Maternal sleep deprivation at different stages of pregnancy impairs the emotional and cognitive functions, and suppresses hippocampal long-term potentiation in the offspring rats

The association between maternal sleep and circadian rhythms during pregnancy and infant sleep and socioemotional outcomes

Studies have established that maternal sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances during pregnancy are associated with poor prenatal and perinatal outcomes for mothers and offspring. However, little work has explored its effects on infant sleep or socioemotional outcomes. The current study examined the relationship between maternal sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances during pregnancy and infant sleep and socioemotional outcomes in a diverse sample of N = 193 mothers and their infants (51% White; 52% Female; Mage = 11.95 months). Maternal sleep and circadian rhythms during pregnancy were assessed using self-reports and actigraphy. Mothers reported on infants' sleep and socioemotional outcomes when infants were one year old. When controlling for infant sex, age, gestational age at birth, family income-to-needs ratios, and maternal depression, mothers who reported more sleep problems during pregnancy had infants with more sleep disturbances when they were one year old. Moreover, mothers who had later sleep timing (i.e., went to bed and woke up later, measured via actigraphy) during pregnancy had infants with more dysregulation (e.g., increased feeding difficulties, sensory sensitivities) and externalizing problems, and mothers with increased intra-daily variability in rest-activity rhythms (as measured via actigraphy) had infants with more externalizing problems. Findings suggest that maternal sleep and circadian rhythm disturbances during pregnancy may be a risk factor for infant sleep problems and socioemotional difficulties.

Methamphetamine and REM sleep deprivation interact to affect behavioral performance in adult and adolescent rats

Drug addiction may result in sleep problems. Importantly, sleep deprivation (SD) is known as an important risk factor for relapse to drug abuse as SD mimics the effects of psychostimulants on dopamine system of the brain. Moreover, aging may affect sleep and drug addiction. This study, therefore, set out to assess the effects of methamphetamine (METH) and REM sleep deprivation (RSD) on locomotor activity, anxiety-like behavior and spatial memory in adult and adolescent rats. Adult and adolescent male Wistar rats received a neurotoxic METH regimen; four subcutaneous injections of 6 mg/kg, at 2 h intervals. Five days later, the animals underwent a 48-h RSD episode using the multiple platforms method. They were then examined using the open field (OF), elevated plus maze (EPM) and Y-maze tasks. We found that the METH and RSD paradigms showed synergistic effects to increase locomotion and risk-taking behavior in both adult and adolescent animals, while only adolescent rats revealed RSD-induced anxiety-like behavior. Moreover, adolescent animals revealed greater sensitization for vertical activity following METH plus RSD episode. In addition, METH and RSD paradigms revealed synergistic effects to impair spatial working memory, but neither METH nor RSD alone affected performance of animals in the Y-maze task. Our findings may indicate that there are important relationships between METH and RSD to induce hyperlocomotion, risk-taking behavior and spatial memory impairment, particularly in adolescent animals. Moreover, it seems that adolescent rats may be more susceptible to anxiety-like behavior and hyperlocomotion than adults.

Sleep and local field potential effect of the D2 receptor agonist bromocriptine during the estrus cycle and postpartum period in female rats

BACKGROUND

Pituitary lactotrophs are under tonic dopaminergic inhibitory control and bromocriptine treatment blocks prolactin secretion.

METHODS

Sleep and local field potential were addressed for 72 h after bromocriptine treatments applied during the different stages of the estrus cycle and for 24 h in the early- and middle postpartum period characterized by spontaneously different dynamics of prolactin release in female rats.

RESULTS

Sleep changes showed strong dependency on the estrus cycle phase of the drug application. Strongest increase of wakefulness and reduction of slow wave sleep- and rapid eye movements sleep appeared during diestrus-proestrus and middle postpartum treatments. Stronger sleep-wake effects appeared in the dark phase in case of the estrus cycle treatments, but in the light phase in postpartum treatments. Slow wave sleep and REM sleep loss in case of estrus cycle treatments was not compensated at all and sleep loss seen in the first day post-injection was gained further later. In opposition, slow wave sleep loss in the light phase after bromocriptine injections showed compensation in the postpartum period treatments. Bromocriptine treatments resulted in a depression of local field potential delta power during slow wave sleep while an enhancement in beta and gamma power during wakefulness regardless of the treatment timing.

CONCLUSIONS

These results can be explained by the interplay of dopamine D2 receptor agonism, lack of prolactin release and the spontaneous homeostatic sleep drive being altered in the different stages of the estrus cycle and the postpartum period.

The role of benzodiazepines in common conditions: a narrative review focusing on lormetazepam

This review aimed to examine the place of benzodiazepines, specifically lormetazepam, in the treatment of insomnia, including during pregnancy or in patients with psychodermatoses. PubMed was searched for the term "lormetazepam" in association with MeSH terms encompassing anxiety, insomnia/sleep disorders, pregnancy/gestation, and psychodermatoses/skin disorders. English-language articles up to 31 July 2022 were identified. Ad hoc searches for relevant literature were performed at later stages of review development. Multiple randomized, placebo-controlled studies have demonstrated that lormetazepam dose-dependently increases total sleep time, decreases wakefulness over a dosing range of 0.5-2.0 mg, and improves subjective assessments of sleep quality. Lormetazepam is as effective as other benzodiazepines in improving sleep duration and quality, but is better tolerated than the long-acting agents with minimal next-day effects. Benzodiazepines can be used as short-term monotherapy at the lowest effective dose during the second or third trimesters of pregnancy; lormetazepam is also a reasonable choice due to its limited transplacental passage. Insomnia associated with skin disorders or pregnancy can be managed by effective symptom control (especially itching), sleep hygiene, treatment of anxiety/depression, and a short course of hypnotics.

Maternal sleep disturbances during late pregnancy and child neuropsychological and behavioral development in early childhood

The present study aims to explore the association of maternal sleep disturbances during late pregnancy on child neuropsychological and behavioral development in preschool years. The study included 638 mother-child pairs from the prospective Rhea mother-child cohort in Crete, Greece. Information on antenatal sleep disturbances was collected through a computer-assisted interview. Children's neuropsychological and behavioral development was assessed using the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities (MSCA), the Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Test (ADHDT), and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Multivariate analysis showed that maternal sleep duration less than 8 h was associated with reduced scores in the general cognitive scale (β = -2.28, 95% CI -4.54, -0.02, R2 = 0.417) and memory span (β = -3.24, 95% CI -5.72, -0.77, R2 = 0.304), while mild-severe daytime sleepiness was associated with reduced scores in the memory scale (β = -5.42, 95% CI -10.47, -0.37, R2 = 0.304), memory span (β = -5.44, 95% CI -10.68, -0.21, R2 = 0.304), nd functions of posterior cortex (β = -5.55, 95% CI -10.40, -0.70, R2 = 0.393) of MSCA. Snoring in late pregnancy was related to higher child hyperactivity scores in SDQ (β = 1.05, 95% CI 0.16, 1.95, R2 = 0.160). An interaction between child sex and maternal sleep duration in response to ADHD symptoms was also found (p for interaction < 0.05). Stratified analysis revealed increased hyperactivity, inattention, and ADHD total scores for girls of mothers with sleep duration less than 8 h. Maternal sleep disturbances during pregnancy may be associated with impaired child neuropsychological and behavioral development during the preschool years. Early detection and intervention is necessary to reduce sleep disturbances habits in pregnancy and improve child neurodevelopment.

Subsequent maternal sleep deprivation aggravates neurobehavioral abnormalities, inflammation, and synaptic function in adult male mice exposed to prenatal inflammation

OBJECTIVE

Studies have suggested that prenatal exposure to inflammation increases the risk of neuropsychiatric disorders, including anxiety, depression, and cognitive dysfunction. Because of anatomical and hormonal alterations, pregnant women frequently experience sleep dysfunction, which can enhance the inflammatory response. The aim of this study was to explore the effects of maternal sleep deprivation on prenatal inflammation exposure-induced behavioral phenotypes in offspring and identify the associated mechanisms.

METHODS

Pregnant mice received an intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on gestational day 15 and were subsequently subjected to sleep deprivation during gestational days 15-21. Anxiety-like behavior was evaluated by the open field test and the elevated plus maze test. Depression-like behavior was assessed by the tail suspension test and the forced swimming test. Cognitive function was determined using the Morris water maze test. The levels of markers of inflammation and synaptic function were examined employing general molecular biological techniques.

RESULTS

The results showed that prenatal exposure to LPS resulted in anxiety- and depression-like symptoms and learning and memory deficits, and these effects were exacerbated by maternal sleep deprivation. Furthermore, maternal sleep deprivation aggravated the prenatal LPS exposure-induced increase in the expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α and decrease in the levels of postsynaptic density-95 and synaptophysin in the hippocampus.

DISCUSSION

Collectively, these results suggested that maternal sleep deprivation exacerbates anxiety, depression, and cognitive impairment induced by prenatal LPS exposure, effects that were associated with an inflammatory response and synaptic dysfunction.

Sleep and memory: The impact of sleep deprivation on transcription, translational control, and protein synthesis in the brain

In countries around the world, sleep deprivation represents a widespread problem affecting school-age children, teenagers, and adults. Acute sleep deprivation and more chronic sleep restriction adversely affect individual health, impairing memory and cognitive performance as well as increasing the risk and progression of numerous diseases. In mammals, the hippocampus and hippocampus-dependent memory are vulnerable to the effects of acute sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation induces changes in molecular signaling, gene expression and may cause changes in dendritic structure in neurons. Genome wide studies have shown that acute sleep deprivation alters gene transcription, although the pool of genes affected varies between brain regions. More recently, advances in research have drawn attention to differences in gene regulation between the level of the transcriptome compared with the pool of mRNA associated with ribosomes for protein translation following sleep deprivation. Thus, in addition to transcriptional changes, sleep deprivation also affects downstream processes to alter protein translation. In this review, we focus on the multiple levels through which acute sleep deprivation impacts gene regulation, highlighting potential post-transcriptional and translational processes that may be affected by sleep deprivation. Understanding the multiple levels of gene regulation impacted by sleep deprivation is essential for future development of therapeutics that may mitigate the effects of sleep loss.

An enriched environment improves maternal sleep deprivation-induced cognitive deficits and synaptic plasticity via hippocampal histone acetylation

INTRODUCTION

Growing evidence clearly demonstrates that maternal rodents exposure to sleep deprivation (SD) during late pregnancy impairs learning and memory in their offspring. Epigenetic mechanisms, particularly histone acetylation, are known to be involved in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. We hypothesize that the cognitive decline induced by SD during late pregnancy is associated with histone acetylation dysfunction, and this effect could be reversed by an enriched environment (EE).

METHODS

In the present study, pregnant CD-1 mice were exposed to SD during the third trimester of pregnancy. After weaning, all offspring were randomly assigned to two subgroups in either a standard environment or an EE. When offspring were 3 months old, the Morris water maze was used to evaluate hippocampal-dependent learning and memory ability. Molecular biological techniques, including western blot and real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction, were used to examine the histone acetylation pathway and synaptic plasticity markers in the hippocampus of offspring.

RESULTS

The results showed that the following were all reversed by EE treatment: maternal SD (MSD)-induced cognitive deficits including spatial learning and memory; histone acetylation dysfunction including increased histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) and decreased histone acetyltransferase (CBP), and the acetylation levels of H3K9 and H4K12; synaptic plasticity dysfunction including decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor; and postsynaptic density protein-95.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that MSD could damage learning ability and memory in offspring via the histone acetylation pathway. This effect could be reversed by EE treatment.

The stress of losing sleep: Sex-specific neurobiological outcomes

Sleep is a vital and evolutionarily conserved process, critical to daily functioning and homeostatic balance. Losing sleep is inherently stressful and leads to numerous detrimental physiological outcomes. Despite sleep disturbances affecting everyone, women and female rodents are often excluded or underrepresented in clinical and pre-clinical studies. Advancing our understanding of the role of biological sex in the responses to sleep loss stands to greatly improve our ability to understand and treat health consequences of insufficient sleep. As such, this review discusses sex differences in response to sleep deprivation, with a focus on the sympathetic nervous system stress response and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. We review sex differences in several stress-related consequences of sleep loss, including inflammation, learning and memory deficits, and mood related changes. Focusing on women's health, we discuss the effects of sleep deprivation during the peripartum period. In closing, we present neurobiological mechanisms, including the contribution of sex hormones, orexins, circadian timing systems, and astrocytic neuromodulation, that may underlie potential sex differences in sleep deprivation responses.

The Interaction Effect of Sleep Deprivation and Treadmill Exercise in Various Durations on Spatial Memory with Respect to the Oxidative Status of Rats

Sleep deprivation (SD) has deleterious effects on cognitive functions including learning and memory. However, some studies have shown that SD can improve cognitive functions. Interestingly, treadmill exercise has both impairment and improvement effects on memory function. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of SD for 4 (short-term) and 24 (long-term) hours, and two protocols of treadmill exercise (mild short-term and moderate long-term) on spatial memory performance, and oxidative and antioxidant markers in the serum of rats. Morris Water Maze apparatus was used to assess spatial memory performance. Also, SD was done using gentle handling method. In addition, the serum level of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was measured. The results showed that 24 h SD (but not 4 h) had negative effect on spatial memory performance, decreased SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px level, and increased MDA level. Long-term moderate (but not short-term mild) treadmill exercise had also negative effect on spatial memory performance, decreased SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px level, and increased MDA level. Interestingly, both protocols of treadmill exercise reversed spatial memory impairment and oxidative stress induced by 24 h SD. In conclusion, it seems that SD and treadmill exercise interact with each other, and moderate long-term exercise can reverse the negative effects of long-term SD on memory and oxidative status; although, it disrupted memory function and increased oxidative stress by itself.

Long-term environmental enrichment overcomes depression, learning, and memory impairment in elderly CD-1 mice with maternal sleep deprivation exposure

Early-life stress disrupts central nervous system development and increases the risk of neuropsychiatric disorder in offspring based on rodent studies. Maternal sleep deprivation (MSD) in rodents has also been associated with depression and cognitive decline in adult offspring. However, it is not known whether these issues persist into old age. Environmental enrichment is a non-pharmacological intervention with proven benefits in improving depression and cognitive impairment; however, it is unclear whether these benefits hold for aging mice following MSD exposure. The aim of this study was to explore the effects of MSD on depression and cognition in elderly offspring CD-1 mice and to determine whether long-term environmental enrichment could alleviate these effects by improving neuroinflammation and synaptic plasticity. The offspring mice subjected to MSD were randomly assigned to either a standard environment or an enriched environment. At 18 months of age, the forced swimming and tail suspension tests were used to evaluated depression-like behaviors, and the Morris water maze test was used to evaluate cognitive function. The expression levels of hippocampal proinflammatory cytokines and synaptic plasticity-associated proteins were also measured. MSD increased depression-like behaviors and impaired cognition function in aging CD-1 offspring mice. These effects were accompanied by upregulated interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α expression, and downregulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor, tyrosine kinase receptor B, postsynaptic density-95, and synaptophysin expression in the hippocampus. All of these changes were reversed by long-term exposure to an enriched environment. These findings suggest that MSD exerts long-term effects on the behaviors of offspring in mice, leading to depression and cognitive impairment in older age. Importantly, long-term environmental enrichment could counteract the behavior difficulties induced by MSD through improving hippocampal proinflammatory cytokines and synaptic plasticity-associated proteins.

Altered cognition and anxiety in adolescent offspring whose mothers underwent different-pattern maternal sleep deprivation, and cognition link to hippocampal expressions of Bdnf and Syt-1

Background

Inadequate sleep during pregnancy negatively affects the neural development of offspring. Previous studies have focused on the continuous sleep deprivation (CSD) paradigm, but the sleep pattern during late pregnancy is usually fragmented.

Objective

To compare the effects of CSD and fragmented sleep deprivation (FSD) in late pregnancy on emotion, cognition, and expression of synaptic plasticity-related proteins in offspring mice.

Methods

Pregnant CD-1 mice were either subjected to 3/6 h of CSD/FSD during gestation days 15-21, while those in the control group were left untreated. After delivery, the offspring were divided into five groups, i.e., control (CON), short or long CSD (CSD3h, CSD6h), and short or long FSD (FSD3h, FSD6h). When the offspring were 2 months old, the anxiety-like behavior level was tested using the open field (OF) and elevated plus maze (EPM) test, and spatial learning and memory were evaluated using the Morris water maze (MWM) test. The expression of hippocampal of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) and synaptotagmin-1 (Syt-1) was determined using RT-PCR and western blotting.

Results

The CSD6h, FSD3h, and FSD6h had longer latency, fewer center times in the OF test, less open arms time and fewer numbers of entries in the open arms of the EPM, longer learning distance swam and lower memory percentage of distance swam in the target quadrant in the MWM test, and decreased BDNF and increased Syt-1 mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus. Compared to the CSD6h, the FSD3h and FSD6h had longer distance swam, a lower percentage of distance swam in the target quadrant, decreased BDNF, and increased Syt-1 mRNA and protein levels in the hippocampus.

Conclusion

The results suggested that maternal sleep deprivation during late pregnancy impairs emotion and cognition in offspring, and FSD worsened the cognitive performance to a higher extent than CSD. The observed cognitive impairment could be associated with the expression of altered hippocampal of Bdnf and Syt-1 genes.

Maternal Pre-Pregnancy Body Mass Index, Gestational Weight Gain and Children’s Cognitive Development: A Birth Cohort Study

To investigate the joint effect of maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and gestational weight gain (GWG) on children’s cognitive development. We recruited 1685 mother–child pairs from the Ma’anshan Birth Cohort in China. Pre-pregnancy BMI and GWG were calculated based on the height and weights measured at multiple antenatal checkups. Children’s cognition was assessed by Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition. Poisson regression model was used to analyze the association between maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and children’s cognitive dimensions under different GWG categories. Women with overweight or obese before pregnancy were more likely to obtain excessive GWG. When women had excessive GWG, pre-pregnancy overweight was associated with low children’s PSI (OR = 1.69, 95%CI: 1.02–2.81) and pre-pregnancy obesity was related to poor VCI in children (OR = 3.71, 95%CI: 1.49–9.22), after adjusting for potential confounders. In pre-pregnancy underweight mothers, adequate GWG reduced the risk of below-average VSI in children (OR = 0.22, 95%CI: 0.05–0.92), but excessive GWG was related to low FSIQ in children (OR = 2.53, 95%CI: 1.34–4.76). In women with excessive GWG, maternal pre-pregnancy BMI displays an inverted U-shape association with children’s cognition. Moreover, adequate GWG in women with pre-pregnancy underweight was beneficial for children’s cognition.

LAMP-2A ablation in hippocampal CA1 astrocytes confers cerebroprotection and ameliorates neuronal injury after global brain ischemia

Reactive astrogliosis and neuronal death are major features of brain tissue damage after transient global cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). The CA1 subfield in the hippocampus is particularly susceptible to cell death after I/R. Recently, attention has focused on the relationship between the autophagy-lysosomal pathway and cerebral ischemia. Lysosomal-associated membrane protein type-2A (LAMP-2A) is a key protein in chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA). However, LAMP-2A expression in astrocytes of the hippocampus and its influence on brain injury following I/R remain unknown. Here, we show that LAMP-2A is elevated in astrocytes of the CA1 hippocampal subfield after I/R and in primary cultured astrocytes after transient oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Conditional LAMP-2A knockdown in CA1 astrocytes inhibited astrocyte activation and prevented neuronal death by inhibiting the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis after I/R, suggesting that elevated astrocytic LAMP-2A contributes to regional ischemic vulnerability. Furthermore, astrocytic LAMP-2A ablation ameliorated the spatial learning and memory deficits caused by I/R. Conditional astrocytic LAMP-2A knockdown also prevented the loss of hippocampal synapses and dendritic spines, improved the synaptic ultrastructure, and inhibited the reduced expression of synaptic proteins after ischemia. Thus, our findings demonstrate that astrocytic LAMP-2A expression increases upon I/R and that LAMP-2A ablation specifically in hippocampal astrocytes contributes to cerebroprotection, suggesting a novel neuroprotective strategy for patients with global ischemia.

Effects of maternal controlled exercise on offspring adiposity and glucose tolerance

While metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes are costly and deadly to the current population, they are also extremely detrimental to the next generation. Much of the current literature focuses on the negative impact of poor maternal choices on offspring disease, while there is little work examining maternal behaviors that may improve offspring health. Research has shown that voluntary maternal exercise in mouse models improves metabolic function in offspring. In this study, we hypothesized that controlled maternal exercise in a mouse model will effect positive change on offspring obesity and glucose homeostasis. Female mice were separated into three groups: home cage, sedentary, and exercise. The sedentary home cage group was not removed from the home cage, while the sedentary wheel group was removed from the cage and placed in an immobile wheel apparatus. The exercise group was removed from the home cage and run on the same wheel apparatus but with the motor activated at 5-10 m/min for 1 h/d prior to and during pregnancy. Offspring were subjected to oral glucose tolerance testing and body composition analysis. There was no significant difference in offspring glucose tolerance or body composition as a consequence of the maternal exercise intervention compared to the sedentary wheel group. There were no marked negative consequences of the maternal controlled exercise intervention. Further research should clarify the potential advantages of the controlled exercise model and improve experimental techniques to facilitate translation of this research to human applications.

Maternal sleep deprivation affects extinction and reinstatement of methamphetamine reward memory in male offspring: role of the D1-like and D2-like dopamine receptors

Maternal sleep-deprivation (MSD) has been shown to induce stress, hyperactivity, and risk taking behavior in the offspring; howbeit, it is not yet clear whether it may also affect vulnerability to psychostimulant abuse in the offspring. We aimed to determine whether MSD affects extinction and reinstatement of methamphetamine (METH) reward memory in the offspring and also to evaluate the possible role of dopamine D1-like and D2-like receptors in these processes. Thirty-day-old male offspring born to control and sleep-deprived dams (during the third week of pregnancy) were trained to acquire METH-induced place preference (2 mg/kg., i.p.). METH reward memory was then reinstated following an 8-day period of extinction. The offspring received SCH 23390 (0.03 or 0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) or sulpiride (20 or 60 mg/kg, i.p.) as antagonists of dopamine D1-like and D2-like receptors, respectively, either immediately after each daily extinction session or prior to the reinstatement session. MSD postponed METH extinction and facilitated METH reinstatement in the offspring. SCH 23390 facilitated METH extinction and decreased reinstatement of the extinguished METH preference. Sulpiride in the offspring from sleep-deprived dams facilitated METH extinction, but it did not affect reinstatement of the extinguished METH place preference. It seems that MSD may enhance vulnerability to METH abuse in the offspring. Furthermore, both dopamine D1-like and D2-like receptors may mediate METH extinction in the offspring born to the sleep-deprived dams; however, only the dopamine D1 receptor may play an important role in reinstating the extinguished METH reward memory in the offspring.

Environmental Enrichment Reverses Maternal Sleep Deprivation-Induced Anxiety-Like Behavior and Cognitive Impairment in CD-1 Mice

Preclinical studies have clearly indicated that offspring of mothers who suffered sleep deprivation during pregnancy exhibit anxiety, depression-like behaviors, and cognitive deficits. The cognitive impairment induced by maternal sleep deprivation (MSD) is currently poorly treated. Growing evidence indicates that an enriched environment (EE) improves cognition function in models of Alzheimer’s disease, schizophrenia, and lipopolysaccharide. However, the effects of EE on hippocampal-dependent learning and memory, as well as synaptic plasticity markers changes induced by MSD, are unclear. In the present study, pregnant CD-1 mice were randomly divided into a control group, MSD group, and MSD+EE group. Two different living environments, including standard environment and EE, were prepared. When male and female offspring were 2 months, the open field test and elevated plus maze were used to assess anxiety-like behavior, and the Morris water maze was used to evaluate hippocampal learning and memory. Western blotting and real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction were used to detect the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and Synaptotagmin-1 in the hippocampus of offspring. The results revealed that MSD-induced offspring showed anxiety-like behaviors and cognitive impairment, while EE alleviated anxiety-like behavior and cognitive impairment in offspring of the MSD+EE group. The cognitive impairment induced by MSD was associated with a decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor and an increased Synaptotagmin-1, while EE increased and decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor and Synaptotagmin-1 in the hippocampus of mice from the MSD+EE group, respectively. Taken together, we can conclude that EE has beneficial effects on MSD-induced synaptic plasticity markers changes and can alleviate anxiety-like behaviors and cognitive impairment.

Maternal sleep deprivation induces gut microbial dysbiosis and neuroinflammation in offspring rats

Maternal sleep deprivation (MSD) is a global public health problem that affects the physical and mental development of pregnant women and their newborns. The latest research suggests that sleep deprivation (SD) disrupts the gut microbiota, leading to neuroinflammation and psychological disturbances. However, it is unclear whether MSD affects the establishment of gut microbiota and neuroinflammation in the newborns. In the present study, MSD was performed on pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats in the third trimester of pregnancy (gestational days 15-21), after which intestinal contents and brain tissues were collected from offspring at different postnatal days (P1, P7, P14, and P56). Based on microbial profiling, microbial diversity and richness increased in pregnant rats subjected to MSD, as reflected by the significant increase in the phylum Firmicutes. In addition, microbial dysbiosis marked by abundant Firmicutes bacteria was observed in the MSD offspring. Furthermore, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) showed that the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) were significantly higher in the MSD offspring at adulthood (P56) than in the control group. Through Spearman correlation analysis, IL-1β and TNF-α were also shown to be positively correlated with Ruminococcus_1 and Ruminococcaceae_UCG-005 at P56, which may determine the microbiota-host interactions in MSD-related neuroinflammation. Collectively, these results indicate that MSD changes maternal gut microbiota and affects the establishment of neonatal gut microbiota, leading to neuroinflammation in MSD offspring. Therefore, understanding the role of gut microbiota during physiological development may provide potential interventions for cognitive dysfunction in MSD-impacted offspring.

Effect of rapid eye movement sleep deprivation during pregnancy on glucocorticoid receptor regulation of HPA axis function in female offspring

Poor maternal sleep quality during the different phases of pregnancy acts as a prenatal stress and is critical for fetal development. Despite the potential adverse effects of maternal stress on the behavior and physiology of the offspring, the mechanisms remain poorly understood. The present study investigates the effects of maternal sleep deprivation (SD) at different stages of pregnancy on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in female offspring. The pregnant rats were subjected to sleep deprivation of 12 h per day at different stages; early (ESD), mid (MSD), and late (LSD) stages, on pregnancy days 1-7, 8-14, and 14-20, respectively. At postnatal day 60, levels of corticosterone (CORT), hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 (CRF-R1), and hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors (GR) were evaluated in the offspring. Although the hypothalamic CRF-R1 level was increased in the offspring of SD dams, immunohistochemical staining showed reduced immunoreactivity of GR in ESD and LSD offspring hippocampal area. Altogether, the data suggests that a critical period for adverse effects of SD on the HPA axis in female offspring of Wistar rats may be during early and late pregnancy.

Sleep Disorders During Pregnancy and Postpartum: A Systematic Review

This study aimed to asses previous research results about bio-physiological alterations during pregnancy and postpartum, and make clear outlook about prevalence and related factors of sleep disorders during pregnancy and postpartum. In this review, the articles that published from 2000 to 2019 were reviewed. Related articles were searched from databases in English language. After evaluation of inclusion and exclusion criteria, articles were chosen and reviewed based on the University of York strategies. Sleep disorders in present study were classified according to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders-3. The search revealed 4449 articles, after evaluating and assessing qualified articles, finally 56 article selected to review. According to the results of this review, The prevalence of sleep disorders was almost 76%–97% in whole pregnancy. The most common sleep disorders included central disorders of hyper somnolence (waking up in the middle of the night, daytime sleepiness, sleeplessness) or insomnia, sleep-related movement disorders (restless legs syndrome), sleep related breathing disorders (obstructive sleep apnea), and parasomnia. In addition, sleep disorder may continue 3–12 months postpartum (33.2%). Sleep disorders induced by physiological processes (fetal movement, excessive weight gain, male sex of the fetus, and multiparty), health-related risks (metabolism disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and mood disorders), and physical or sexual abuse in childhood. In addition, these disorders could have maternal outcomes that can be greatest trigger to postpartum psychiatric disorders and fetal outcomes that have harmful sequences during childhood (sexual, fertility, emotional, and cognitive problems). Health care providers should evaluate the mothers’ sleep quality because sleep disorder leads to harmful consequences in fetuses and children.

Right stellate ganglion block improves learning and memory dysfunction and hippocampal injury in rats with sleep deprivation

Background

Sleep deprivation (SD) often leads to complex detrimental consequences, though the mechanisms underlying these dysfunctional effects remain largely unknown. We investigated whether the right stellate ganglion block in rats can improve the spatial learning and memory dysfunction induced by sleep deprivation by alleviating the damage of hippocampus in rats.

Methods

Sixty four male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups: Control, SD (sleep deprivation), SGB (stellate ganglion block) and SGB + SD (stellate ganglion block+ sleep deprivation) (n = 16). The SGB and SD + SGB groups were subjected to right stellate ganglion block through posterior approach method once per day. SD and SD + SGB groups were treated with modified multi-platform water environment method for 96 h sleep deprivation in rats and their body weights were analyzed. Histopathological changes of hippocampal neurons in rats and the expression of Caspase-3 in hippocampus of rats was detected by western blotting. ELISA was used to detect the content of IL-6, IL-1 in hippocampus and serum melatonin levels.

Results

Compared with the group SD, the spatial learning and memory function of the group SD + SGB was improved, the weight loss was alleviated, the pathological damage of the hippocampus was reduced and the expression of IL-6, IL-1β and Caspase-3 in the hippocampus was decreased. The content of rat serum melatonin was also increased.

Conclusions

The right stellate ganglion block can improve the spatial learning and memory dysfunction of rats with sleep deprivation, and the underlying mechanism may be related to alleviating the apoptosis and inflammation of hippocampus of rats with sleep deprivation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12871-021-01486-4.

Inconsistent effects of sleep deprivation on memory function

In this review article, we aimed to discuss the role of sleep deprivation (SD) in learning and memory processing in basic and clinical studies. There are numerous studies investigating the effect of SD on memory, while most of these studies have shown the impairment effect of SD. However, some of these studies have reported conflicting results, indicating that SD does not impair memory performance or even improves it. So far, no study has discussed or compared the conflicting results of SD on learning and memory. Thus, this important issue in the neuroscience of sleep remains unknown. The main goal of this review article is to compare the similar mechanisms between the impairment and the improvement effects of SD on learning and memory, probably leading to a scientific solution that justifies these conflicting results. We focused on the inconsistent effects of SD on some mechanisms involved in learning and memory, and tried to discuss the inconsistent effects of SD on learning and memory.

The Impact of Maternal Symptoms of Perinatal Insomnia on Social-emotional Child Development: A Population-based, 2-year Follow-up Study

Background: Poor sleep quality is a common problem in pregnant women, however there is scarce research evidence regarding the association between maternal perinatal insomnia and later social-emotional child development.Participants: This study is part of the Akershus Birth Cohort, a longitudinal population-based study. Birth record and questionnaire data of 1,346 women were used.Methods: Maternal symptoms of insomnia were measured at pregnancy week 32 and at eight weeks postpartum and social-emotional child development was assessed at two years of child age. Correlational and multiple linear regression analyzes were performed.Results: Both, pre- and postnatal symptoms of insomnia were significantly correlated with poorer social-emotional child development two years later (r = 0.09, p < .01 and r = 0.13, p < .001). Adjusting for potential confounding factors, the prospective effect of maternal symptoms of perinatal insomnia on social-emotional child development remained significant in the multiple linear regression analyzes (β = 0.08, p < .01 and β = 0. 10, p < .01).Conclusions: We found a prospective effect of maternal symptoms of perinatal insomnia on social-emotional child development, highlighting the potential relevance of both pre- and postnatal maternal sleep for later social-emotional child development. Future studies ought to examine the bio-psycho-social mechanisms and implications of poor maternal sleep in the perinatal time in more detail.

β-adrenergic Receptor Activity in the Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus Participates in Spatial Learning and Memory Impairment in Sleep-deprived Rats

Sleep deprivation (SD) leads to cognitive impairment, especially hippocampus-dependent learning and memory (L&M). The hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) is the key structure involved in spatial L&M while long-term potentiation (LTP) is an important cellular mechanism responsible for L&M. Physiological and behavioral evidences support the hypothesis that norepinephrine (NE) and β-adrenoceptors (β-AR) may play an important role in regulating L&M, including LTP. However, it is enigmatic how β-AR influences the LTP disruption or memory impairment under SD circumstances. In the present study, the rats were subjected to SD for 18 h per day for 21 consecutive days and cognitive capacity was assessed by the Morris water maze (MWM) test. We examined the extracellular concentration of NE in the DG using in vivo brain microdialysis and HPLC analysis. The amplitudes of field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) were subsequently measured in the DG during MWM test in freely moving conscious rats. The extracellular concentrations of NE and fEPSP amplitudes in the DG were significantly increased during MWM test, while these responses were suppressed in SD rats. When fEPSP amplitudes in the DG were measured after local injection of isoproterenol (an agonist of β-AR), SD rats significantly alleviated the fEPSP impairment and rescued deficits of spatial L&M. In addition, the reduced expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors in SD rats significantly increased by activation of β-AR by isoproterenol in the DG. In conclusion, we propose that β-adrenergic signaling can improve memory impairment in sleep-deficient rats by regulating synaptic efficiency and glutamatergic receptor expression.

Sleep, brain vascular health and ageing

Sleep maintains the function of the entire body through homeostasis. Chronic sleep deprivation (CSD) is a prime health concern in the modern world. Previous reports have shown that CSD has profound negative effects on brain vasculature at both the cellular and molecular levels, and that this is a major cause of cognitive dysfunction and early vascular ageing. However, correlations among sleep deprivation (SD), brain vascular changes and ageing have barely been looked into. This review attempts to correlate the alterations in the levels of major neurotransmitters (acetylcholine, adrenaline, GABA and glutamate) and signalling molecules (Sirt1, PGC1α, FOXO, P66^shc, PARP1) in SD and changes in brain vasculature, cognitive dysfunction and early ageing. It also aims to connect SD-induced loss in the number of dendritic spines and their effects on alterations in synaptic plasticity, cognitive disabilities and early vascular ageing based on data available in scientific literature. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first article providing a pathophysiological basis to link SD to brain vascular ageing.

Effects of sleep modulation during pregnancy in the mother and offspring: Evidences from preclinical research

Disturbed sleep during gestation may lead to adverse outcomes for both mother and child. Animal research plays an important role in providing insights into this research field by enabling ethical and methodological requirements that are not possible in humans. Here, we present an overview and discuss the main research findings related to the effects of prenatal sleep deprivation in animal models. Using systematic review approaches, we retrieved 42 articles dealing with some type of sleep alteration. The most frequent research topics in this context were maternal sleep deprivation, maternal behaviour, offspring behaviour, development of sleep-wake cycles in the offspring, hippocampal neurodevelopment, pregnancy viability, renal physiology, hypertension and metabolism. This overview indicates that the number of basic studies in this field is growing, and provides biological plausibility to suggest that sleep disturbances might be detrimental to both mother and offspring by promoting increased risk at the behavioural, hormonal, electrophysiological, metabolic and epigenetic levels. More studies on the effects of maternal sleep deprivation are needed, in light of their major translational perspective.

Pioglitazone alleviates maternal sleep deprivation-induced cognitive deficits in male rat offspring by enhancing microglia-mediated neurogenesis

Maternal sleep disturbance in pregnancy causes cognitive impairments and emotional disorders in offspring. Microglia-mediated inflammatory processes contribute to prenatal stress-induced neurodevelopmental deficits. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) activation underlies the switching of microglial activation phenotypes, which has emerged as a pharmacological target for regulating neuroinflammatory responses in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Here we investigated the effects of PPARγ-dependent microglial activation on neurogenesis and cognitive behavioral outcomes in male rat offspring exposed to maternal sleep deprivation (MSD) for 72 h from days 18-21 of pregnancy. In the Morris water maze test, male MSD rat offspring needed more time than control offspring to escape to the hidden platform and spent less time in the target quadrant when the hidden platform was removed. In MSD rat offspring, microglial density as determined by immunofluorescence was higher, microglia showed fewer and shorter processes, and neurogenesis in the hippocampus was significantly reduced. Levels of mRNA encoding pro-inflammatory markers IL-6, TNFα, and IL-1β were higher in male MSD offspring, whereas levels of anti-inflammatory markers Arg1, IL-4, and IL-10 were lower, as was PPARγ expression in the hippocampus. PPARγ activation by pioglitazone (30 mg/kg/day, i.p., 7 d) mitigated these negative effects of MSD, rescuing hippocampal neurogenesis and improving cognitive function. The PPARγ inhibitor GW9662 (1 mg/kg/day, i.p., 7 d) eliminated the effects of pioglitazone. Conditioned medium from pioglitazone-treated microglia promoted proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitor cells. These results suggest that MSD-induced deficits in spatial learning and memory can be ameliorated through PPARγ-dependent modulation of microglial phenotypes.

Complete sleep and local field potential analysis regarding estrus cycle, pregnancy, postpartum and post-weaning periods and homeostatic sleep regulation in female rats

Sleep and local field potential (LFP) characteristics were addressed during the reproductive cycle in female rats using long-term (60-70 days) recordings. Changes in homeostatic sleep regulation was tested by sleep deprivation (SDep). The effect of mother-pup separation on sleep was also investigated during the postpartum (PP) period. First half of the pregnancy and early PP period showed increased wakefulness (W) and higher arousal indicated by elevated beta and gamma activity. Slow wave sleep (SWS) recovery was suppressed while REM sleep replacement was complete after SDep in the PP period. Pup separation decreased maternal W during early-, but increased during middle PP while did not affect during late PP. More W, less SWS, higher light phase beta activity but lower gamma activity was seen during the post-weaning estrus cycle compared to the virgin one. Maternal sleep can be governed by the fetuses/pups needs and their presence, which elevate W of mothers. Complete REM sleep- and incomplete SWS replacement after SDep in the PP period may reflect the necessity of maternal REM sleep for the offspring while SWS increase may compete with W essential for maternal care. Maternal experience may cause sleep and LFP changes in the post-weaning estrus cycle.

Acute sleep deprivation during pregnancy in rats: Rapid elevation of placental and fetal inflammation and kynurenic acid

The kynurenine pathway (KP) is the dominant pathway for tryptophan degradation in the mammalian body and emerging evidence suggests that acute episodes of sleep deprivation (SD) disrupt tryptophan metabolism via the KP. Increases in the neuroactive KP metabolite kynurenic acid (KYNA) during pregnancy may lead to a higher risk for disrupted neurodevelopment in the offspring. As pregnancy is a critical period during which several factors, including sleep disruptions, could disrupt the fetal environment, we presently explored the relationship between maternal SD and KP metabolism and immune pathways in maternal, placenta, and fetal tissues. Pregnant Wistar rat dams were sleep deprived by gentle handling for 5 h from zeitgeber time (ZT) 0 to ZT 5. Experimental cohorts included: i) controls, ii) one session of SD on embryonic day (ED) 18 or iii) three sessions of SD occurring daily on ED 16, ED 17 and ED 18. Maternal (plasma, brain), placental and fetal (plasma, brain) tissues were collected immediately after the last session of SD or after 24 h of recovery from SD. Respective controls were euthanized at ZT 5 on ED 18 or ED 19. Maternal plasma corticosterone and fetal brain KYNA were significantly elevated only after one session of SD on ED 18. Importantly, maternal plasma corticosterone levels correlated significantly with fetal brain KYNA levels. In addition, placental levels of the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were increased following maternal SD, suggesting a relationship between placental immune response to SD and fetal brain KYNA accumulation. Collectively, our results demonstrate that sleep loss during the last week of gestation can adversely impact maternal stress, placental immune function, and fetal brain KYNA levels. We introduce KYNA as a novel molecular target influenced by sleep loss during pregnancy.

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Prenatal sleep deprivation influences kynurenine pathway metabolism in utero.

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Fetal brain kynurenic acid (KYNA) is elevated after maternal sleep deprivation.

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Maternal plasma corticosterone is increased after sleep deprivation.

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Prenatal sleep deprivation induces placental and fetal brain cytokines.

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These data support an interplay with stress, in utero inflammation, and KYNA.

Maternal stress and early-onset colorectal cancer

Early-onset colorectal cancer (EOCRC) is defined as colorectal cancer (CRC) diagnosed before the age of 50. Alarmingly, there has been a significant increase in EOCRC diagnoses' worldwide over the past several decades. Emerging data suggest EOCRCs have distinguishing clinical, pathological, biological and molecular features; and thus, are a fundamentally different subtype of CRCs. Unfortunately, there is no simple explanation for the causes of EOCRC. Scientifically rigorous studies are needed to determine what may be driving the challenging epidemiology of EOCRC. We contend here that a reasonable hypothesis is that prenatal risk factors such as maternal stress and associated sleeping disorders influence offspring epigenetic make-up, and shape immune system and gut health contributing to an increased risk for EOCRC.

Low-Frequency Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Ameliorates Cognitive Function and Synaptic Plasticity in APP23/PS45 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease leading to dementia, which is characterized by progressive memory loss and other cognitive dysfunctions. Recent studies have attested that noninvasive repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) may help improve cognitive function in patients with AD. However, the majority of these studies have focused on the effects of high-frequency rTMS on cognitive function, and little is known about low-frequency rTMS in AD treatment. Furthermore, the potential mechanisms of rTMS on the improvement of learning and memory also remain poorly understood. In the present study, we reported that severe deficits in spatial learning and memory were observed in APP23/PS45 double transgenic mice, a well known mouse model of AD. Furthermore, these behavioral changes were accompanied by the impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA1 region of hippocampus, a brain region vital to spatial learning and memory. More importantly, 2-week low-frequency rTMS treatment markedly reversed the impairment of spatial learning and memory as well as hippocampal CA1 LTP. In addition, low-frequency rTMS dramatically reduced amyloid-β precursor protein (APP) and its C-terminal fragments (CTFs) including C99 and C89, as well as β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) in the hippocampus. These results indicate that low-frequency rTMS noninvasively and effectively ameliorates cognitive and synaptic functions in a mouse model of AD, and the potential mechanisms may be attributed to rTMS-induced reduction in Aβ neuropathology.