Biomaterials for hollow organ tissue engineering

Pioneering a paradigm shift in tissue engineering and regeneration with polysaccharides and proteins-based scaffolds: A comprehensive review

In the realm of modern medicine, tissue engineering and regeneration stands as a beacon of hope, offering the promise of restoring form and function to damaged or diseased organs and tissues. Central to this revolutionary field are biological macromolecules-nature's own blueprints for regeneration. The growing interest in bio-derived macromolecules and their composites is driven by their environmentally friendly qualities, renewable nature, minimal carbon footprint, and widespread availability in our ecosystem. Capitalizing on these unique attributes, specific composites can be tailored and enhanced for potential utilization in the realm of tissue engineering (TE). This review predominantly concentrates on the present research trends involving TE scaffolds constructed from polysaccharides, proteins and glycosaminoglycans. It provides an overview of the prerequisites, production methods, and TE applications associated with a range of biological macromolecules. Furthermore, it tackles the challenges and opportunities arising from the adoption of these biomaterials in the field of TE. This review also presents a novel perspective on the development of functional biomaterials with broad applicability across various biomedical applications.

Gelation of Uniform Interfacial Diffusant in Embedded 3D Printing

While the human body has many different examples of perfusable structures with complex geometries, biofabrication methods to replicate this complexity are still lacking. Specifically, the fabrication of self-supporting, branched networks with multiple channel diameters is particularly challenging. Here, we present the Gelation of Uniform Interfacial Diffusant in Embedded 3D Printing (GUIDE-3DP) approach for constructing perfusable networks of interconnected channels with precise control over branching geometries and vessel sizes. To achieve user-specified channel dimensions, this technique leverages the predictable diffusion of crosslinking reaction-initiators released from sacrificial inks printed within a hydrogel precursor. We demonstrate the versatility of GUIDE-3DP to be adapted for use with diverse physicochemical crosslinking mechanisms by designing seven printable material systems. Importantly, GUIDE-3DP allows for the independent tunability of both the inner and outer diameters of the printed channels and the ability to fabricate seamless junctions at branch points. This 3D bioprinting platform is uniquely suited for fabricating lumenized structures with complex shapes characteristic of multiple hollow vessels throughout the body. As an exemplary application, we demonstrate the fabrication of vasculature-like networks lined with endothelial cells. GUIDE-3DP represents an important advance toward the fabrication of self-supporting, physiologically relevant networks with intricate and perfusable geometries.

Effect of Degradation in Small Intestinal Fluids on Mechanical Properties of Polycaprolactone and Poly-l-lactide-co-caprolactone

Polycaprolactone and poly-l-lactide-co-caprolactone are promising degradable biomaterials for many medical applications. Their mechanical properties, especially a low elastic modulus, make them particularly interesting for implantable devices and scaffolds that target soft tissues like the small intestine. However, the specific environment and mechanical loading in the intestinal lumen pose harsh boundary conditions on the design of these devices, and little is known about the degradation of those mechanical properties in small intestinal fluids. Here, we perform tensile tests on injection molded samples of both polymers during in vitro degradation of up to 70 days in human intestinal fluids. We report on yield stress, Young's modulus, elongation at break and viscoelastic parameters describing both materials at regular time steps during the degradation. These characteristics are bench-marked against degradation studies of the same materials in other media. As a result, we offer time dependent mechanical properties that can be readily used for the development of medical devices that operate in the small intestine.

Gelation of Uniform Interfacial Diffusant in Embedded 3D Printing

While the human body has many different examples of perfusable structures with complex geometries, biofabrication methods to replicate this complexity are still lacking. Specifically, the fabrication of self-supporting, branched networks with multiple channel diameters is particularly challenging. Here, we present the Gelation of Uniform Interfacial Diffusant in Embedded 3D Printing (GUIDE-3DP) approach for constructing perfusable networks of interconnected channels with precise control over branching geometries and vessel sizes. To achieve user-specified channel dimensions, this technique leverages the predictable diffusion of crosslinking reaction-initiators released from sacrificial inks printed within a hydrogel precursor. We demonstrate the versatility of GUIDE-3DP to be adapted for use with diverse physiochemical crosslinking mechanisms by designing seven printable material systems. Importantly, GUIDE-3DP allows for the independent tunability of both the inner and outer diameters of the printed channels and the ability to fabricate seamless junctions at branch points. This 3D bioprinting platform is uniquely suited for fabricating lumenized structures with complex shapes characteristic of multiple hollow vessels throughout the body. As an exemplary application, we demonstrate the fabrication of vasculature-like networks lined with endothelial cells. GUIDE-3DP represents an important advance toward the fabrication of self-supporting, physiologically relevant networks with intricate and perfusable geometries.

Study on the Effect of PDA-PLGA Scaffold Loaded With Islet Cells for Skeletal Muscle Transplantation in the Treatment of Diabetes

At present, islet cells transplantation was limited by the way in which islet cells are implanted into the body, their ability to adapt to the microenvironment and the maintenance time for relieving diabetic symptoms. In order to solve this problem, we made PDA-PLGA scaffold loaded with islet cells and used it for skeletal muscle transplantation to investigate its therapeutic effect in the treatment of diabetes. The PLGA scaffold was prepared by the electrospinning method, and modified by polydopamine coating. A rat diabetic model was established to evaluate the efficacy of PDA-PLGA scaffold loaded with RINm5f islet cells through skeletal muscle transplantation. The results showed that the PDA-PLGA scaffold has good biosafety performance. At the same time, transplantation of the stent to the skeletal muscle site had little effect on the serum biochemical indicators of rats, which was conducive to angiogenesis. The PDA-PLGA scaffold had no effect on the secretory function of pancreatic islet cells. The PDA-PLGA scaffold carrying RINm5f cells was transplanted into the skeletal muscle of type I diabetic rats. 1 week after the transplantation of the PDA-PLGA cell scaffold complex, the blood glucose of the treatment group was significantly lower than that of the model group (p < 0.001) and lasted for approximately 3 weeks, which further indicated the skeletal muscle transplantation site was a new choice for islet cell transplantation in the future.

A composite scaffold of Wharton's jelly and chondroitin sulphate loaded with human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells repairs articular cartilage defects in rat knee

To evaluate the performance of a composite scaffold of Wharton's jelly (WJ) and chondroitin sulfate (CS) and the effect of the composite scaffold loaded with human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs) in repairing articular cartilage defects, two experiments were carried out. The in vitro experiments involved identification of the hUCMSCs, construction of the biomimetic composite scaffolds by the physical and chemical crosslinking of WJ and CS, and testing of the biomechanical properties of both the composite scaffold and the WJ scaffold. In the in vivo experiments, composite scaffolds loaded with hUCMSCs and WJ scaffolds loaded with hUCMSCs were applied to repair articular cartilage defects in the rat knee. Moreover, their repair effects were evaluated by the unaided eye, histological observations, and the immunogenicity of scaffolds and hUCMSCs. We found that in vitro, the Young's modulus of the composite scaffold (WJ-CS) was higher than that of the WJ scaffold. In vivo, the composite scaffold loaded with hUCMSCs repaired rat cartilage defects better than did the WJ scaffold loaded with hUCMSCs. Both the scaffold and hUCMSCs showed low immunogenicity. These results demonstrate that the in vitro construction of a human-derived WJ-CS composite scaffold enhances the biomechanical properties of WJ and that the repair of knee cartilage defects in rats is better with the composite scaffold than with the single WJ scaffold if the scaffold is loaded with hUCMSCs.

The complex three-dimensional organization of epithelial tissues

Understanding the cellular organization of tissues is key to developmental biology. In order to deal with this complex problem, researchers have taken advantage of reductionist approaches to reveal fundamental morphogenetic mechanisms and quantitative laws. For epithelia, their two-dimensional representation as polygonal tessellations has proved successful for understanding tissue organization. Yet, epithelial tissues bend and fold to shape organs in three dimensions. In this context, epithelial cells are too often simplified as prismatic blocks with a limited plasticity. However, there is increasing evidence that a realistic approach, even from a reductionist perspective, must include apico-basal intercalations (i.e. scutoidal cell shapes) for explaining epithelial organization convincingly. Here, we present an historical perspective about the tissue organization problem. Specifically, we analyze past and recent breakthroughs, and discuss how and why simplified, but realistic, in silico models require scutoidal features to address key morphogenetic events.

Combating COVID-19 with tissue engineering: a review

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic triggered by SARS-CoV-2 emerged from Wuhan, China, firstly in December 2019, as well spread to almost all around the world rapidly. The main reason why this disease spreads so many people in a short time is that the virus could be transmitted from an infected person to another by infected droplets. The new emergence of diseases usually may affect multiple organs; moreover, this disease is such an example. Numerous reported studies focus on acute or chronic organ damage caused by the virus. At this point, tissue engineering (TE) strategies can be used to treat the damages with its interdisciplinary approaches. Tissue engineers could design drug delivery systems, scaffolds, and especially biomaterials for the damaged tissue and organs. In this review, brief information about SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, and epidemiology of the disease will be given at first. After that, the symptoms, the tissue damages in specific organs, and cytokine effect caused by COVID-19 will be described in detail. Finally, it will be attempted to summarize and suggest the appropriate treatments with suitable biomaterials for the damages via TE approaches. The aim of this review is to serve as a summary of currently available tissue damage treatments after COVID-19.

Building Scaffolds for Tubular Tissue Engineering

Hollow organs and tissue systems drive various functions in the body. Many of these hollow or tubular systems, such as vasculature, the intestines, and the trachea, are common targets for tissue engineering, given their relevance to numerous diseases and body functions. As the field of tissue engineering has developed, numerous benchtop models have been produced as platforms for basic science and drug testing. Production of tubular scaffolds for different tissue engineering applications possesses many commonalities, such as the necessity for producing an intact tubular opening and for formation of semi-permeable epithelia or endothelia. As such, the field has converged on a series of manufacturing techniques for producing these structures. In this review, we discuss some of the most common tissue engineered applications within the context of tubular tissues and the methods by which these structures can be produced. We provide an overview of the general structure and anatomy for these tissue systems along with a series of general design criteria for tubular tissue engineering. We categorize methods for manufacturing tubular scaffolds as follows: casting, electrospinning, rolling, 3D printing, and decellularization. We discuss state-of-the-art models within the context of vascular, intestinal, and tracheal tissue engineering. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the future for these fields.

Examining the Characteristics and Applications of Mesenchymal, Induced Pluripotent, and Embryonic Stem Cells for Tissue Engineering Approaches across the Germ Layers

The field of regenerative medicine utilizes a wide array of technologies and techniques for repairing and restoring function to damaged tissues. Among these, stem cells offer one of the most potent and promising biological tools to facilitate such goals. Implementation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and embryonic stem cells (ESCs) offer varying advantages based on availability and efficacy in the target tissue. The focus of this review is to discuss characteristics of these three subset stem cell populations and examine their utility in tissue engineering. In particular, the development of therapeutics that utilize cell-based approaches, divided by germinal layer to further assess research targeting specific tissues of the mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm. The combinatorial application of MSCs, iPSCs, and ESCs with natural and synthetic scaffold technologies can enhance the reparative capacity and survival of implanted cells. Continued efforts to generate more standardized approaches for these cells may provide improved study-to-study variations on implementation, thereby increasing the clinical translatability of cell-based therapeutics. Coupling clinically translatable research with commercially oriented methods offers the potential to drastically advance medical treatments for multiple diseases and injuries, improving the quality of life for many individuals.

Polycaprolactone: How a Well-Known and Futuristic Polymer Has Become an Innovative Collagen-Stimulator in Esthetics

Compared to other domains, tissue engineering and esthetics have dramatically expanded in recent years, leading to both major biomedical advances and futuristic perspectives. The two share a common approach based on biomaterials, especially polymers. This paper illustrates this with the example of polycaprolactone (PCL), a polymer synthesized in the early 1930s, and one of its most recent applications, a PCL-based collagen stimulator, a filler used in esthetics. PCL is biocompatible and biodegradable. Its specific physicochemical and mechanical properties, viscoelasticity and ease of shaping led to the production of PCL-based products with various shapes and durations dependent on its biodegradation kinetics. PCL has been safely used in the biomedical field for more than 70 years, from sutures to tissue and organ replacement by 3D printing. The PCL-based collagen stimulator is composed of PCL microspheres suspended in a carboxymethyl-cellulose gel carrier providing immediate and sustained volumizing effects when injected; the morphology, the biocompatibility of the PCL microspheres embedded with the collagen fibers produced all contribute to the creation of a unique 3D scaffold for a sustained effect. Its safety has been investigated in clinical studies and vigilance surveys. Recently published experts' recommendations on injection modalities and techniques should help further optimize treatment outcome and safety. This paper also integrates reviews and recommendations on the prevention and management of adverse events related to dermal and subdermal fillers including the PCL-based collagen stimulator. In addition, in terms of efficacy and safety, this product benefits from its daily clinical use in esthetics worldwide and continuous extensive fundamental and clinical research, both on it and the PCL polymer. Forthcoming data from further investigations will reinforce knowledge of the product and procedures in the field.

Naturally-Derived Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications

Naturally-derived biomaterials have been used for decades in multiple regenerative medicine applications. From the simplest cell microcarriers made of collagen or alginate, to highly complex decellularized whole-organ scaffolds, these biomaterials represent a class of substances that is usually first in choice at the time of electing a functional and useful biomaterial. Hence, in this chapter we describe the several naturally-derived biomaterials used in tissue engineering applications and their classification, based on composition. We will also describe some of the present uses of the generated tissues like drug discovery, developmental biology, bioprinting and transplantation.

A model of guided cell self-organization for rapid and spontaneous formation of functional vessels

Most achievements to engineer blood vessels are based on multiple-step manipulations such as manual sheet rolling or sequential cell seeding followed by scaffold degradation. Here, we propose a one-step strategy using a microfluidic coextrusion device to produce mature functional blood vessels. A hollow alginate hydrogel tube is internally coated with extracellular matrix to direct the self-assembly of a mixture of endothelial cells (ECs) and smooth muscle cells (SMCs). The resulting vascular structure has the correct configuration of lumen, an inner lining of ECs, and outer sheath of SMCs. These "vesseloids" reach homeostasis within a day and exhibit the following properties expected for functional vessels (i) quiescence, (ii) perfusability, and (iii) contractility in response to vasoconstrictor agents. Together, these findings provide an original and simple strategy to generate functional artificial vessels and pave the way for further developments in vascular graft and tissue engineering and for deciphering the angiogenesis process.

Improving cellular migration in tissue-engineered laryngeal scaffolds

OBJECTIVE

To modify the non-porous surface membrane of a tissue-engineered laryngeal scaffold to allow effective cell entry.

METHODS

The mechanical properties, surface topography and chemistry of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane poly(carbonate-urea) urethane were characterised. A laser technique introduced surface perforations. Micro computed tomography generated porosity data. Scaffolds were seeded with cells, investigated histologically and proliferation studied. Incubation and time effects were assessed.

RESULTS

Laser cutting perforated the polymer, connecting the substructure with the ex-scaffold environment and increasing porosity (porous, non-perforated = 87.9 per cent; porous, laser-perforated at intensities 3 = 96.4 per cent and 6 = 89.5 per cent). Cellular studies confirmed improved cell viability. Histology showed cells adherent to the scaffold surface and cells within perforations, and indicated that cells migrated into the scaffolds. After 15 days of incubation, scanning electron microscopy revealed an 11 per cent reduction in pore diameter, correlating with a decrease in Young's modulus.

CONCLUSION

Introducing surface perforations presents a viable method of improving polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane poly(carbonate-urea) urethane as a tissue-engineered scaffold.

Comparison of polyglycolic acid, polycaprolactone, and collagen as scaffolds for the production of tissue engineered intestine

Cell-seeded scaffolds play critical roles in the production of tissue engineered intestine (TEI), a potential strategy for the treatment of short bowel syndrome. The current study compares polyglycolic acid (PGA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and collagen as scaffolds for TEI production. Tubular PGA scaffolds were prepared from nonwoven BIOFELT^® . Tubular PCL scaffolds were fabricated by electrospinning. Tubular collagen scaffolds were prepared using CollaTape, a wound dressing material. Both PGA and collagen were coated with poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) to improve scaffold mechanical properties. Pore size, porosity, microstructure, mechanical properties (suture retention strength and ultimate compressive force) were determined. The scaffolds were first seeded with crypt stem cells isolated from 1 to 3 day old rat pups and then implanted into the peritoneal cavity of nude rats. After 4 weeks of in vivo incubation, these cell-seeded scaffolds were harvested for assessment of the TEI produced. Of the three materials compared, PLLA coated tubular PGA scaffolds had the appropriate pore size, mechanical properties and degradation rate leading to the production of TEI with an architecture similar to that of native rat intestine. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 107B: 750-760, 2019.

The Research of Acellular Pancreatic Bioscaffold as a Natural 3-Dimensional Platform In Vitro

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to investigate the biochemical and functional properties of a rat acellular pancreatic bioscaffolds (APBs).

METHODS

Fresh pancreata from 10 rats were soaked and perfused through portal veins using Easy-Load Digital Drive peristaltic pumps. The histological structure, extracellular matrix composition, and the DNA content of the APBs were evaluated. Biocompatibility studies had also been performed. The proliferation and differentiation of AR42J pancreatic acinar cells were assessed.

RESULTS

The pancreatic tissue became translucent after decellularization. There were no visible vascular endothelial cells, cellular components, or cracked cellular debris. The extracellular matrix components were not decreased after decellularization (P > 0.05); however, the DNA content was decreased significantly (P < 0.05). The subcutaneous implantation sites showed low immunological response and low cytotoxicity around the APB. The proliferation rate was higher and the apoptosis rate was lower when AR42J cells were cultured on APB (P < 0.05). The gene expression and the protein expression were higher for the APB group (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the biological utility of whole pancreas APBs as biomaterial scaffolds, which provides an improved approach for regenerative medicine.

Scutoids are a geometrical solution to three-dimensional packing of epithelia

As animals develop, tissue bending contributes to shape the organs into complex three-dimensional structures. However, the architecture and packing of curved epithelia remains largely unknown. Here we show by means of mathematical modelling that cells in bent epithelia can undergo intercalations along the apico-basal axis. This phenomenon forces cells to have different neighbours in their basal and apical surfaces. As a consequence, epithelial cells adopt a novel shape that we term "scutoid". The detailed analysis of diverse tissues confirms that generation of apico-basal intercalations between cells is a common feature during morphogenesis. Using biophysical arguments, we propose that scutoids make possible the minimization of the tissue energy and stabilize three-dimensional packing. Hence, we conclude that scutoids are one of nature's solutions to achieve epithelial bending. Our findings pave the way to understand the three-dimensional organization of epithelial organs.

Folding artificial mucosa with cell-laden hydrogels guided by mechanics models

The surfaces of many hollow or tubular tissues/organs in our respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts are covered by mucosa with folded patterns. The patterns are induced by mechanical instability of the mucosa under compression due to constrained growth. Recapitulating this folding process in vitro will facilitate the understanding and engineering of mucosa in various tissues/organs. However, scant attention has been paid to address the challenge of reproducing mucosal folding. Here we mimic the mucosal folding process using a cell-laden hydrogel film attached to a prestretched tough-hydrogel substrate. The cell-laden hydrogel constitutes a human epithelial cell lining on stromal component to recapitulate the physiological feature of a mucosa. Relaxation of the prestretched tough-hydrogel substrate applies compressive strains on the cell-laden hydrogel film, which undergoes mechanical instability and evolves into morphological patterns. We predict the conditions for mucosal folding as well as the morphology of and strain in the folded artificial mucosa using a combination of theory and simulation. The work not only provides a simple method to fold artificial mucosa but also demonstrates a paradigm in tissue engineering via harnessing mechanical instabilities guided by quantitative mechanics models.

Tubular collagen scaffolds with radial elasticity for hollow organ regeneration

Tubular collagen scaffolds have been used for the repair of damaged hollow organs in regenerative medicine, but they generally lack the ability to reversibly expand in radial direction, a physiological characteristic seen in many native tubular organs. In this study, tubular collagen scaffolds were prepared that display a shape recovery effect and therefore exhibit radial elasticity. Scaffolds were constructed by compression of fibrillar collagen around a star-shaped mandrel, mimicking folds in a lumen, a typical characteristic of empty tubular hollow organs, such as ureter or urethra. Shape recovery effect was introduced by in situ fixation using a star-shaped mandrel, 3D-printed clamps and cytocompatible carbodiimide crosslinking. Prepared scaffolds expanded upon increase of luminal pressure and closed to the star-shaped conformation after removal of pressure. In this study, we applied this method to construct a scaffold mimicking the dynamics of human urethra. Radial expansion and closure of the scaffold could be iteratively performed for at least 1000 cycles, burst pressure being 132±22mmHg. Scaffolds were seeded with human epithelial cells and cultured in a bioreactor under dynamic conditions mimicking urination (pulse flow of 21s every 2h). Cells adhered and formed a closed luminal layer that resisted flow conditions. In conclusion, a new type of a tubular collagen scaffold has been constructed with radial elastic-like characteristics based on the shape of the scaffold, and enabling the scaffold to reversibly expand upon increase in luminal pressure. These scaffolds may be useful for regenerative medicine of tubular organs.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

In this paper, a new type I collagen-based tubular scaffold is presented that possesses intrinsic radial elasticity. This characteristic is key to the functioning of a number of tubular organs including blood vessels and organs of the gastrointestinal and urogenital tract. The scaffold was given a star-shaped lumen by physical compression and chemical crosslinking, mimicking the folding pattern observed in many tubular organs. In rest, the lumen is closed but it opens upon increase of luminal pressure, e.g. when fluids pass. Human epithelial cells seeded on the luminal side adhered well and were compatible with voiding dynamics in a bioreactor. Collagen scaffolds with radial elasticity may be useful in the regeneration of dynamic tubular organs.