Galectin-1 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma and the combined therapeutic effect of OTX008 galectin-1 inhibitor and sorafenib in tumor cells

Improving cancer immunotherapy in prostate cancer by modulating T cell function through targeting the galectin-1

Our study aimed to elucidate the role of Galectin-1 (Gal-1) role in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) of prostate cancer (PCa). Our previous findings demonstrated a correlation between elevated Gal-1 expression and advanced PCa stages. In this study, we also observed that Gal-1 is expressed around the tumor stroma and its expression level is associated with PCa progression. We identified that Gal-1 could be secreted by PCa cells, and secreted Gal-1 has the potential to induce T cell apoptosis. Gal-1 knockdown or inhibition of Gal-1 function by LLS30 suppresses T cell apoptosis resulting in increased intratumoral T cell infiltration. Importantly, LLS30 treatment significantly improved the antitumor efficacy of anti-PD-1 in vivo. Mechanistically, LLS30 binds to the carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) of Gal-1, disrupting its binding to CD45 leading to the suppression of T cell apoptosis. In addition, RNA-seq analysis revealed a novel mechanism of action for LLS30, linking its tumor-intrinsic oncogenic effects to anti-tumor immunity. These findings suggested that tumor-derived Gal-1 contributes to the immunosuppressive TME in PCa by inducing apoptosis in effector T cells. Targeting Gal-1 with LLS30 may offer a strategy to enhance anti-tumor immunity and improve immunotherapy.

Regulation of Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway in cancer drug resistance by galectin-1: cellular and molecular implications

Oxidative stress is characterized by the deregulation of the redox state in the cells, which plays a role in the initiation of various types of cancers. The activity of galectin-1 (Gal-1) depends on the cell redox state and the redox state of the microenvironment. Gal-1 expression has been related to many different tumor types, as it plays important roles in several processes involved in cancer progression, such as apoptosis, cell migration, adhesion, and immune response. The erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) signaling pathway is a crucial mechanism involved in both cell survival and cell defense against oxidative stress. In this review, we delve into the cellular and molecular roles played by Gal-1 in the context of oxidative stress onset in cancer cells, particularly focusing on its involvement in activating the Nrf2/Keap1 signaling pathway. The emerging evidence concerning the anti-apoptotic effect of Gal-1, together with its ability to sustain the activation of the Nrf2 pathway in counteracting oxidative stress, supports the role of Gal-1 in the promotion of tumor cells proliferation, immuno-suppression, and anti-tumor drug resistance, thus highlighting that the inhibition of Gal-1 emerges as a potential strategy for the restraint and regression of tumor progression. Overall, a deeper understanding of the multi-functionality and disease-specific expression profiling of Gal-1 will be crucial for the design and development of novel Gal-1 inhibitors as anticancer agents. Excitingly, although it is still understudied, the ever-growing knowledge of the sophisticated interplay between Gal-1 and Nrf2/Keap1 will enable researchers to gain valuable insights into the underlying causes of carcinogenesis and metastasis.

Galectin inhibitors and nanoparticles as a novel therapeutic strategy for glioblastoma multiforme

Over the past two decades, the gold standard of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) treatment is unchanged and adjunctive therapy has offered little to prolong both quality and quantity of life. To improve pharmacotherapy for GBM, galectins are being studied provided their positive correlation with the malignancy and disease severity. Despite the use of galectin inhibitors and literature displaying the ability of the lectin proteins to decrease tumor burden and decrease mortality within various malignancies, galectin inhibitors have not been studied for GBM therapy. Interestingly, anti-galectin siRNA delivered in nanoparticle capsules, assisting in blood brain barrier penetrance, is well studied for GBM, and has demonstrated a remarkable ability to attenuate both galectin and tumor count. Provided that the two therapies have an analogous anti-galectin effect, it is hypothesized that galectin inhibitors encapsuled within nanoparticles will likely have a similar anti-galectin effect in GBM cells and further correlate to a repressed tumor burden.

Targeting stroma and tumor, silencing galectin 1 treats orthotopic mouse hepatocellular carcinoma

This study examines inhibiting galectin 1 (Gal1) as a treatment option for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Gal1 has immunosuppressive and cancer-promoting roles. Our data showed that Gal1 was highly expressed in human and mouse HCC. The levels of Gal1 positively correlated with the stages of human HCC and negatively with survival. The roles of Gal1 in HCC were studied using overexpression (OE) or silencing using Igals1 siRNA delivered by AAV9. Prior to HCC initiation induced by RAS and AKT mutations, lgals1-OE and silencing had opposite impacts on tumor load. The treatment effect of lgals1 siRNA was further demonstrated by intersecting HCC at different time points when the tumor load had already reached 9% or even 42% of the body weight. Comparing spatial transcriptomic profiles of Gal1 silenced and OE HCC, inhibiting matrix formation and recognition of foreign antigen in CD45+ cell-enriched areas located at tumor-margin likely contributed to the anti-HCC effects of Gal1 silencing. Within the tumors, silencing Gal1 inhibited translational initiation, elongation, and termination. Furthermore, Gal1 silencing increased immune cells as well as expanded cytotoxic T cells within the tumor, and the anti-HCC effect of lgals1 siRNA was CD8-dependent. Overall, Gal1 silencing has a promising potential for HCC treatment.

Galectin-14 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma tumor growth via enhancing heparan sulfate proteoglycan modification

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a highly heterogeneous malignancy and lacks effective treatment. Bulk-sequencing of different gene transcripts by comparing HCC tissues and adjacent normal tissues provides some clues for investigating the mechanisms or identifying potential targets for tumor progression. However, genes that are exclusively expressed in a subpopulation of HCC may not be enriched or detected through such a screening. In the current study, we performed a single cell-clone-based screening and identified galectin-14 as an essential molecule in the regulation of tumor growth. The aberrant expression of galectin-14 was significantly associated with a poor overall survival of liver cancer patients with database analysis. Knocking down galectin-14 inhibited the proliferation of tumor growth, whereas overexpressing galectin-14 promoted tumor growth in vivo. Non-targeted metabolomics analysis indicated that knocking down galectin-14 decreased glycometabolism; specifically that glycoside synthesis was significantly changed. Further study found that galectin-14 promoted the expression of cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) that functioned as co-receptors, thereby increasing the responsiveness of HCC cells to growth factors, such as epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor-alpha. In conclusion, the current study identifies a novel HCC-specific molecule galectin-14, which increases the expression of cell surface HSPGs and the uptake of growth factors to promote HCC cell proliferation.

Conjugating 4β-NH-(5-Aminoindazole)-podophyllotoxin and Galectin-1-Targeted Aptamer for Synergistic Chemo-Immunotherapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

By conjugating a chemotherapeutic candidate drug 4β-NH-(5-aminoindazole)-podophyllotoxin (βIZP) and an immunosuppressive protein galectin-1 targeted aptamer AP74, a chemo-immunotherapy molecule (AP74-βIZP) is developed against liver cancer. AP74-βIZP can target galectin-1 and enrich the tumor microenvironment to improve the tumor inhibition ratio by 6.3%, higher than that of βIZP in a HepG2 xenograft model. In safety evaluation, βIZP cannot be released from AP74-βIZP in normal tissues with low glutathione level. Therefore, the degrees of organs injury and myelosuppression after the treatment with AP74-βIZP are lower than those with βIZP. After 21 d treatment at a drug dose of 5 mg kg-1 , AP74-βIZP does not cause weight loss in mice, while the weight is significantly reduced by 24% and 14% from oxaliplatin and βIZP, respectively. In immune synergy, AP74-IZP enhances CD4/CD8 cell infiltration to promote the expression of cell factor (i.e., IL-2, TNF-α, and IFN-γ), which further improves the antitumor activity. The tumor inhibition ratio of AP74-βIZP is 70.2%, which is higher than that of AP74 (35.2%) and βIZP (48.8%). Because of the dual effects of chemotherapy and immunotherapy, AP74-βIZP exhibits superior activity and lower toxicity. The approach developed in this work could be applicable to other chemotherapy drugs.

Galectin-1-mediated MET/AXL signaling enhances sorafenib resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma by escaping ferroptosis

Sorafenib, a small-molecule inhibitor targeting several tyrosine kinase pathways, is the standard treatment for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, not all patients with HCC respond well to sorafenib, and 30% of patients develop resistance to sorafenib after short-term treatment. Galectin-1 modulates cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions and plays a crucial role in HCC progression. However, whether Galectin-1 regulates receptor tyrosine kinases by sensitizing HCC to sorafenib remains unclear. Herein, we established a sorafenib-resistant HCC cell line (Huh-7/SR) and determined that Galectin-1 expression was significantly higher in Huh-7/SR cells than in parent cells. Galectin-1 knockdown reduced sorafenib resistance in Huh-7/SR cells, whereas Galectin-1 overexpression in Huh-7 cells increased sorafenib resistance. Galectin-1 regulated ferroptosis by inhibiting excessive lipid peroxidation, protecting sorafenib-resistant HCC cells from sorafenib-mediated ferroptosis. Galectin-1 expression was positively correlated with poor prognostic outcomes for HCC patients. Galectin-1 overexpression promoted the phosphorylation of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL) and MET proto-oncogene, receptor tyrosine kinase (MET) signaling, which increased sorafenib resistance. MET and AXL were highly expressed in patients with HCC, and AXL expression was positively correlated with Galectin-1 expression. These findings indicate that Galectin-1 regulates sorafenib resistance in HCC cells through AXL and MET signaling. Consequently, Galectin-1 is a promising therapeutic target for reducing sorafenib resistance and sorafenib-mediated ferroptosis in patients with HCC.

Chimera and Tandem-Repeat Type Galectins: The New Targets for Cancer Immunotherapy

In humans, a total of 12 galectins have been identified. Their intracellular and extracellular biological functions are explored and discussed in this review. These galectins play important roles in controlling immune responses within the tumour microenvironment (TME) and the infiltration of immune cells, including different subsets of T cells, macrophages, and neutrophils, to fight against cancer cells. However, these infiltrating cells also have repair roles and are hijacked by cancer cells for pro-tumorigenic activities. Upon a better understanding of the immunomodulating functions of galectin-3 and -9, their inhibitors, namely, GB1211 and LYT-200, have been selected as candidates for clinical trials. The use of these galectin inhibitors as combined treatments with current immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is also undergoing clinical trial investigations. Through their network of binding partners, inhibition of galectin have broad downstream effects acting on CD8⁺ cytotoxic T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs), Natural Killer (NK) cells, and macrophages as well as playing pro-inflammatory roles, inhibiting T-cell exhaustion to support the fight against cancer cells. Other galectin members are also included in this review to provide insight into potential candidates for future treatment(s). The pitfalls and limitations of using galectins and their inhibitors are also discussed to cognise their clinical application.

Galectin-1: A Traditionally Immunosuppressive Protein Displays Context-Dependent Capacities

Galectin–Carbohydrate interactions are indispensable to pathogen recognition and immune response. Galectin-1, a ubiquitously expressed 14-kDa protein with an evolutionarily conserved β-galactoside binding site, translates glycoconjugate recognition into function. That galectin-1 is demonstrated to induce T cell apoptosis has led to substantial attention to the immunosuppressive properties of this protein, such as inducing naive immune cells to suppressive phenotypes, promoting recruitment of immunosuppressing cells as well as impairing functions of cytotoxic leukocytes. However, only in recent years have studies shown that galectin-1 appears to perform a pro-inflammatory role in certain diseases. In this review, we describe the anti-inflammatory function of galectin-1 and its possible mechanisms and summarize the existing therapies and preclinical efficacy relating to these agents. In the meantime, we also discuss the potential causal factors by which galectin-1 promotes the progression of inflammation.

The role of N-glycosylation modification in the pathogenesis of liver cancer

N-glycosylation is one of the most common types of protein modifications and it plays a vital role in normal physiological processes. However, aberrant N-glycan modifications are closely associated with the pathogenesis of diverse diseases, including processes such as malignant transformation and tumor progression. It is known that the N-glycan conformation of the associated glycoproteins is altered during different stages of hepatocarcinogenesis. Characterizing the heterogeneity and biological functions of glycans in liver cancer patients will facilitate a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms of liver injury and hepatocarcinogenesis. In this article, we review the role of N-glycosylation in hepatocarcinogenesis, focusing on epithelial-mesenchymal transition, extracellular matrix changes, and tumor microenvironment formation. We highlight the role of N-glycosylation in the pathogenesis of liver cancer and its potential applications in the treatment or diagnosis of liver cancer.

Targeting galectin-driven regulatory circuits in cancer and fibrosis

Galectins are a family of endogenous glycan-binding proteins that have crucial roles in a broad range of physiological and pathological processes. As a group, these proteins use both extracellular and intracellular mechanisms as well as glycan-dependent and independent pathways to reprogramme the fate and function of numerous cell types. Given their multifunctional roles in both tissue fibrosis and cancer, galectins have been identified as potential therapeutic targets for these disorders. Here, we focus on the therapeutic relevance of galectins, particularly galectin 1 (GAL1), GAL3 and GAL9 to tumour progression and fibrotic diseases. We consider an array of galectin-targeted strategies, including small-molecule carbohydrate inhibitors, natural polysaccharides and their derivatives, peptides, peptidomimetics and biological agents (notably, neutralizing monoclonal antibodies and truncated galectins) and discuss their mechanisms of action, selectivity and therapeutic potential in preclinical models of fibrosis and cancer. We also review the results of clinical trials that aim to evaluate the efficacy of galectin inhibitors in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and cancer. The rapid pace of glycobiology research, combined with the acute need for drugs to alleviate fibrotic inflammation and overcome resistance to anticancer therapies, will accelerate the translation of anti-galectin therapeutics into clinical practice.

Galectins as pivotal components in oncogenesis and immune exclusion in human malignancies

Galectins are galactoside-binding proteins, exerting numerous functions inside and outside the cell, particularly conferring adaptation to stress factors. For most of them, aberrant expression profiles have been reported in the context of cancer. Albeit not being oncogenic drivers, galectins can be harnessed to exacerbate the malignant phenotype. Their impact on disease establishment and progression is not limited to making cancer cells resistant to apoptosis, but is prominent in the context of the tumor microenvironment, where it fosters angiogenesis, immune escape and exclusion. This review focuses mainly on Gal-1, Gal-3 and Gal-9 for which the involvement in cancer biology is best known. It presents the types of galectin dysregulations, attempts to explain the mechanisms behind them and analyzes the different ways in which they favor tumour growth. In an era where tumour resistance to immunotherapy appears as a major challenge, we highlight the crucial immunosuppressive roles of galectins and the potential therapeutic benefits of combinatorial approaches including galectin inhibition.

LGALS1 was related to the prognosis of clear cell renal cell carcinoma identified by weighted correlation gene network analysis combined with differential gene expression analysis

Understanding the molecular mechanism of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is essential for predicting the prognosis and developing new targeted therapies. Our study is to identify hub genes related to ccRCC and to further analyze its prognostic significance. The ccRCC gene expression profiles of GSE46699 from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and datasets from the Cancer Genome Atlas Database The Cancer Genome Atlas were used for the Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) and differential gene expression analysis. We screened out 397 overlapping genes from the four sets of results, and then performed Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genome (KEGG) pathways. In addition, the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of 397 overlapping genes was mapped using the STRING database. We identified ten hub genes (KNG1, TIMP1, ALB, C3, GPC3, VCAN, P4HB, CHGB, LGALS1, EGF) using the CytoHubba plugin of Cytoscape based on the Maximal Clique Centrality (MCC) score. According to Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, higher expression of LGALS1 and TIMP1 was related to poorer overall survival (OS) in patients with ccRCC. Univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazard analysis showed that the expression of LGALS1 was an independent risk factor for poor prognosis. Moreover, the higher the clinical grade and stage of ccRCC, the higher the expression of LGALS1. LGALS1 may play an important role in developing ccRCC and may be potential a biomarker for prognosis and treatment targets.

Inhibition of galectins in cancer: Biological challenges for their clinical application

Galectins play relevant roles in tumor development, progression and metastasis. Accordingly, galectins are certainly enticing targets for medical intervention in cancer. To date, however, clinical trials based on galectin inhibitors reported inconclusive results. This review summarizes the galectin inhibitors currently being evaluated and discusses some of the biological challenges that need to be addressed to improve these strategies for the benefit of cancer patients.

Galectin functions in cancer-associated inflammation and thrombosis

Galectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that regulate many cellular functions including proliferation, adhesion, migration, and phagocytosis. Increasing experimental and clinical evidence indicates that galectins influence many steps of cancer development by inducing the recruitment of immune cells to the inflammatory sites and modulating the effector function of neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes. Recent studies described that different isoforms of galectins can induce platelet adhesion, aggregation, and granule release through the interaction with platelet-specific glycoproteins and integrins. Patients with cancer and/or deep-venous thrombosis have increased levels of galectins in the vasculature, suggesting that these proteins could be important contributors to cancer-associated inflammation and thrombosis. In this review, we summarize the pathological role of galectins in inflammatory and thrombotic events, influencing tumor progression and metastasis. We also discuss the potential of anti-cancer therapies targeting galectins in the pathological context of cancer-associated inflammation and thrombosis.

A Novel P53 Nanomedicine Reduces Immunosuppression and Augments Anti-PD-1 Therapy for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer in Syngeneic Mouse Models

Lung cancer is among the most common and lethal cancers and warrants novel therapeutic approaches to improving patient outcomes. Although immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have demonstrated substantial clinical benefits, most patients remain unresponsive to currently approved ICIs or develop resistance after initial response. Many ongoing clinical studies are investigating combination therapies to address the limited efficacy of ICIs. Here, we have assessed whether p53 gene therapy via a tumor-targeting nanomedicine (termed SGT-53) can augment anti-programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) immunotherapy to expand its use in non-responding patients. Using syngeneic mouse models of lung cancers that are resistant to anti-PD-1, we demonstrate that restoration of normal p53 function potentiates anti-PD-1 to inhibit tumor growth and prolong survival of tumor-bearing animals. Our data indicate that SGT-53 can restore effective immune responses against lung cancer cells by reducing immuno-suppressive cells (M2 macrophages and regulatory T cells) and by downregulating immunosuppressive molecules (e.g., galectin-1, a negative regulator of T cell activation and survival) while increasing activity of cytotoxic T cells. These results suggest that combining SGT-53 with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy could increase the fraction of lung cancer patients that responds to anti-PD-1 therapy and support evaluation of this combination particularly in patients with ICI-resistant lung cancers.

MiR-22 Deficiency Fosters Hepatocellular Carcinoma Development in Fatty Liver

MiR-22 is mostly considered as a hepatic tumor-suppressor microRNA based on in vitro analyses. Yet, whether miR-22 exerts a tumor-suppressive function in the liver has not been investigated in vivo. Herein, in silico analyses of miR-22 expression were performed in hepatocellular carcinomas from human patient cohorts and different mouse models. Diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocellular carcinomas were then investigated in lean and diet-induced obese miR-22-deficient mice. The proteome of liver tissues from miR-22-deficient mice prior to hepatocellular carcinoma development was further analyzed to uncover miR-22 regulated factors that impact hepatocarcinogenesis with miR-22 deficiency. MiR-22 downregulation was consistently observed in hepatocellular carcinomas from all human cohorts and mouse models investigated. The time of appearance of the first tumors was decreased and the number of tumoral foci induced by diethylnitrosamine was significantly increased by miR-22-deficiency in vivo, two features which were further drastically exacerbated with diet-induced obesity. At the molecular level, we provide evidence that the loss of miR-22 significantly affects the energetic metabolism and mitochondrial functions of hepatocytes, and the expression of tumor-promoting factors such as thrombospondin-1. Our study demonstrates that miR-22 acts as a hepatic tumor suppressor in vivo by restraining pro-carcinogenic metabolic deregulations through pleiotropic mechanisms and the overexpression of relevant oncogenes.

Galectin-1 activates carbonic anhydrase IX and modulates glioma metabolism

Galectins are a family of β-galactose-specific binding proteins residing within the cytosol or nucleus, with a highly conserved carbohydrate recognition domain across many species. Accumulating evidence shows that Galectin 1 (Gal-1) plays an essential role in cancer, and its expression correlates with tumor aggressiveness and progression. Our preliminary data showed Gal-1 promotes glioma stem cell (GSC) growth via increased Warburg effect. mRNA expression and clinical data were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. The immunoblot analysis conducted using our cohort of human glioblastoma patient specimens (hGBM), confirmed Gal-1 upregulation in GBM. GC/MS analysis to evaluate the effects of Gal-1 depletion showed elevated levels of α-ketoglutaric acid, and citric acid with a concomitant reduction in lactic acid levels. Using Biolog microplate-1 mitochondrial functional assay, we confirmed that the depletion of Gal-1 increases the expression levels of the enzymes from the TCA cycle, suggesting a reversal of the Warburg phenotype. Manipulation of Gal-1 using RNA interference showed reduced ATP, lactate levels, cell viability, colony-forming abilities, and increased expression levels of genes implicated in the induction of apoptosis. Gal-1 exerts its metabolic role via regulating the expression of carbonic anhydrase IX (CA-IX), a surrogate marker for hypoxia. CA-IX functions downstream to Gal-1, and co-immunoprecipitation experiments along with proximity ligation assays confirm that Gal-1 physically associates with CA-IX to regulate its expression. Further, silencing of Gal-1 in mice models showed reduced tumor burden and increased survival compared to the mice implanted with GSC controls. Further investigation of Gal-1 in GSC progression and metabolic reprogramming is warranted.

T‐helper cell regulation of CD45 phosphatase activity by galectin‐1 and CD43 governs chronic lymphocytic leukaemia proliferation

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is characterised by malignant mature‐like B cells. Supportive to CLL cell survival is chronic B‐cell receptor (BCR) signalling; however, emerging evidence demonstrates CLL cells proliferate in response to T‐helper (Th) cells in a CD40L‐dependent manner. We showed provision of Th stimulation via CD40L upregulated CD45 phosphatase activity and BCR signalling in non‐malignant B cells. Consequently, we hypothesised Th cell upregulation of CLL cell CD45 activity may be an important regulator of CLL BCR signalling and proliferation. Using patient‐derived CLL cells in a culture system with activated autologous Th cells, results revealed increases in both Th and CLL cell CD45 activity, which correlated with enhanced downstream antigen receptor signalling and proliferation. Concomitantly increased was the surface expression of Galectin‐1, a CD45 ligand, and CD43, a CLL immunophenotypic marker. Galectin‐1/CD43 double expression defined a proliferative CLL cell population with enhanced CD45 activity. Targeting either Galectin‐1 or CD43 using silencing, pharmacology, or monoclonal antibody strategies dampened CD45 activity and CLL cell proliferation. These results highlight a mechanism where activated Th cells drive CLL cell BCR signalling and proliferation via Galectin‐1 and CD43‐mediated regulation of CD45 activity, identifying modulation of CD45 phosphatase activity as a potential therapeutic target in CLL.

Transcriptome changes in ERGIC3-knockdown hepatocellular carcinoma cells: ERGIC3 is a novel immune function related gene

Objective

The expression of ERGIC3 is increased in a variety of tumors and promotes the growth and metastasis of liver cancer, but the molecular mechanism needs to be further studied.In this study, we aimed to analyze the molecular mechanism of ERGIC3 regulating the proliferation of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) SMMC-7721 cells using transcriptomics.

Methods

ERGIC3 was knocked down in SMMC-7721 cells by RNAi technique, and the expression of ERGIC3 was detected by Q-RT-PCR and Western Blot. RNA sequencing was performed in the Illumina HiSeq platform in the control group and the ERGIC3i group and bioinformatics methods were selected to analyze the data.

Results

The expression of ERGIC3 was reduced to 10% in SMMC-7721 cells by RNAi technique, and 176 genes were up-regulated and 34 genes were down-regulated in ERGIC3i group compared with the control group. Analysis of the pathways and biological processes that enrich the function of differentially expressed genes showed thatthese differentially expressed genes were mainly involved in vesicular transport, growth factors, PI3K-Akt, NOD-like, Jak-STAT, NF-kappa B and other protein kinase-coupled receptors mediated signal transduction pathways, tumor immune response, collagen-integrin receptor-actin axis, and miRNA pathways. More importantly, most of the significantly altered pathways were related to immunity. ERGIC3 may be a key immune-related gene.

Conclusion

Based on the transcriptomic analysis, the mechanism of ERGIC3 promoting the growth of HCC is link with the transport of growth factor receptor, cytokine receptor and collagen. Then it is involved in signal transduction pathways mediated by protein kinase-coupled receptors, PI3K-Akt, NOD-like, Jak-STAT and NF-kappa B. In particular, the mechanism is also involved in the ERGIC3-dependent immune pathways. ERGIC3 is a potential target for prevention and treatment of HCC.

Galectin-1 orchestrates an inflammatory tumor-stroma crosstalk in hepatoma by enhancing TNFR1 protein stability and signaling in carcinoma-associated fibroblasts

Most cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) arise with the fibrotic microenvironment where hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are critical components in HCC progression. Therefore, CAF normalization could be a feasible therapy for HCC. Galectin-1 (Gal-1), a β-galactoside-binding lectin, is critical for HSC activation and liver fibrosis. However, few studies has evaluated the pathological role of Gal-1 in HCC stroma and its role in hepatic CAF is unclear. Here we showed that Gal-1 mainly expressed in HCC stroma, but not cancer cells. High expression of Gal-1 is correlated with CAF markers and poor prognoses of HCC patients. In co-culture systems, targeting Gal-1 in CAFs or HSCs, using small hairpin (sh)RNAs or an therapeutic inhibitor (LLS30), downregulated plasminogen activator inhibitor-2 (PAI-2) production which suppressed cancer stem-like cell properties and invasion ability of HCC in a paracrine manner. The Gal-1-targeting effect was mediated by increased a disintegrin and metalloprotease 17 (ADAM17)-dependent TNF-receptor 1 (TNFR1) shedding/cleavage which inhibited the TNF-α → JNK → c-Jun/ATF2 signaling axis of pro-inflammatory gene transcription. Silencing Gal-1 in CAFs inhibited CAF-augmented HCC progression and reprogrammed the CAF-mediated inflammatory responses in a co-injection xenograft model. Taken together, the findings uncover a crucial role of Gal-1 in CAFs that orchestrates an inflammatory CSC niche supporting HCC progression and demonstrate that targeting Gal-1 could be a potential therapy for fibrosis-related HCC.

ESCCAL-1 promotes cell-cycle progression by interacting with and stabilizing galectin-1 in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) play important roles in the development of human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Our previous studies have shown that knockdown of LncRNA ESCCAL-1 expression inhibits the growth of ESCC cells, but the mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this study, we show that over-expression of ESCCAL-1 promotes ESCC cell proliferation and cell-cycle progression by blocking ubiquitin-mediated degradation of an oncoprotein galectin-1 (Gal-1). Multiple LncRNA expression datasets as well as our own data together reveal that ESCCAL-1 is evidently up-regulated in ESCC tissues and exhibits promising diagnostic value. Over-expression of ESCCAL-1 augmented ESCC cell proliferation and cell-cycle progression, whereas down-regulation of ESCCAL-1 resulted in the opposite effects. Mechanistically, LncRNA ESCCAL-1 directly binds to Gal-1 and positively regulates its protein level without affecting its mRNA level. Up-regulation of Gal-1 facilitated ESCC cell proliferation and cell-cycle progress. Knockdown of Gal-1 mitigated the effects of ESCCAL-1-mediated high cellular proliferation, NF-κB signaling activation and tumorigenicity of ESCC cells. Thus, our findings provide novel insight into the mechanism by which ESCCAL-1 facilitates ESCC tumorigenesis and cell-cycle progression by interacting with and stabilizing Gal-1 protein, suggesting a potential therapeutic target for ESCC.

Galectin-1 confers resistance to doxorubicin in hepatocellular carcinoma cells through modulation of P-glycoprotein expression

Galectin-1 (GAL1), a β-galactoside-binding protein abundantly expressed in the tumor microenvironment, has emerged as a key mechanism of chemoresistance developed by different tumors. Although increased expression of GAL1 is a hallmark of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression, aggressiveness and metastasis, limited information is available on the role of this endogenous lectin in HCC resistance to chemotherapy. Moreover, the precise mechanisms underlying this effect are uncertain. HCC has evolved different mechanisms of resistance to chemotherapy including those involving the P-glycoprotein (P-gp), an ATP-dependent drug efflux pump, which controls intracellular drug concentration. Here, we investigated the molecular mechanism underlying GAL1-mediated chemoresistance in HCC cells, particularly the involvement of P-gp in this effect. Our results show that GAL1 protected HepG2 cells from doxorubicin (DOX)- and sorafenib-induced cell death in vitro. Accordingly, GAL1-overexpressing HepG2 cells generated DOX-resistant tumors in vivo. High expression of GAL1 in HepG2 cells reduced intracellular accumulation of DOX likely by increasing P-gp protein expression rather than altering its membrane localization. GAL1-mediated increase of P-gp expression involved activation of the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway. Moreover, 'loss-of-function' experiments revealed that P-gp mediates GAL1-driven resistance to DOX, but not to sorafenib, in HepG2 cells. Conversely, in PLC/PRF/5 cells, P-gp protein expression was undetectable and GAL1 did not control resistance to DOX or sorafenib, supporting the critical role of P-gp in mediating GAL1 effects. Collectively, our findings suggest that GAL1 confers chemoresistance in HCC through mechanisms involving modulation of P-gp, thus emphasizing the role of this lectin as a potential therapeutic target in HCC.

RASSF1A independence and early galectin-1 upregulation in PIK3CA-induced hepatocarcinogenesis: new therapeutic venues

Aberrant activation of the phosphoinositide 3‐kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mTOR and Ras/mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways is a hallmark of hepatocarcinogenesis. In a subset of hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs), PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling dysregulation depends on phosphatidylinositol‐4,5‐bisphosphate 3‐kinase, catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA) mutations, while RAS/MAPK activation is partly attributed to promoter methylation of the tumor suppressor Ras association domain‐containing protein 1 (RASSF1A). To evaluate a possible cocarcinogenic effect of PIK3CA activation and RASSF1A knockout, plasmids expressing oncogenic forms of PIK3CA (E545K or H1047R mutants) were delivered to the liver of RASSF1A knockout and wild‐type mice by hydrodynamic tail vein injection combined with sleeping beauty‐mediated somatic integration. Transfection of either PIK3CA E545K or H1047R mutants sufficed to induce HCCs in mice irrespective of RASSF1A mutational background. The related tumors displayed a lipogenic phenotype with upregulation of fatty acid synthase and stearoyl‐CoA desaturase‐1 (SCD1). Galectin‐1, which was commonly upregulated in preneoplastic lesions and tumors, emerged as a regulator of SCD1. Co‐inhibitory treatment with PIK3CA inhibitors and the galectin‐1 inhibitor OTX008 resulted in synergistic cytotoxicity in human HCC cell lines, suggesting novel therapeutic venues.

Role of Galectins in the Liver Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Galectins, a family of β-galactoside-binding proteins, are related to the development and progression of various human diseases such as cancer, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease. However, its role in liver diseases is unclear. Methods: The PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases were searched. Hazard ratios (HRs), odds ratios (ORs), and mean differences (MDs) with 95% CIs were pooled to evaluate the association of the galectins with the outcomes and risk of liver diseases by a random effects model. Results: Thirty three studies involving 43 cohorts and 4,168 patients with liver diseases were included. In the patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), high expression of galectin-1 and -3 in the tissues was significantly associated with worse overall survival (galectin-1: HR = 1.94, 95% CI = 1.61-2.34, p < 0.001; galectin-3: HR = 3.29, 95% CI = 1.62-6.68, p < 0.001) and positive vascular invasion (galectin-1: OR = 1.74, 95% CI = 1.18-2.58, p = 0.005; galectin-3: OR = 2.98, 95% CI = 1.58-5.60, p = 0.001); but, high expression of galectin-4 and -9 in the tissues was significantly associated with better overall survival (galectin-4: HR = 0.53, 95% CI = 0.36-0.79, p = 0.002; galectin-9: HR = 0.56, 95% CI = 0.44-0.71, p < 0.001) and negative vascular invasion (galectin-4: OR = 0.36, 95% CI = 0.19-0.72, p = 0.003; galectin-9: OR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.37-0.97, p = 0.037). Serum galectin-3 level was significantly higher in HCC (MD = 3.06, 95% CI = 1.79-4.32, p < 0.001), liver failure (MD = 0.44, 95% CI = 0.23-0.66, p < 0.001), liver cirrhosis (MD = 1.83, 95% CI = 1.15-2.51, p < 0.001), and chronic active hepatitis B (MD = 18.95, 95% CI = 10.91-27.00, p < 0.001); serum galectin-9 level was significantly higher in HCC (MD = 3.74, 95% CI = 2.57-4.91, p < 0.001) and autoimmune hepatitis (MD = 8.80, 95% CI = 7.61-9.99, p < 0.001). Conclusion: High galectin-1 and -3 and low galectin-4 and -9 expression indicate worse outcomes of patients with HCC. Serum galectin-3 and -9 levels are positively associated with the risk of chronic liver diseases.

The progress of immune checkpoint therapy in primary liver cancer

After years of in-depth research on immune checkpoints, therapeutic reversal of immune-exhaustion with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICPIs) has been shown to be effective in primary liver cancer, including hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. The clinical development of novel ICPIs continues at a rapid pace, with more than 200 clinical trials of immunotherapeutic agents registered as of July 2021 for the treatment of liver cancer. In this review, we discussed the immune tolerance mechanism of liver cancer and the biological basis of immune checkpoints, focusing on the current status of ICPIs' development and clinical application. In addition, ICPIs combined with local resection, radiofrequency ablation, chemoembolization, and other molecular targeted drug therapies have shown better efficacy. Combined therapy based on multidisciplinary cooperation is the future direction of treatment in liver cancer.

Analysis of the role of Ly-1 antibody reactive in different cancer types

LYAR (Ly-1 antibody reactive) is a transcription factor with a specific DNA-binding domain, which plays a key role in the regulation of embryonic stem cell self-renewal and differentiation. However, the role of LYAR in human cancers remains unclear. This study aimed to analyze the prognostic value of LYAR in cancer. In this study, we evaluated the prognostic value of LYAR in various tumors. We research found that, compared with normal tissues, LYAR levels werehigher in a variety of tumors. LYAR expression level was associated with poor overall survival, progression-free interval, and disease-specific survival. LYAR expression was also related to tumor grade, stage, age, and tumor status. Cell counting kit-8, Transwell, and wound healing assay showed that knocking out LYAR significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. In addition, this study found that LYARexpression was significantly positively correlated with MKI67IP, BZW2, and CCT2. Gene set enrichment analysis results showed that samples with high LYAR expression levels were rich in spliceosomes, RNA degradation, pyrimidine metabolism, cell cycle, nucleotide excision repair, and base excision repair.

Unraveling How Tumor-Derived Galectins Contribute to Anti-Cancer Immunity Failure

Simple Summary

This review compiles our current knowledge of one of the main pathways activated by tumors to escape immune attack. Indeed, it integrates the current understanding of how tumor-derived circulating galectins affect the elicitation of effective anti-tumor immunity. It focuses on several relevant topics: which are the main galectins produced by tumors, how soluble galectins circulate throughout biological liquids (taking a body-settled gradient concentration into account), the conditions required for the galectins’ functions to be accomplished at the tumor and tumor-distant sites, and how the physicochemical properties of the microenvironment in each tissue determine their functions. These are no mere semantic definitions as they define which functions can be performed in said tissues instead. Finally, we discuss the promising future of galectins as targets in cancer immunotherapy and some outstanding questions in the field.

Abstract

Current data indicates that anti-tumor T cell-mediated immunity correlates with a better prognosis in cancer patients. However, it has widely been demonstrated that tumor cells negatively manage immune attack by activating several immune-suppressive mechanisms. It is, therefore, essential to fully understand how lymphocytes are activated in a tumor microenvironment and, above all, how to prevent these cells from becoming dysfunctional. Tumors produce galectins-1, -3, -7, -8, and -9 as one of the major molecular mechanisms to evade immune control of tumor development. These galectins impact different steps in the establishment of the anti-tumor immune responses. Here, we carry out a critical dissection on the mechanisms through which tumor-derived galectins can influence the production and the functionality of anti-tumor T lymphocytes. This knowledge may help us design more effective immunotherapies to treat human cancers.

Galectins in Cancer and the Microenvironment: Functional Roles, Therapeutic Developments, and Perspectives

Changes in cell growth and metabolism are affected by the surrounding environmental factors to adapt to the cell’s most appropriate growth model. However, abnormal cell metabolism is correlated with the occurrence of many diseases and is accompanied by changes in galectin (Gal) performance. Gals were found to be some of the master regulators of cell–cell interactions that reconstruct the microenvironment, and disordered expression of Gals is associated with multiple human metabolic-related diseases including cancer development. Cancer cells can interact with surrounding cells through Gals to create more suitable conditions that promote cancer cell aggressiveness. In this review, we organize the current understanding of Gals in a systematic way to dissect Gals’ effect on human disease, including how Gals’ dysregulated expression affects the tumor microenvironment’s metabolism and elucidating the mechanisms involved in Gal-mediated diseases. This information may shed light on a more precise understanding of how Gals regulate cell biology and facilitate the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment by targeting the Gal family.

Galectins in the Pathogenesis of Common Retinal Disease

Diseases of the retina are major causes of visual impairment and blindness in developed countries and, due to an ageing population, their prevalence is continually rising. The lack of effective therapies and the limitations of those currently in use highlight the importance of continued research into the pathogenesis of these diseases. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a major role in driving vascular dysfunction in retinal disease and has therefore become a key therapeutic target. Recent evidence also points to a potentially similarly important role of galectins, a family of β-galactoside-binding proteins. Indeed, they have been implicated in regulating fundamental processes, including vascular hyperpermeability, angiogenesis, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress, all of which also play a prominent role in retinopathies. Here, we review direct evidence for pathological roles of galectins in retinal disease. In addition, we extrapolate potential roles of galectins in the retina from evidence in cancer, immune and neuro-biology. We conclude that there is value in increasing understanding of galectin function in retinal biology, in particular in the context of the retinal vasculature and microglia. With greater insight, recent clinical developments of galectin-targeting drugs could potentially also be of benefit to the clinical management of many blinding diseases.

Prognosis prediction of hepatocellular carcinoma after surgical resection based on serum metabolic profiling from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Comprehensive prognostic risk prediction of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) after surgical treatment is particularly important for guiding clinical decision-making and improving postoperative survival. Hence, we aimed to build prognostic models based on serum metabolomics data, and assess the prognostic risk of HCC within 5 years after surgical resection. A pseudotargeted gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)-based metabolomics method was applied to analyze serum profiling of 78 HCC patients. Important metabolic features with discriminant ability were identified by a novel network-based metabolic feature selection method based on combinational significance index (N-CSI). Subsequently, phenylalanine and galactose were further identified to be relevant with mortality by the Cox regression analysis, while galactose and tyrosine were associated with recurrence and metastasis. Two models to predict risk of mortality (risk score of overall survival, RS_OS) and risk of recurrence and metastasis (risk score of disease-free survival, RS_DFS) were generated based on two panels of metabolites, respectively, which present favorable ability to predict prognosis of HCC, especially when combined with clinical staging system. The performance of models was further validated in an external independent cohort from 91 HCC patients. This study demonstrated that metabolomics is a powerful tool for risk screening of HCC prognosis.

Targeting galectins in T cell-based immunotherapy within tumor microenvironment

Over the past few years, tumor immunotherapy has emerged as an innovative tumor treatment and owned incomparable advantages over other tumor therapy. With unique complexity and uncertainty, immunotherapy still need helper to apply in the clinic. Galectins, modulated in tumor microenvironment, can regulate the disorders of innate and adaptive immune system resisting tumor growth. Considering the role of galectins in tumor immunosuppression, combination therapy of targeted anti-galectins and immunotherapy may be a promising tumor treatment. This brief review summarizes the expression and immune functions of different galectins in tumor microenvironment and discusses the potential value of anti-galectins in combination with checkpoint inhibitors in tumor immunotherapy.

Soluble α-klotho anchors TRPV5 to the distal tubular cell membrane independent of FGFR1 by binding TRPV5 and galectin-1 simultaneously

Hypercalciuria is one of the early manifestations of diabetic nephropathy (DN). This is partially due to a decrease in the expression of renal transient receptor potential vanilloid type 5 (TRPV5), which is responsible for renal Ca²⁺ reabsorption. Soluble klotho has been previously determined to increase TRPV5 by cleaving sialic acid, causing TRPV5 to bind to membrane protein galectin-1. However, a recent study showed that soluble klotho binds to α2-3-sialyllactose, where sialic acid is located, on TRPV5, rather than cleave it. Here, we report that soluble klotho tethers TRPV5 on the membrane by binding both TRPV5 and galectin-1, thereby protecting membrane TRPV5 from diabetes-induced endocytosis. In the present study, we injected recombinant soluble α-klotho protein (rKL) into db/db and db/m mice for 8 wk and collected urine and kidneys. We administered rKL, AZD4547 [fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor type 1 inhibitor], and OTX008 (galectin-1 inhibitor) to cultured mouse distal tubular cells with or without 30 mM high-glucose (HG) exposure. db/db mice showed increased renal Ca²⁺ excretion and decreased renal TRPV5 expression. rKL treatment reversed this change. In vitro, TRPV5 expression in distal tubular cells decreased under HG conditions, and rKL successfully upregulated TRPV5 with or without FGF23. Also, immunofluorescence showed colocalization of klotho, TRPV5, and galectin-1 in distal tubule cells, suggesting that klotho binds to both TRPV5 and galectin-1. Moreover, when both FGF receptor type 1 and galectin-1 were inhibited, rKL failed to increase TRPV5 under HG conditions. Our results indicate that soluble klotho prevents TRPV5 from degradation and subsequent diabetes-induced endocytosis by anchoring TRPV5 through binding with both TRPV5 and galectin-1.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Soluble α-klotho anchors transient receptor potential vanilloid type 5 (TRPV5) on the apical membrane of the distal tubule by binding both TRPV5 and a membrane-abundant protein, galectin-1. This newly discovered mechanism works even when fibroblast growth factor (FGF)23 signaling is inhibited by treatment with FGF receptor type 1 inhibitor. Therefore, we identified how soluble α-klotho increases TRPV5 without FGF23. We confirmed this mechanism by observing that soluble α-klotho fails to enhance TRPV5 when both FGF receptor type 1 and galectin-1 are inhibited.

Tissue-specific control of galectin-1-driven circuits during inflammatory responses

The relevance of glycan-binding protein in immune tolerance and inflammation has been well established, mainly by studies of C-type lectins, siglecs and galectins both in experimental models and patient samples. Galectins, a family of evolutionarily conserved lectins, are characterized by sequence homology in the carbohydrate-recognition domain (CRD), atypical secretion via an ER-Golgi-independent pathway and the ability to recognize β-galactoside-containing saccharides. Galectin-1 (Gal-1), a prototype member of this family displays mainly anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities, although, similar to many cytokines and growth factors, it may also trigger paradoxical pro-inflammatory effects under certain circumstances. These dual effects could be associated to tissue-, time- or context-dependent regulation of galectin expression and function, including particular pathophysiologic settings and/or environmental conditions influencing the structure of this lectin, as well as the availability of glycosylated ligands in immune cells during the course of inflammatory responses. Here, we discuss the tissue-specific role of Gal-1 as a master regulator of inflammatory responses across different pathophysiologic settings, highlighting its potential role as a therapeutic target. Further studies designed at analyzing the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways that control Gal-1 expression and function in different tissue microenvironments may contribute to design tailored therapeutic strategies aimed at positively or negatively modulate this glycan-binding protein in pathologic inflammatory conditions.

Long noncoding RNA LINC00520 accelerates lung adenocarcinoma progression via miR-1252-5p/FOXR2 pathway

It has been corroborated that long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) played fundamental function in various human malignancies development including lung adenocarcinoma (lung ADC). In our study, LINC00520 roles in lung ADC tumorigenesis were explored. We found that LINC00520 level was elevated in lung ADC tissues and cell lines. Besides, the LINC00520 expression had a negative connection with miR-1252-5p level in lung ADC tissues. Additionally, our results demonstrated the reciprocal repression influence between LINC00520 and miR-1252-5p. Moreover, luciferase reporter assays, RIP (RNA-binding protein immunoprecipitation) and pull down assays revealed that miR-1252-5p regulated LINC00520 in RISC-dependent. Furthermore, knockdown of LINC00520 inhibited lung ADC cells proliferation, migration and invasion, while co-transfection with a miR-1252-5p inhibitor inverted these influences. Additionally, the findings also demonstrated that FOXR2 was a target of miR-1252-5p; thus, LINC00520 could regulate FOXR2 level. Moreover, LINC00520 silencing suppressed the tumor growth of lung ADC in vivo. In summary, our data indicated that LINC00520 may act as a ceRNA to modulated FOXR2 level by sponging miR-1252-5p, which might bring a potential and effective biomarker to lung ADC treatment.

Systematic analysis using a bioinformatics strategy identifies SFTA1P and LINC00519 as potential prognostic biomarkers for lung squamous cell carcinoma

Lung cancer has high incidence and mortality rates, in which lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) is a primary type of non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). The aim of our study was to discover long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) associated with diagnose and prognosis for LUSC. RNA sequencing data obtained from LUSC samples were extracted from The Cancer Genome Atlas database (TCGA). Two prognosis-associated lncRNAs (including SFTA1P and LINC00519) were selected from LUSC samples, and the expression levels were also verified to be associated abnormal in LUSC clinical samples. Our findings demonstrate that lncRNAs SFTA1P and LINC00519 exert important functions in human LUSC and may serve as new targets for LUSC diagnosis and therapy.

The Role of Noncoding RNAs in the Regulation of Anoikis and Anchorage-Independent Growth in Cancer

Cancer is a global health concern, and the prognosis of patients with cancer is associated with metastasis. Multistep processes are involved in cancer metastasis. Accumulating evidence has shown that cancer cells acquire the capacity of anoikis resistance and anchorage-independent cell growth, which are critical prerequisite features of metastatic cancer cells. Multiple cellular factors and events, such as apoptosis, survival factors, cell cycle, EMT, stemness, autophagy, and integrins influence the anoikis resistance and anchorage-independent cell growth in cancer. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), are dysregulated in cancer. They regulate cellular signaling pathways and events, eventually contributing to cancer aggressiveness. This review presents the role of miRNAs and lncRNAs in modulating anoikis resistance and anchorage-independent cell growth. We also discuss the feasibility of ncRNA-based therapy and the natural features of ncRNAs that need to be contemplated for more beneficial therapeutic strategies against cancer.

Overexpression of Galectin-1 and Galectin-3 in hepatocellular carcinoma

Galectins (Gals) are evolutionarily conserved proteins that bind to β-galactoside containing glycans. Abnormal expression of Gals is associated with the development, progression, and metastasis of different types of cancer. Among the 11 Gals identified in humans, the roles of Gal-1 and Gal-3 have been extensively investigated in various tumors. Here, we summarize the roles of overly expressed Gal-1 and Gal-3 in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The overexpression of Gal-1 and Gal-3 correlates with tumor growth, HCC cell migration and invasion, tumor aggressiveness, metastasis, and poor prognosis. A potentially promising future treatment strategy for HCC may include the combination of immunotherapy with Gal-1 inhibition. Additional research is warranted to investigate targeting Gal-1 and Gal-3 for HCC treatment.

Hepatocellular carcinoma immunotherapy: The impact of epigenetic drugs and the gut microbiome

The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been increasing for decades. This disease has now risen to become the sixth most common malignancy overall, while ranking as the third most frequent cause of cancer mortality. While several surgical interventions and loco-regional treatment options are available, up to 80% of patients present with advanced disease not amenable to standard therapies. Indeed, traditional cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents are notoriously ineffective and essentially play no role in the management of affected patients. This has led to an enormous need for more effective systemic therapeutic options. In recent years, immunotherapy has emerged as a potentially viable and exciting new alternative for the treatment of HCC. Although the current immunotherapeutic options remain imperfect, various strategies can be employed to further improve their efficacy. New findings have revealed epigenetic modulation can be effective as a new approach for improving HCC immunotherapy. Studying the gut microbiome (gut-liver axis) can also be an interesting subject in this regard. Here, we explore the latest insights into the role of immunotherapy treatmenting HCC, both mono and in combination with other agents. We also focus on the impact of epigenetic drugs and the microbiome in the overall effectiveness of HCC immunotherapy.

Insights into the role of sialylation in cancer progression and metastasis

Upregulation of sialyltransferases—the enzymes responsible for the addition of sialic acid to growing glycoconjugate chains—and the resultant hypersialylation of up to 40–60% of tumour cell surfaces are established hallmarks of several cancers, including lung, breast, ovarian, pancreatic and prostate cancer. Hypersialylation promotes tumour metastasis by several routes, including enhancing immune evasion and tumour cell survival, and stimulating tumour invasion and migration. The critical role of enzymes that regulate sialic acid in tumour cell growth and metastasis points towards targeting sialylation as a potential new anti-metastatic cancer treatment strategy. Herein, we explore insights into the mechanisms by which hypersialylation plays a role in promoting metastasis, and explore the current state of sialyltransferase inhibitor development.

CD146, from a melanoma cell adhesion molecule to a signaling receptor

CD146 was originally identified as a melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) and highly expressed in many tumors and endothelial cells. However, the evidence that CD146 acts as an adhesion molecule to mediate a homophilic adhesion through the direct interactions between CD146 and itself is still lacking. Recent evidence revealed that CD146 is not merely an adhesion molecule, but also a cellular surface receptor of miscellaneous ligands, including some growth factors and extracellular matrixes. Through the bidirectional interactions with its ligands, CD146 is actively involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes of cells. Overexpression of CD146 can be observed in most of malignancies and is implicated in nearly every step of the development and progression of cancers, especially vascular and lymphatic metastasis. Thus, immunotherapy against CD146 would provide a promising strategy to inhibit metastasis, which accounts for the majority of cancer-associated deaths. Therefore, to deepen the understanding of CD146, we review the reports describing the newly identified ligands of CD146 and discuss the implications of these findings in establishing novel strategies for cancer therapy.

The roles of galectins in hepatic diseases

Hepatic diseases include all diseases that occur in the liver, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, etc. Hepatic diseases worldwide are characterized by high incidences of digestive system diseases, which present with subtle symptoms, are difficult to treat and have high mortality. Galectins are β-galactoside-binding proteins that have been found to be aberrantly expressed during hepatic disease progression. An increasing number of studies have shown that abnormal expression of galectins is extensively involved in hepatic diseases, such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), liver cirrhosis, hepatitis and liver fibrosis. Galectins function as intracellular and extracellular hepatic disease regulators mainly through the binding of their carbohydrate recognition domain to glycoconjugates expressed in hepatocytes. In this review, we summarize current research on the various roles of galectins in cirrhosis, hepatitis, liver fibrosis and HCC, which may provide a preliminary theoretical basis for the exploration of new targets for the treatment of hepatic diseases.

Identification of an Individualized Prognostic Signature Based on the RWSR Model in Early-Stage Bladder Carcinoma

Bladder cancer (BLCA) is the fourth common cancer among males in the United States, which is also the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death in old males. BLCA has a high recurrence rate, with over 50% of patients which has at least one recurrence within five years. Due to the complexity of the molecular mechanisms and heterogeneous cancer feature, BLCA clinicians find it hard to make an efficient management decision as they lack reliable assessment of mortality risk. Meanwhile, there is currently no screening suitable prognostic signature or method recommended for early detection, which is significantly important to early-stage detection and prognosis. In this study, a novel model, named the risk-weighted sparse regression (RWSR) model, is constructed to identify a robust signature for patients of early-stage BLCA. The 17-gene signature is generated and then validated as an independent prognostic factor in BLCA cohorts from GSE13507 and TCGA_BLCA datasets. Meanwhile, a risk score model is developed and validated among the 17-gene signature. The risk score is also considered an independent factor for prognosis prediction, which is confirmed through prognosis analysis. The Kaplan-Meier with the log-rank test is used to assess survival difference. Furthermore, the predictive capacity of the signature is proved through stratification analysis. Finally, an effective patient classification is completed by a combination of the 17-gene signature and stage information, which is for better survival prediction and treatment decisions. Besides, 11 genes in the signature, such as coiled-coil domain containing 73 (CCDC73) and protein kinase, DNA-activated, and catalytic subunit (PRKDC), are proved to be prognosis marker genes or strongly associated with prognosis and progress of other types of cancer in published literature already. As a result, this paper would more accurately predict a patient's prognosis and improve surveillance in the clinical setting, which may provide a quantitative and reliable decision-making basis for the treatment plan.

MiR-22 as a metabolic silencer and liver tumor suppressor

With obesity rate consistently increasing, a strong relationship between obesity and fatty liver disease has been discovered. More than 90% of bariatric surgery patients also have non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases (NAFLDs). NAFLD and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which are the hepatic manifestations of metabolic syndrome, can lead to liver carcinogenesis. Unfortunately, there is no effective medicine that can be used to treat NASH or liver cancer. Thus, it is critically important to understand the mechanism underlying the development of these diseases. Extensive evidence suggests that microRNA 22 (miR-22) can be a diagnostic marker for liver diseases as well as a treatment target. This review paper focuses on the roles of miR-22 in metabolism, steatosis, and liver carcinogenesis. Literature search is limited based on the publications included in the PubMed database in the recent 10 years.

The Galectin Family as Molecular Targets: Hopes for Defeating Pancreatic Cancer

Galectins are a family of proteins that bind β-galactose residues through a highly conserved carbohydrate recognition domain. They regulate several important biological functions, including cell proliferation, adhesion, migration, and invasion, and play critical roles during embryonic development and cell differentiation. In adults, different galectin members are expressed depending on the tissue type and can be altered during pathological processes. Numerous reports have shown the involvement of galectins in diseases, mostly inflammation and cancer. Here, we review the state-of-the-art of the role that different galectin family members play in pancreatic cancer. This tumor is predicted to become the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the next decade as there is still no effective treatment nor accurate diagnosis for it. We also discuss the possible translation of recent results about galectin expression and functions in pancreatic cancer into clinical interventions (i.e., diagnosis, prediction of prognosis and/or therapy) for this fatal disease.

Anticancer auranofin engages 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) as a target

Auranofin (AuRF) has been reported to display anticancer activity and has entered several clinical trials; however, its mechanism of action remains largely unknown. In this work, the anticancer mechanism of auranofin was investigated using a proteomics strategy entailing subcellular fractionation prior to mass spectrometric analysis. Bioinformatics analysis of the nuclear sub-proteomes revealed that tumor suppressor p14^ARF is a key regulator of transcription. Through independent analysis, we validated that up-regulation of p14^ARF is associated with E2F-dependent transcription and increased p53 expression. Our analyses further reveal that 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR), which is the rate-determining enzyme of the mevalonate pathway, is a novel target of auranofin with half maximal inhibitory concentration at micromolar levels. The auranofin-induced cancer cell death could be partially reverted by the addition of downstream products of the mevalonate pathway (mevalonolactone or geranyleranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP)), implying that auranofin may target the mevalonate pathway to exert its anticancer effect.