-reversing agent than other Smac mimetics under clinical development for cancer. Critically, this molecule induced activation of HIV-1 reservoirs in vivo in a bone marrow, liver, thymus (BLT) humanized mouse model without mediating systemic T cell activation. This study provides proof of concept for the in vivo efficacy and safety of Ciapavir and indicates that Smac mimetics can constitute a critical component of a safe and efficacious treatment strategy to eliminate the latent HIV-1 reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Pache
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Immunity and Pathogenesis Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Matthew D. Marsden
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Peter Teriete
- Cell Metabolism and Signaling Networks Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Alex J. Portillo
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Immunity and Pathogenesis Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Dominik Heimann
- Cell Metabolism and Signaling Networks Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jocelyn T. Kim
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Mohamed S.A. Soliman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Melanie Dimapasoc
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Camille Carmona
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Maria Celeridad
- Cell Metabolism and Signaling Networks Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Adam M. Spivak
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Vicente Planelles
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Department of Pathology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Nicholas D.P. Cosford
- Cell Metabolism and Signaling Networks Program, NCI-Designated Cancer Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jerome A. Zack
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Sumit K. Chanda
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Immunity and Pathogenesis Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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24
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Cellular Gene Modulation of HIV-Infected CD4 T Cells in Response to Serial Treatment with the Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor Vorinostat. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.00351-20. [PMID: 32295913 PMCID: PMC7307144 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00351-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylase inhibitors are widely studied HIV latency-reversing agents (LRAs). VOR, an HDACi, induces histone acetylation and chromatin remodeling and modulates host and HIV gene expression. However, the relationship between these events is poorly defined, and clinical studies suggest diminished HIV reactivation in resting CD4 T cells with daily exposure to VOR. Our study provides evidence that VOR induces a consistent level of host cell gene transcription following intermittent exposure. In addition, in response to VOR exposure a gene signature that was conserved across single and serial exposures both in vitro and in vivo was identified, indicating that VOR can consistently and reproducibly modulate transcriptional host responses. However, as the HIV response to HDACi declines over time, other factors modulate viral reactivation in vivo despite robust HDAC activity. The identified host gene VOR biomarkers can be used for monitoring the pharmacodynamic activity of HDAC inhibitors. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) are the most widely studied HIV latency-reversing agents (LRAs). The HDACi suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (vorinostat [VOR]) has been employed in several clinical HIV latency reversal studies, as well as in vitro models of HIV latency, and has been shown to effectively induce HIV RNA and protein expression. Despite these findings, response to HDACi can vary, particularly with intermittent dosing, and information is lacking on the relationship between the host transcriptional response and HIV latency reversal. Here, we report on global gene expression responses to VOR and examine the longevity of the transcriptional response in various cellular models. We found that many genes are modulated at 6 h post-VOR treatment in HCT116, Jurkat, and primary resting CD4 T cells, yet return to baseline levels after an 18-h VOR-free period. With repeat exposure to VOR in resting CD4 T cells, we found similar and consistent transcriptional changes at 6 h following each serial treatment. In addition, serial exposure in HIV-infected suppressed donor CD4 T cells showed consistent transcriptional changes after each exposure to VOR. We identified five host genes that were strongly and consistently modulated following histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition; three (H1F0, IRGM, and WIPI49) were upregulated, and two (PHF15 and PRDM10) were downregulated. These genes demonstrated consistent modulation in peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) samples from HIV-positive (HIV+) participants who received either single or multiple doses of 400 mg of VOR. Interestingly, the host transcriptional response did not predict induction of cell-associated HIV RNA, suggesting that other cellular factors play key roles in HIV latency reversal in vivo despite robust HDACi pharmacological activity. IMPORTANCE Histone deacetylase inhibitors are widely studied HIV latency-reversing agents (LRAs). VOR, an HDACi, induces histone acetylation and chromatin remodeling and modulates host and HIV gene expression. However, the relationship between these events is poorly defined, and clinical studies suggest diminished HIV reactivation in resting CD4 T cells with daily exposure to VOR. Our study provides evidence that VOR induces a consistent level of host cell gene transcription following intermittent exposure. In addition, in response to VOR exposure a gene signature that was conserved across single and serial exposures both in vitro and in vivo was identified, indicating that VOR can consistently and reproducibly modulate transcriptional host responses. However, as the HIV response to HDACi declines over time, other factors modulate viral reactivation in vivo despite robust HDAC activity. The identified host gene VOR biomarkers can be used for monitoring the pharmacodynamic activity of HDAC inhibitors.
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25
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Agarwal Y, Beatty C, Biradar S, Castronova I, Ho S, Melody K, Bility MT. Moving beyond the mousetrap: current and emerging humanized mouse and rat models for investigating prevention and cure strategies against HIV infection and associated pathologies. Retrovirology 2020; 17:8. [PMID: 32276640 PMCID: PMC7149862 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-020-00515-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of safe and effective combination antiretroviral therapies for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection over the past several decades has significantly reduced HIV-associated morbidity and mortality. Additionally, antiretroviral drugs have provided an effective means of protection against HIV transmission. Despite these advances, significant limitations exist; namely, the inability to eliminate HIV reservoirs, the inability to reverse lymphoid tissues damage, and the lack of an effective vaccine for preventing HIV transmission. Evaluation of the safety and efficacy of therapeutics and vaccines for eliminating HIV reservoirs and preventing HIV transmission requires robust in vivo models. Since HIV is a human-specific pathogen, that targets hematopoietic lineage cells and lymphoid tissues, in vivo animal models for HIV-host interactions require incorporation of human hematopoietic lineage cells and lymphoid tissues. In this review, we will discuss the construction of mouse models with human lymphoid tissues and/or hematopoietic lineage cells, termed, human immune system (HIS)-humanized mice. These HIS-humanized mouse models can support the development of functional human innate and adaptive immune cells, along with primary (thymus) and secondary (spleen) lymphoid tissues. We will discuss applications of HIS-humanized mouse models in evaluating the safety and efficacy of therapeutics against HIV reservoirs and associated immunopathology, and delineate the human immune response elicited by candidate HIV vaccines. In addition to focusing on how these HIS-humanized mouse models have already furthered our understanding of HIV and contributed to HIV therapeutics development, we discuss how emerging HIS-humanized rat models could address the limitations of HIS-mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yash Agarwal
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Cole Beatty
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Shivkumar Biradar
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Isabella Castronova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sara Ho
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Kevin Melody
- Galveston National Laboratory and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Moses Turkle Bility
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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26
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Marsden MD. Benefits and limitations of humanized mice in HIV persistence studies. Retrovirology 2020; 17:7. [PMID: 32252791 PMCID: PMC7137310 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-020-00516-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Significant advances in the treatment of HIV infection have been made in the last three decades. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is now potent enough to prevent virus replication and stop disease progression. However, ART alone does not cure the infection, primarily because HIV can persist in stable long-term reservoir cells including latently-infected CD4 + T cells. A central goal of the HIV research field is to devise strategies to eliminate these reservoirs and thereby develop a cure for HIV. This requires robust in vivo model systems to facilitate both the further characterization of persistent HIV reservoirs and evaluation of methods for eliminating latent virus. Humanized mice have proven to be versatile experimental models for studying many basic aspects of HIV biology. These models consist of immunodeficient mice transplanted with human cells or tissues, which allows development of a human immune system that supports robust infection with HIV. There are many potential applications for new generations of humanized mouse models in investigating HIV reservoirs and latency, but these models also involve caveats that are important to consider in experimental design and interpretation. This review briefly discusses some of the key strengths and limitations of humanized mouse models in HIV persistence studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Marsden
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics and Department of Medicine (Division of Infectious Diseases), School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
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27
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Nixon CC, Mavigner M, Sampey GC, Brooks AD, Spagnuolo RA, Irlbeck DM, Mattingly C, Ho PT, Schoof N, Cammon CG, Tharp GK, Kanke M, Wang Z, Cleary RA, Upadhyay AA, De C, Wills SR, Falcinelli SD, Galardi C, Walum H, Schramm NJ, Deutsch J, Lifson JD, Fennessey CM, Keele BF, Jean S, Maguire S, Liao B, Browne EP, Ferris RG, Brehm JH, Favre D, Vanderford TH, Bosinger SE, Jones CD, Routy JP, Archin NM, Margolis DM, Wahl A, Dunham RM, Silvestri G, Chahroudi A, Garcia JV. Systemic HIV and SIV latency reversal via non-canonical NF-κB signalling in vivo. Nature 2020; 578:160-165. [PMID: 31969707 PMCID: PMC7111210 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-1951-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Long-lasting, latently infected resting CD4+ T cells are the greatest obstacle to obtaining a cure for HIV infection, as these cells can persist despite decades of treatment with antiretroviral therapy (ART). Estimates indicate that more than 70 years of continuous, fully suppressive ART are needed to eliminate the HIV reservoir1. Alternatively, induction of HIV from its latent state could accelerate the decrease in the reservoir, thus reducing the time to eradication. Previous attempts to reactivate latent HIV in preclinical animal models and in clinical trials have measured HIV induction in the peripheral blood with minimal focus on tissue reservoirs and have had limited effect2-9. Here we show that activation of the non-canonical NF-κB signalling pathway by AZD5582 results in the induction of HIV and SIV RNA expression in the blood and tissues of ART-suppressed bone-marrow-liver-thymus (BLT) humanized mice and rhesus macaques infected with HIV and SIV, respectively. Analysis of resting CD4+ T cells from tissues after AZD5582 treatment revealed increased SIV RNA expression in the lymph nodes of macaques and robust induction of HIV in almost all tissues analysed in humanized mice, including the lymph nodes, thymus, bone marrow, liver and lung. This promising approach to latency reversal-in combination with appropriate tools for systemic clearance of persistent HIV infection-greatly increases opportunities for HIV eradication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Nixon
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Maud Mavigner
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Gavin C Sampey
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Alyssa D Brooks
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Rae Ann Spagnuolo
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - David M Irlbeck
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- HIV Drug Discovery, ViiV Healthcare, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Cameron Mattingly
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Phong T Ho
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Nils Schoof
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Corinne G Cammon
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Greg K Tharp
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Matthew Kanke
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Zhang Wang
- GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Collegeville, PA, USA
| | - Rachel A Cleary
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Amit A Upadhyay
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Chandrav De
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Saintedym R Wills
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Shane D Falcinelli
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Cristin Galardi
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- HIV Drug Discovery, ViiV Healthcare, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Hasse Walum
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Nathaniel J Schramm
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Christine M Fennessey
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Brandon F Keele
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Sherrie Jean
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Sean Maguire
- GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Collegeville, PA, USA
| | - Baolin Liao
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Edward P Browne
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Robert G Ferris
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- HIV Drug Discovery, ViiV Healthcare, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Jessica H Brehm
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- HIV Drug Discovery, ViiV Healthcare, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - David Favre
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Collegeville, PA, USA
| | | | - Steven E Bosinger
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Corbin D Jones
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Jean-Pierre Routy
- Chronic Viral Infection Service, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
- Division of Hematology, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nancie M Archin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - David M Margolis
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Angela Wahl
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Richard M Dunham
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- UNC HIV Cure Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Qura Therapeutics, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- HIV Drug Discovery, ViiV Healthcare, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
| | - Guido Silvestri
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ann Chahroudi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Emory + Children's Center for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - J Victor Garcia
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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28
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McBrien JB, Mavigner M, Franchitti L, Smith SA, White E, Tharp GK, Walum H, Busman-Sahay K, Aguilera-Sandoval CR, Thayer WO, Spagnuolo RA, Kovarova M, Wahl A, Cervasi B, Margolis DM, Vanderford TH, Carnathan DG, Paiardini M, Lifson JD, Lee JH, Safrit JT, Bosinger SE, Estes JD, Derdeyn CA, Garcia JV, Kulpa DA, Chahroudi A, Silvestri G. Robust and persistent reactivation of SIV and HIV by N-803 and depletion of CD8 + cells. Nature 2020; 578:154-159. [PMID: 31969705 PMCID: PMC7580846 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-1946-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) persists indefinitely in individuals with HIV who receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) owing to a reservoir of latently infected cells that contain replication-competent virus1-4. Here, to better understand the mechanisms responsible for latency persistence and reversal, we used the interleukin-15 superagonist N-803 in conjunction with the depletion of CD8+ lymphocytes in ART-treated macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). Although N-803 alone did not reactivate virus production, its administration after the depletion of CD8+ lymphocytes in conjunction with ART treatment induced robust and persistent reactivation of the virus in vivo. We found viraemia of more than 60 copies per ml in all macaques (n = 14; 100%) and in 41 out of a total of 56 samples (73.2%) that were collected each week after N-803 administration. Notably, concordant results were obtained in ART-treated HIV-infected humanized mice. In addition, we observed that co-culture with CD8+ T cells blocked the in vitro latency-reversing effect of N-803 on primary human CD4+ T cells that were latently infected with HIV. These results advance our understanding of the mechanisms responsible for latency reversal and lentivirus reactivation during ART-suppressed infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Bergild McBrien
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Maud Mavigner
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Lavinia Franchitti
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - S Abigail Smith
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Erick White
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Gregory K Tharp
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Hasse Walum
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Kathleen Busman-Sahay
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Christian R Aguilera-Sandoval
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - William O Thayer
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Rae Ann Spagnuolo
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Martina Kovarova
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Angela Wahl
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Barbara Cervasi
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David M Margolis
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- University of North Carolina HIV Cure Center, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Thomas H Vanderford
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Diane G Carnathan
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mirko Paiardini
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Steven E Bosinger
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jacob D Estes
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Cynthia A Derdeyn
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - J Victor Garcia
- International Center for the Advancement of Translational Science, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Deanna A Kulpa
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ann Chahroudi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Emory + Children's Center for Childhood Infections and Vaccines, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Guido Silvestri
- Emory Vaccine Center and Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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29
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Wonderlich ER, Subramanian K, Cox B, Wiegand A, Lackman-Smith C, Bale MJ, Stone M, Hoh R, Kearney MF, Maldarelli F, Deeks SG, Busch MP, Ptak RG, Kulpa DA. Effector memory differentiation increases detection of replication-competent HIV-l in resting CD4+ T cells from virally suppressed individuals. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008074. [PMID: 31609991 PMCID: PMC6812841 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have demonstrated that intensive ART alone is not capable of eradicating HIV-1, as the virus rebounds within a few weeks upon treatment interruption. Viral rebound may be induced from several cellular subsets; however, the majority of proviral DNA has been found in antigen experienced resting CD4+ T cells. To achieve a cure for HIV-1, eradication strategies depend upon both understanding mechanisms that drive HIV-1 persistence as well as sensitive assays to measure the frequency of infected cells after therapeutic interventions. Assays such as the quantitative viral outgrowth assay (QVOA) measure HIV-1 persistence during ART by ex vivo activation of resting CD4+ T cells to induce latency reversal; however, recent studies have shown that only a fraction of replication-competent viruses are inducible by primary mitogen stimulation. Previous studies have shown a correlation between the acquisition of effector memory phenotype and HIV-1 latency reversal in quiescent CD4+ T cell subsets that harbor the reservoir. Here, we apply our mechanistic understanding that differentiation into effector memory CD4+ T cells more effectively promotes HIV-1 latency reversal to significantly improve proviral measurements in the QVOA, termed differentiation QVOA (dQVOA), which reveals a significantly higher frequency of the inducible HIV-1 replication-competent reservoir in resting CD4+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Bryan Cox
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Ann Wiegand
- HIV DRP, NCI at Frederick, NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Michael J Bale
- HIV DRP, NCI at Frederick, NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Mars Stone
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, California, United States of America.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Rebecca Hoh
- University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Mary F Kearney
- HIV DRP, NCI at Frederick, NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Frank Maldarelli
- HIV DRP, NCI at Frederick, NIH, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Steven G Deeks
- University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Michael P Busch
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, California, United States of America.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Roger G Ptak
- Southern Research, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Deanna A Kulpa
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
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30
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Timilsina U, Ghimire D, Sharma S, Gaur R. Role of APOBEC3 proteins in proteasome inhibitor-mediated reactivation of latent HIV-1 viruses. J Gen Virol 2019; 100:523-532. [PMID: 30566069 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteasome inhibitors (PIs) have been identified as an emerging class of HIV-1 latency-reversing agents (LRAs). These inhibitors can reactivate latent HIV-1 to produce non-infectious viruses. The mechanism underlying reduced infectivity of reactivated viruses is unknown. In this study, we analysed PI-reactivated viruses using biochemical and virological assays and demonstrated that these PIs stabilized the cellular expression of HIV-1 restriction factor, APOBEC3G, facilitating its packaging in the released viruses. Using infectivity assay and immunoblotting, we observed that the reduction in viral infectivity was due to enhanced levels of functionally active APOBEC3 proteins packaged in the virions. Sequencing of the proviral genome in the target cells revealed the presence of APOBEC3 signature hypermutations. Our study strengthens the role of PIs as bifunctional LRAs and demonstrates that the loss of infectivity of reactivated HIV-1 virions may be due to the increased packaging of APOBEC3 proteins in the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uddhav Timilsina
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, South Asian University, New Delhi-110021, Delhi
| | - Dibya Ghimire
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, South Asian University, New Delhi-110021, Delhi
| | - Shilpa Sharma
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, South Asian University, New Delhi-110021, Delhi
| | - Ritu Gaur
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, South Asian University, New Delhi-110021, Delhi
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31
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Bobardt M, Kuo J, Chatterji U, Chanda S, Little SJ, Wiedemann N, Vuagniaux G, Gallay PA. The inhibitor apoptosis protein antagonist Debio 1143 Is an attractive HIV-1 latency reversal candidate. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211746. [PMID: 30716099 PMCID: PMC6361451 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) suppresses HIV replication, but does not cure the infection because replication-competent virus persists within latently infected CD4+ T cells throughout years of therapy. These reservoirs contain integrated HIV-1 genomes and can resupply active virus. Thus, the development of strategies to eliminate the reservoir of latently infected cells is a research priority of global significance. In this study, we tested efficacy of a new inhibitor of apoptosis protein antagonist (IAPa) called Debio 1143 at reversing HIV latency and investigated its mechanisms of action. Debio 1143 activates HIV transcription via NF-kB signaling by degrading the ubiquitin ligase baculoviral IAP repeat-containing 2 (BIRC2), a repressor of the non-canonical NF-kB pathway. Debio 1143-induced BIRC2 degradation results in the accumulation of NF-κB-inducing kinase (NIK) and proteolytic cleavage of p100 into p52, leading to nuclear translocation of p52 and RELB. Debio 1143 greatly enhances the binding of RELB to the HIV-1 LTR. These data indicate that Debio 1143 activates the non-canonical NF-kB signaling pathway by promoting the binding of RELB:p52 complexes to the HIV-1 LTR, resulting in the activation of the LTR-dependent HIV-1 transcription. Importantly, Debio 1143 reverses viral latency in HIV-1 latent T cell lines. Using knockdown (siRNA BIRC2), knockout (CRIPSR NIK) and proteasome machinery neutralization (MG132) approaches, we found that Debio 1143-mediated HIV latency reversal is BIRC2 degradation- and NIK stabilization-dependent. Debio 1143 also reverses HIV-1 latency in resting CD4+ T cells derived from ART-treated patients or HIV-1-infected humanized mice under ART. Interestingly, daily oral administration of Debio 1143 in cancer patients at well-tolerated doses elicited BIRC2 target engagement in PBMCs and induced a moderate increase in cytokines and chemokines mechanistically related to NF-kB signaling. In conclusion, we provide strong evidences that the IAPa Debio 1143, by initially activating the non-canonical NF-kB signaling and subsequently reactivating HIV-1 transcription, represents a new attractive viral latency reversal agent (LRA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Bobardt
- Department of Immunology & Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Joseph Kuo
- Department of Immunology & Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Udayan Chatterji
- Department of Immunology & Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Sumit Chanda
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, United States of America
| | - Susan J. Little
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | | | | | - Philippe A. Gallay
- Department of Immunology & Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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32
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Maschmeyer G, De Greef J, Mellinghoff SC, Nosari A, Thiebaut-Bertrand A, Bergeron A, Franquet T, Blijlevens NMA, Maertens JA. Infections associated with immunotherapeutic and molecular targeted agents in hematology and oncology. A position paper by the European Conference on Infections in Leukemia (ECIL). Leukemia 2019; 33:844-862. [PMID: 30700842 PMCID: PMC6484704 DOI: 10.1038/s41375-019-0388-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A multitude of new agents for the treatment of hematologic malignancies has been introduced over the past decade. Hematologists, infectious disease specialists, stem cell transplant experts, pulmonologists and radiologists have met within the framework of the European Conference on Infections in Leukemia (ECIL) to provide a critical state-of-the-art on infectious complications associated with immunotherapeutic and molecular targeted agents used in clinical routine. For brentuximab vedotin, blinatumomab, CTLA4- and PD-1/PD-L1-inhibitors as well as for ibrutinib, idelalisib, HDAC inhibitors, mTOR inhibitors, ruxolitinib, and venetoclax, a detailed review of data available until August 2018 has been conducted, and specific recommendations for prophylaxis, diagnostic and differential diagnostic procedures as well as for clinical management have been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Maschmeyer
- Department of Hematology, Oncology and Palliative Care, Klinikum Ernst von Bergmann, Charlottenstrasse 72, 14467, Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Julien De Greef
- Department of Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Saint-Luc University Hospital, Université Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium.,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Department of Hematology, Henri Mondor Teaching Hospital, Créteil, France
| | - Sibylle C Mellinghoff
- Department I of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Annamaria Nosari
- Department of Hematology, ASST Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Anne Bergeron
- Department of Pneumology, Université Paris Diderot, APHP Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Tomas Franquet
- Department of Radiology, Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Johan A Maertens
- Department of Hematology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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33
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Giacomelli A, de Rose S, Rusconi S. Clinical pharmacology in HIV cure research - what impact have we seen? Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2019; 12:17-29. [PMID: 30570410 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2019.1561272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) has transformed an inexorably fatal disease into a chronic pathology, shifting the focus of research from the control of viral replication to the possibility of HIV cure. Areas covered: The present review assesses the principal pharmacological strategies that have been tested for an HIV cure starting from the in vitro proof of concept and the potential rationale of their in vivo applicability. We evaluated the possible pharmacological procedures employed during the early-stage HIV infection and the possibility of cART-free remission. We then analyzed the shock and kill approach from the single compounds in vitro mechanism of action, to the in vivo application of single or combined actions. Finally, we briefly considered the novel immunological branch through the discovery and development of broadly neutralizing antibodies in regard to the current and future in vivo therapeutic strategies aiming to verify the clinical applicability of these compounds. Expert opinion: Despite an incredible effort in HIV research cure, the likelihood of completely eradicating HIV is unreachable within our current knowledge. A better understanding of the mechanism of viral latency and the full characterization of HIV reservoir are crucial for the discovery of new therapeutic targets and novel pharmacological entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Giacomelli
- a Infectious Diseases Unit, DIBIC Luigi Sacco , University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Sonia de Rose
- a Infectious Diseases Unit, DIBIC Luigi Sacco , University of Milan , Milan , Italy
| | - Stefano Rusconi
- a Infectious Diseases Unit, DIBIC Luigi Sacco , University of Milan , Milan , Italy
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34
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Rochat MA, Schlaepfer E, Kuster SP, Li D, Audige A, Ivic S, Fahrny A, Speck RF. Monitoring HIV DNA and cellular activation markers in HIV-infected humanized mice under cART. Virol J 2018; 15:191. [PMID: 30558630 PMCID: PMC6296118 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-018-1101-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The major obstacle to cure of HIV type-1 infection is the presence of the HIV reservoir, hidden from the immune system and insensitive to combined antiretroviral therapy (cART). Eradication approaches have been hindered by the difficulty for accurately monitoring its size in vivo, especially in the lymphoid organs. Humanized mouse models are a valuable tool for systematically assess the efficacy of therapeutic interventions in reducing the HIV reservoir. Nonetheless, persistence of the HIV reservoir over time, in the presence of cART, has yet to be analyzed in this in vivo model. Findings We found that the proviral DNA as well as the total DNA were very stable in the spleen and mesenteric lymph node irrespective of the length of cART. Notably, the amount of proviral DNA was very similar in the spleen and lymph node. Furthermore, we observed a correlation between the percentage of splenic human CD4+ T-cells with total HIV DNA, between the number of human CD38 + CD8+ T-cells in the spleen with the amount of integrated HIV DNA, and eventually between the hCD4/hCD8 ratio in the spleen with integrated as well as total HIV DNA implying that the CD8+ T cells influence the size of the HIV reservoir. Conclusions Here, we demonstrated the stability of this reservoir in humanized mice irrespective of the length of cART, confirming the relevancy of this model for HIV latency eradication investigations. Notably, we also found correlates between the frequency of CD4+ T-cells, their activation status and viral parameters, which were analogous to the ones in HIV-infected patients. Thus, hu-mice represent a very valuable HIV latency model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary-Aude Rochat
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Erika Schlaepfer
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan P Kuster
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Duo Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Annette Audige
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sandra Ivic
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Audrey Fahrny
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roberto F Speck
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Zurich, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland.
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35
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Probabilistic control of HIV latency and transactivation by the Tat gene circuit. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:12453-12458. [PMID: 30455316 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1811195115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The reservoir of HIV latently infected cells is the major obstacle for eradication of HIV infection. The "shock-and-kill" strategy proposed earlier aims to reduce the reservoir by activating cells out of latency. While the intracellular HIV Tat gene circuit is known to play important roles in controlling latency and its transactivation in HIV-infected cells, the detailed control mechanisms are not well understood. Here we study the mechanism of probabilistic control of the latent and the transactivated cell phenotypes of HIV-infected cells. We reconstructed the probability landscape, which is the probability distribution of the Tat gene circuit states, by directly computing the exact solution of the underlying chemical master equation. Results show that the Tat circuit exhibits a clear bimodal probability landscape (i.e., there are two distinct probability peaks, one associated with the latent cell phenotype and the other with the transactivated cell phenotype). We explore potential modifications to reactions in the Tat gene circuit for more effective transactivation of latent cells (i.e., the shock-and-kill strategy). Our results suggest that enhancing Tat acetylation can dramatically increase Tat and viral production, while increasing the Tat-transactivation response binding affinity can transactivate latent cells more rapidly than other manipulations. Our results further explored the "block and lock" strategy toward a functional cure for HIV. Overall, our study demonstrates a general approach toward discovery of effective therapeutic strategies and druggable targets by examining control mechanisms of cell phenotype switching via exactly computed probability landscapes of reaction networks.
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36
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Christensen-Quick A, Chaillon A, Yek C, Zanini F, Jordan P, Ignacio C, Caballero G, Gianella S, Smith D. Influenza Vaccination Can Broadly Activate the HIV Reservoir During Antiretroviral Therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2018; 79:e104-e107. [PMID: 30085954 PMCID: PMC6185804 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000001829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christina Yek
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego
| | - Fabio Zanini
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - Parris Jordan
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego
| | | | | | - Sara Gianella
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego
| | - Davey Smith
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego
- Veterans Medical Research Foundation, Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, San Diego, CA
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37
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Chandra PK, Gerlach SL, Wu C, Khurana N, Swientoniewski LT, Abdel-Mageed AB, Li J, Braun SE, Mondal D. Mesenchymal stem cells are attracted to latent HIV-1-infected cells and enable virus reactivation via a non-canonical PI3K-NFκB signaling pathway. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14702. [PMID: 30279437 PMCID: PMC6168583 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32657-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Persistence of latent HIV-1 in macrophages (MACs) and T-helper lymphocytes (THLs) remain a major therapeutic challenge. Currently available latency reversing agents (LRAs) are not very effective in vivo. Therefore, understanding of physiologic mechanisms that dictate HIV-1 latency/reactivation in reservoirs is clearly needed. Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) regulate the function of immune cells; however, their role in regulating virus production from latently-infected MACs & THLs is not known. We documented that exposure to MSCs or their conditioned media (MSC-CM) rapidly increased HIV-1 p24 production from the latently-infected U1 (MAC) & ACH2 (THL) cell lines. Exposure to MSCs also increased HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) directed gene expression in the MAC and THL reporter lines, U937-VRX and J-Lat (9.2), respectively. MSCs exposed to CM from U1 cells (U1-CM) showed enhanced migratory ability towards latently-infected cells and retained their latency-reactivation potential. Molecular studies showed that MSC-mediated latency-reactivation was dependent upon both the phosphatidyl inositol-3-kinase (PI3K) and nuclear factor-κB (NFκB) signaling pathways. The pre-clinically tested inhibitors of PI3K (PX-866) and NFκB (CDDO-Me) suppressed MSC-mediated HIV-1 reactivation. Furthermore, coexposure to MSC-CM enhanced the latency-reactivation efficacy of the approved LRAs, vorinostat and panobinostat. Our findings on MSC-mediated latency-reactivation may provide novel strategies against persistent HIV-1 reservoirs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Partha K Chandra
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Samantha L Gerlach
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Chengxiang Wu
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Namrata Khurana
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA.,Department of Urology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | | | - Asim B Abdel-Mageed
- Department of Urology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Jian Li
- Tulane School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Stephen E Braun
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA.,Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Debasis Mondal
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA.
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38
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The Pathway To Establishing HIV Latency Is Critical to How Latency Is Maintained and Reversed. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.02225-17. [PMID: 29643247 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02225-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV infection requires lifelong antiretroviral therapy because of the persistence of latently infected CD4+ T cells. The induction of virus expression from latently infected cells occurs following T cell receptor (TCR) activation, but not all latently infected cells respond to TCR stimulation. We compared two models of latently infected cells using an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) reporter virus to infect CCL19-treated resting CD4+ (rCD4+) T cells (preactivation latency) or activated CD4+ T cells that returned to a resting state (postactivation latency). We isolated latently infected cells by sorting for EGFP-negative (EGFP-) cells after infection. These cells were cultured with antivirals and stimulated with anti-CD3/anti-CD28, mitogens, and latency-reversing agents (LRAs) and cocultured with monocytes and anti-CD3. Spontaneous EGFP expression was more frequent in postactivation than in preactivation latency. Stimulation of latently infected cells with monocytes/anti-CD3 resulted in an increase in EGFP expression compared to that for unstimulated controls using the preactivation latency model but led to a reduction in EGFP expression in the postactivation latency model. The reduced EGFP expression was not associated with reductions in the levels of viral DNA or T cell proliferation but depended on direct contact between monocytes and T cells. Monocytes added to the postactivation latency model during the establishment of latency reduced spontaneous virus expression, suggesting that monocyte-T cell interactions at an early time point postinfection can maintain HIV latency. This direct comparison of pre- and postactivation latency suggests that effective strategies needed to reverse latency will depend on how latency is established.IMPORTANCE One strategy being evaluated to eliminate latently infected cells that persist in HIV-infected individuals on antiretroviral therapy (ART) is to activate HIV expression or production with the goal of inducing virus-mediated cytolysis or immune-mediated clearance of infected cells. The gold standard for the activation of latent virus is T cell receptor stimulation with anti-CD3/anti-CD28. However, this stimulus activates only a small proportion of latently infected cells. We show clear differences in the responses of latently infected cells to activating stimuli based on how latent infection is established, an observation that may potentially explain the persistence of noninduced intact proviruses in HIV-infected individuals on ART.
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39
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Honeycutt JB, Liao B, Nixon CC, Cleary RA, Thayer WO, Birath SL, Swanson MD, Sheridan P, Zakharova O, Prince F, Kuruc J, Gay CL, Evans C, Eron JJ, Wahl A, Garcia JV. T cells establish and maintain CNS viral infection in HIV-infected humanized mice. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:2862-2876. [PMID: 29863499 DOI: 10.1172/jci98968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The human brain is an important site of HIV replication and persistence during antiretroviral therapy (ART). Direct evaluation of HIV infection in the brains of otherwise healthy individuals is not feasible; therefore, we performed a large-scale study of bone marrow/liver/thymus (BLT) humanized mice as an in vivo model to study HIV infection in the brain. Human immune cells, including CD4+ T cells and macrophages, were present throughout the BLT mouse brain. HIV DNA, HIV RNA, and/or p24+ cells were observed in the brains of HIV-infected animals, regardless of the HIV isolate used. HIV infection resulted in decreased numbers of CD4+ T cells, increased numbers of CD8+ T cells, and a decreased CD4+/CD8+ T cell ratio in the brain. Using humanized T cell-only mice (ToM), we demonstrated that T cells establish and maintain HIV infection of the brain in the complete absence of human myeloid cells. HIV infection of ToM resulted in CD4+ T cell depletion and a reduced CD4+/CD8+ T cell ratio. ART significantly reduced HIV levels in the BLT mouse brain, and the immune cell populations present were indistinguishable from those of uninfected controls, which demonstrated the effectiveness of ART in controlling HIV replication in the CNS and returning cellular homeostasis to a pre-HIV state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna B Honeycutt
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Baolin Liao
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Christopher C Nixon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rachel A Cleary
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - William O Thayer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Shayla L Birath
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael D Swanson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Patricia Sheridan
- Department of Nutrition, UNC-CH, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Oksana Zakharova
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Francesca Prince
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - JoAnn Kuruc
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Cynthia L Gay
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chris Evans
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joseph J Eron
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Angela Wahl
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - J Victor Garcia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH), School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Gu CJ, Borjabad A, Hadas E, Kelschenbach J, Kim BH, Chao W, Arancio O, Suh J, Polsky B, McMillan J, Edagwa B, Gendelman HE, Potash MJ, Volsky DJ. EcoHIV infection of mice establishes latent viral reservoirs in T cells and active viral reservoirs in macrophages that are sufficient for induction of neurocognitive impairment. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007061. [PMID: 29879225 PMCID: PMC5991655 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Suppression of HIV replication by antiretroviral therapy (ART) or host immunity can prevent AIDS but not other HIV-associated conditions including neurocognitive impairment (HIV-NCI). Pathogenesis in HIV-suppressed individuals has been attributed to reservoirs of latent-inducible virus in resting CD4+ T cells. Macrophages are persistently infected with HIV but their role as HIV reservoirs in vivo has not been fully explored. Here we show that infection of conventional mice with chimeric HIV, EcoHIV, reproduces physiological conditions for development of disease in people on ART including immunocompetence, stable suppression of HIV replication, persistence of integrated, replication-competent HIV in T cells and macrophages, and manifestation of learning and memory deficits in behavioral tests, termed here murine HIV-NCI. EcoHIV established latent reservoirs in CD4+ T lymphocytes in chronically-infected mice but could be induced by epigenetic modulators ex vivo and in mice. In contrast, macrophages expressed EcoHIV constitutively in mice for up to 16 months; murine leukemia virus (MLV), the donor of gp80 envelope in EcoHIV, did not infect macrophages. Both EcoHIV and MLV were found in brain tissue of infected mice but only EcoHIV induced NCI. Murine HIV-NCI was prevented by antiretroviral prophylaxis but once established neither persistent EcoHIV infection in mice nor NCI could be reversed by long-acting antiretroviral therapy. EcoHIV-infected, athymic mice were more permissive to virus replication in macrophages than were wild-type mice, suffered cognitive dysfunction, as well as increased numbers of monocytes and macrophages infiltrating the brain. Our results suggest an important role of HIV expressing macrophages in HIV neuropathogenesis in hosts with suppressed HIV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Jiang Gu
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Alejandra Borjabad
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Eran Hadas
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Kelschenbach
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Boe-Hyun Kim
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Wei Chao
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Ottavio Arancio
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jin Suh
- Department of Medicine, St. Joseph’s Regional Medical Center, Paterson, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Bruce Polsky
- Department of Medicine, NYU Winthrop Hospital, Mineola, New York, United States of America
| | - JoEllyn McMillan
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Benson Edagwa
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Howard E. Gendelman
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Mary Jane Potash
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - David J. Volsky
- Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, United States of America
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41
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Pasternak AO, Berkhout B. What do we measure when we measure cell-associated HIV RNA. Retrovirology 2018; 15:13. [PMID: 29378657 PMCID: PMC5789533 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-018-0397-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-associated (CA) HIV RNA has received much attention in recent years as a surrogate measure of the efficiency of HIV latency reversion and because it may provide an estimate of the viral reservoir size. This review provides an update on some recent insights in the biology and clinical utility of this biomarker. We discuss a number of important considerations to be taken into account when interpreting CA HIV RNA measurements, as well as different methods to measure this biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander O Pasternak
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although bone marrow, liver, thymus (BLT)-humanized mice provide a robust model for HIV-1 infection and enable evaluation of cure strategies dependent on endogenous immune responses, most mice develop graft versus host disease (GVHD), limiting their utility for extended HIV cure studies. This study aimed to: evaluate the GVHD-resistant C57 black 6 (C57BL/6) recombination activating gene 2 (Rag2)γcCD47 triple knockout (TKO)-BLT mouse as a model to establish HIV-1 latency. Determine whether TKO-BLT mice could be maintained on antiretroviral therapy (ART) for extended periods of time. Assess the rapidity of viral rebound following therapy interruption. DESIGN TKO-BLT mice were HIV-1 infected, treated with various ART regimens over extended periods of time and assayed for viral rebound following therapy interruption. METHODS Daily subcutaneous injection and oral ART-mediated suppression of HIV-1 infection was tested at various doses in TKO-BLT mice. Mice were monitored for suppression of viremia and cellular HIV-1 RNA and DNA prior to and following therapy interruption. RESULTS Mice remained healthy for 45 weeks posthumanization and could be treated with ART for up to 18 weeks. Viremia was suppressed to less than 200 copies/ml in the majority of mice with significant reductions in cellular HIV-1 RNA and DNA. Treatment interruption resulted in rapid viral recrudescence. CONCLUSION HIV-1 latency can be maintained in TKO-BLT mice over extended periods on ART and rapid viral rebound occurs following therapy removal. The additional 15-18 weeks of healthy longevity compared with other BLT models provides sufficient time to examine the decay kinetics of the latent reservoir as well as observe delays in recrudescence in HIV-1 cure studies.
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43
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Deruaz M, Tager AM. Humanized mouse models of latent HIV infection. Curr Opin Virol 2017; 25:97-104. [PMID: 28810166 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2017] [Revised: 07/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Antiretroviral therapy can efficiently control HIV viral replication, resulting in low viral loads and sustained CD4+ T cell counts in HIV-infected persons. However, fast viral rebound occurs in most infected persons when therapy is interrupted. The principal component of persistent infection is a latent but replication-competent HIV reservoir. The long half-life of this reservoir is a major barrier to cure, and its elimination is the target of important research efforts. Animal models that can recapitulate this aspect of human infection are needed to examine the HIV reservoir in tissues in vivo, and to test eradication strategies. In this review, we will summarize recent studies using humanized mouse models to examine different aspects of the viral reservoir.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Deruaz
- Human Immune System Mouse Program, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, USA
| | - Andrew M Tager
- Human Immune System Mouse Program, Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, USA; Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains a significant source of morbidity and mortality worldwide. No effective vaccine is available to prevent HIV transmission, and although antiretroviral therapy can prevent disease progression, it does not cure HIV infection. Substantial effort is therefore currently directed toward basic research on HIV pathogenesis and persistence and developing methods to stop the spread of the HIV epidemic and cure those individuals already infected with HIV. Humanized mice are versatile tools for the study of HIV and its interaction with the human immune system. These models generally consist of immunodeficient mice transplanted with human cells or reconstituted with a near-complete human immune system. Here, we describe the major humanized mouse models currently in use, and some recent advances that have been made in HIV research/therapeutics using these models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Marsden
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095;
| | - Jerome A Zack
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; .,Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095;
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45
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Schwartz C, Bouchat S, Marban C, Gautier V, Van Lint C, Rohr O, Le Douce V. On the way to find a cure: Purging latent HIV-1 reservoirs. Biochem Pharmacol 2017; 146:10-22. [PMID: 28687465 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Introduction of cART in 1996 has drastically increased the life expectancy of people living with HIV-1. However, this treatment has not allowed cure as cessation of cART is associated with a rapid viral rebound. The main barrier to the eradication of the virus is related to the persistence of latent HIV reservoirs. Evidence is now accumulating that purging the HIV-1 reservoir might lead to a cure or a remission. The most studied strategy is the so called "shock and kill" therapy. This strategy is based on reactivation of dormant viruses from the latently-infected reservoirs (the shock) followed by the eradication of the reservoirs (the kill). This review focuses mainly on the recent advances made in the "shock and kill" therapy. We believe that a cure or a remission will come from combinatorial approaches i.e. combination of drugs to reactivate the dormant virus from all the reservoirs including the one located in sanctuaries, and combination of strategies boosting the immune system. Alternative strategies based on cell and gene therapy or based in inducing deep latency, which are evoked in this review reinforce the idea that at least a remission is attainable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schwartz
- University of Strasbourg, EA7292, DHPI, Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Pathology, Strasbourg, France; University of Strasbourg, IUT Louis Pasteur, Schiltigheim, France.
| | - Sophie Bouchat
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Service of Molecular Virology, Institute for Molecular Biology and Medicine (IBMM), 12 rue des Profs Jeener et Brachet, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Céline Marban
- University of Strasbourg, Inserm UMR 1121 Faculté de Chirurgie Dentaire Pavillon Leriche 1, place de l'Hôpital Strasbourg, France
| | - Virginie Gautier
- UCD, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Medicine University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Carine Van Lint
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Service of Molecular Virology, Institute for Molecular Biology and Medicine (IBMM), 12 rue des Profs Jeener et Brachet, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Olivier Rohr
- University of Strasbourg, EA7292, DHPI, Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Pathology, Strasbourg, France; University of Strasbourg, IUT Louis Pasteur, Schiltigheim, France
| | - Valentin Le Douce
- UCD, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), School of Medicine University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Lucera MB, Fleissner Z, Tabler CO, Schlatzer DM, Troyer Z, Tilton JC. HIV signaling through CD4 and CCR5 activates Rho family GTPases that are required for optimal infection of primary CD4+ T cells. Retrovirology 2017; 14:4. [PMID: 28114951 PMCID: PMC5259950 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-017-0328-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV-1 hijacks host cell machinery to ensure successful replication, including cytoskeletal components for intracellular trafficking, nucleoproteins for pre-integration complex import, and the ESCRT pathway for assembly and budding. It is widely appreciated that cellular post-translational modifications (PTMs) regulate protein activity within cells; however, little is known about how PTMs influence HIV replication. Previously, we reported that blocking deacetylation of tubulin using histone deacetylase inhibitors promoted the kinetics and efficiency of early post-entry viral events. To uncover additional PTMs that modulate entry and early post-entry stages in HIV infection, we employed a flow cytometric approach to assess a panel of small molecule inhibitors on viral fusion and LTR promoter-driven gene expression. Results While viral fusion was not significantly affected, early post-entry viral events were modulated by drugs targeting multiple processes including histone deacetylation, methylation, and bromodomain inhibition. Most notably, we observed that inhibitors of the Rho GTPase family of cytoskeletal regulators—including RhoA, Cdc42, and Rho-associated kinase signaling pathways—significantly reduced viral infection. Using phosphoproteomics and a biochemical GTPase activation assay, we found that virion-induced signaling via CD4 and CCR5 activated Rho family GTPases including Rac1 and Cdc42 and led to widespread modification of GTPase signaling-associated factors. Conclusions Together, these data demonstrate that HIV signaling activates members of the Rho GTPase family of cytoskeletal regulators that are required for optimal HIV infection of primary CD4+ T cells. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12977-017-0328-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark B Lucera
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Zach Fleissner
- Department of Nutrition, Center for Proteomics and Bioinformatics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, BRB 919, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Caroline O Tabler
- Department of Nutrition, Center for Proteomics and Bioinformatics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, BRB 919, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Daniela M Schlatzer
- Department of Nutrition, Center for Proteomics and Bioinformatics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, BRB 919, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Zach Troyer
- Department of Nutrition, Center for Proteomics and Bioinformatics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, BRB 919, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - John C Tilton
- Department of Nutrition, Center for Proteomics and Bioinformatics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, BRB 919, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
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Mann J, Pasternak AO, Chahroudi A, Singh JA, Ross AL. The latest science from the IAS Towards an HIV Cure Symposium: 16-17 July 2016, Durban, South Africa. J Virus Erad 2016; 2:235-241. [PMID: 27781107 PMCID: PMC5075352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn Mann
- HIV Pathogenesis Programme,
University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Durban,
South Africa
| | - Alexander O Pasternak
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology,
Academic Medical Center of the University of Amsterdam,
the Netherlands
| | - Ann Chahroudi
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine,
Atlanta,
Georgia,
USA
| | | | - Anna Laura Ross
- International and Scientific Relations, ANRS,
Paris,
France,Corresponding author: Anna Laura Ross,
International and Scientific Relations, ANRS,
101 rue de Tolbiac,
75013Paris,
France
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48
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Abstract
HIV has a very limited species tropism that prevents the use of most conventional small animal models for AIDS research. The in vivo analysis of HIV/AIDS has benefited extensively from novel chimeric animal models that accurately recapitulate key aspects of the human condition. Specifically, immunodeficient mice that are systemically repopulated with human hematolymphoid cells offer a viable alternative for the study of a multitude of highly relevant aspects of HIV replication, pathogenesis, therapy, transmission, prevention, and eradication. This article summarizes some of the multiple contributions that humanized mouse models of HIV infection have made to the field of AIDS research. These models have proven to be highly informative and hold great potential for accelerating multiple aspects of HIV research in the future.
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