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Martin-Rodriguez S, Gonzalez-Henriquez JJ, Diaz-Conde JC, Calbet JAL, Sanchis-Moysi J. The relationship between muscle thickness and pennation angle is mediated by fascicle length in the muscles of the lower extremities. Sci Rep 2024; 14:14847. [PMID: 38937524 PMCID: PMC11211461 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65100-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Muscle morphological architecture, a crucial determinant of muscle function, has fascinated researchers since the Renaissance. Imaging techniques enable the assessment of parameters such as muscle thickness (MT), pennation angle (PA), and fascicle length (FL), which may vary with growth, sex, and physical activity. Despite known interrelationships, robust mathematical models like causal mediation analysis have not been extensively applied to large population samples. We recruited 109 males and females, measuring knee flexor and extensor, and plantar flexor MT, PA, and FL using real-time ultrasound imaging at rest. A mixed-effects model explored sex, leg (dominant vs. non-dominant), and muscle region differences. Males exhibited greater MT in all muscles (0.1 to 2.1 cm, p < 0.01), with no sex differences in FL. Dominant legs showed greater rectus femoris (RF) MT (0.1 cm, p = 0.01) and PA (1.5°, p = 0.01), while vastus lateralis (VL) had greater FL (1.2 cm, p < 0.001) and PA (0.6°, p = 0.02). Regional differences were observed in VL, RF, and biceps femoris long head (BFlh). Causal mediation analyses highlighted MT's influence on PA, mediated by FL. Moderated mediation occurred in BFlh, with FL differences. Gastrocnemius medialis and lateralis exhibited FL-mediated MT and PA relationships. This study unveils the intricate interplay of MT, FL, and PA in muscle architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saul Martin-Rodriguez
- Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - Juan Jose Gonzalez-Henriquez
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
- Department of Mathematics, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Diaz-Conde
- Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Jose A L Calbet
- Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
- Department of Physical Performance, The Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Postboks, 4014 Ulleval Stadion, 0806, Oslo, Norway
| | - Joaquin Sanchis-Moysi
- Department of Physical Education, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS), 35017, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain.
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Martin‐Rodriguez S, Gonzalez‐Henriquez JJ, Galvan‐Alvarez V, Cruz‐Ramírez S, Calbet JA, Sanchis‐Moysi J. Architectural anatomy of the human tibialis anterior presents morphological asymmetries between superficial and deep unipennate regions. J Anat 2023; 243:664-673. [PMID: 36999195 PMCID: PMC10485583 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The tibialis anterior muscle plays a critical role in human ambulation and contributes to maintaining the upright posture. However, little is known about its muscle architecture in males and females. One hundred and nine physically active males and females were recruited. Tibialis anterior muscle thickness, pennation angle, and fascicle length were measured at rest in both unipennate regions of both legs using real-time ultrasound imaging. A linear mixed model was used with muscle thickness, pennation angle, or fascicle length as the dependent variables. All models were carried out with and without total leg lean mass and shank length as covariates. Causal mediation analysis was computed to explore the effect of muscle thickness on the relationship between fascicle length and pennation angle. There were no significant differences between dominant and nondominant legs regarding muscle architecture. Muscle thickness and pennation angle were greater in the deep than the superficial unipennate region in males (1.9 mm and 1.1°, p < 0.001) and women (3.4 mm and 2.2°, p < 0.001). However, the fascicle length was similar in both regions for both sexes. The differences remained significant after accounting for differences in leg lean mass and shank length. In both regions, muscle thickness was 1-3 mm greater in males and superficial pennation angle 2° smaller in females (both, p < 0.001). After accounting for leg lean mass and shank length, sex differences remained for muscle thickness (1.6 mm, p < 0.05) and pennation angle (3.4°, p < 0.001) but only in the superficial region. In both regions, leg lean mass and shank-adjusted fascicle length were 1.4 mm longer in females than males (p < 0.05). The causal mediation analysis revealed that the estimation of fascicle length was positive, suggesting that a 10% increase in muscle thickness would augment the fascicle length, allowing a 0.38° pennation angle decrease. Moreover, the pennation angle increases in total by 0.54° due to the suppressive effect of the increase in fascicle length. The estimated mediation, direct, and total effects were all significantly different from zero (p < 0.001). Overall, our results indicate that the architectural anatomy of the tibialis anterior shows sexual dimorphism in humans. Tibialis anterior presents morphological asymmetries between superficial and deep unipennate regions in both sexes. Lastly, our causal mediation model identified a suppressive effect of fascicle length on the pennation angle, suggesting that increments in muscle thickness are not always aligned with increments in fascicle length or the pennation angle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saúl Martin‐Rodriguez
- Department of Physical EducationUniversity of Las Palmas de Gran CanariaLas Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS)Las Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
| | - Juan Jose Gonzalez‐Henriquez
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS)Las Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
- Department of MathematicsUniversity of Las Palmas de Gran CanariaLas Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
| | - Victor Galvan‐Alvarez
- Department of Physical EducationUniversity of Las Palmas de Gran CanariaLas Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS)Las Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
| | - Sara Cruz‐Ramírez
- Department of Physical EducationUniversity of Las Palmas de Gran CanariaLas Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
| | - José A. Calbet
- Department of Physical EducationUniversity of Las Palmas de Gran CanariaLas Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS)Las Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
- Department of Physical PerformanceThe Norwegian School of Sport SciencesOsloNorway
| | - Joaquín Sanchis‐Moysi
- Department of Physical EducationUniversity of Las Palmas de Gran CanariaLas Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
- Research Institute of Biomedical and Health Sciences (IUIBS)Las Palmas de Gran CanariaSpain
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Højfeldt G, Sorenson T, Gonzales A, Kjaer M, Andersen JL, Mackey AL. Fusion of myofibre branches is a physiological feature of healthy human skeletal muscle regeneration. Skelet Muscle 2023; 13:13. [PMID: 37573332 PMCID: PMC10422711 DOI: 10.1186/s13395-023-00322-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The occurrence of hyperplasia, through myofibre splitting, remains a widely debated phenomenon. Structural alterations and fibre typing of skeletal muscle fibres, as seen during regeneration and in certain muscle diseases, can be challenging to interpret. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation can induce myofibre necrosis followed by changes in spatial and temporal cellular processes. Thirty days following electrical stimulation, remnants of regeneration can be seen in the myofibre and its basement membrane as the presence of small myofibres and encroachment of sarcolemma and basement membrane (suggestive of myofibre branching/splitting). The purpose of this study was to investigate myofibre branching and fibre type in a systematic manner in human skeletal muscle undergoing adult regenerative myogenesis. METHODS Electrical stimulation was used to induce myofibre necrosis to the vastus lateralis muscle of one leg in 5 young healthy males. Muscle tissue samples were collected from the stimulated leg 30 days later and from the control leg for comparison. Biopsies were sectioned and stained for dystrophin and laminin to label the sarcolemma and basement membrane, respectively, as well as ATPase, and antibodies against types I and II myosin, and embryonic and neonatal myosin. Myofibre branches were followed through 22 serial Sects. (264 μm). Single fibres and tissue blocks were examined by confocal and electron microscopy, respectively. RESULTS Regular branching of small myofibre segments was observed (median length 144 μm), most of which were observed to fuse further along the parent fibre. Central nuclei were frequently observed at the point of branching/fusion. The branch commonly presented with a more immature profile (nestin + , neonatal myosin + , disorganised myofilaments) than the parent myofibre, together suggesting fusion of the branch, rather than splitting. Of the 210 regenerating muscle fibres evaluated, 99.5% were type II fibres, indicating preferential damage to type II fibres with our protocol. Furthermore, these fibres demonstrated 7 different stages of "fibre-type" profiles. CONCLUSIONS By studying the regenerating tissue 30 days later with a range of microscopy techniques, we find that so-called myofibre branching or splitting is more likely to be fusion of myotubes and is therefore explained by incomplete regeneration after a necrosis-inducing event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grith Højfeldt
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Nielsine Nielsens Vej 11, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark.
| | - Trent Sorenson
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Nielsine Nielsens Vej 11, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
| | - Alana Gonzales
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Nielsine Nielsens Vej 11, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
| | - Michael Kjaer
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Nielsine Nielsens Vej 11, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Belgdamsvej 9, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Jesper L Andersen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Nielsine Nielsens Vej 11, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Belgdamsvej 9, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Abigail L Mackey
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Institute of Sports Medicine Copenhagen, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Nielsine Nielsens Vej 11, 2400, Copenhagen, NV, Denmark.
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Belgdamsvej 9, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark.
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Panidi I, Donti O, Konrad A, Dinas PC, Terzis G, Mouratidis A, Gaspari V, Donti A, Bogdanis GC. Muscle Architecture Adaptations to Static Stretching Training: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2023; 9:47. [PMID: 37318696 PMCID: PMC10271914 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-023-00591-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Long-term stretching of human skeletal muscles increases joint range of motion through altered stretch perception and decreased resistance to stretch. There is also some evidence that stretching induces changes in muscle morphology. However, research is limited and inconclusive. OBJECTIVE To examine the effect of static stretching training on muscle architecture (i.e., fascicle length and fascicle angle, muscle thickness and cross-sectional area) in healthy participants. DESIGN Systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS PubMed Central, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus were searched. Randomized controlled trials and controlled trials without randomization were included. No restrictions on language or date of publication were applied. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane RoB2 and ROBINS-I tools. Subgroup analyses and random-effects meta-regressions were also performed using total stretching volume and intensity as covariates. Quality of evidence was determined by GRADE analysis. RESULTS From the 2946 records retrieved, 19 studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis (n = 467 participants). Risk of bias was low in 83.9% of all criteria. Confidence in cumulative evidence was high. Stretching training induces trivial increases in fascicle length at rest (SMD = 0.17; 95% CI 0.01-0.33; p = 0.042) and small increases in fascicle length during stretching (SMD = 0.39; 95% CI 0.05 to 0.74; p = 0.026). No increases were observed in fascicle angle or muscle thickness (p = 0.30 and p = 0.18, respectively). Subgroup analyses showed that fascicle length increased when high stretching volumes were used (p < 0.004), while no changes were found for low stretching volumes (p = 0.60; subgroup difference: p = 0.025). High stretching intensities induced fascicle length increases (p < 0.006), while low stretching intensities did not have an effect (p = 0.72; subgroup difference: p = 0.042). Also, high intensity stretching resulted in increased muscle thickness (p = 0.021). Meta-regression analyses showed that longitudinal fascicle growth was positively associated with stretching volume (p < 0.02) and intensity (p < 0.04). CONCLUSIONS Static stretching training increases fascicle length at rest and during stretching in healthy participants. High, but not low, stretching volumes and intensities induce longitudinal fascicle growth, while high stretching intensities result in increased muscle thickness. REGISTRATION PROSPERO, registration number: CRD42021289884.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioli Panidi
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dafne, Greece
| | - Olyvia Donti
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dafne, Greece
| | - Andreas Konrad
- Institute of Human Movement Science, Sport and Health, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Petros C Dinas
- FAME Laboratory, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, Trikala, Greece
| | - Gerasimos Terzis
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dafne, Greece
| | - Athanasios Mouratidis
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dafne, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Gaspari
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dafne, Greece
| | - Anastasia Donti
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dafne, Greece
| | - Gregory C Bogdanis
- School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Dafne, Greece.
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Ottinger CR, Sharp MH, Stefan MW, Gheith RH, de la Espriella F, Wilson JM. Muscle Hypertrophy Response to Range of Motion in Strength Training: A Novel Approach to Understanding the Findings. Strength Cond J 2022. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Hinks A, Franchi MV, Power GA. The influence of longitudinal muscle fascicle growth on mechanical function. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2022; 133:87-103. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00114.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle has the remarkable ability to remodel and adapt, such as the increase in serial sarcomere number (SSN) or fascicle length (FL) observed after overstretching a muscle. This type of remodelling is termed longitudinal muscle fascicle growth, and its impact on biomechanical function has been of interest since the 1960s due to its clinical applications in muscle strain injury, muscle spasticity, and sarcopenia. Despite simplified hypotheses on how longitudinal muscle fascicle growth might influence mechanical function, existing literature presents conflicting results partly due to a breadth of methodologies. The purpose of this review is to outline what is currently known about the influence of longitudinal muscle fascicle growth on mechanical function and suggest future directions to address current knowledge gaps and methodological limitations. Various interventions indicate longitudinal muscle fascicle growth can increase the optimal muscle length for active force, but whether the whole force-length relationship widens has been less investigated. Future research should also explore the ability for longitudinal fascicle growth to broaden the torque-angle relationship's plateau region, and the relation to increased force during shortening. Without a concurrent increase in intramuscular collagen, longitudinal muscle fascicle growth also reduces passive tension at long muscle lengths; further research is required to understand whether this translates to increased joint range of motion. Lastly, some evidence suggests longitudinal fascicle growth can increase maximum shortening velocity and peak isotonic power, however, there has yet to be direct assessment of these measures in a neurologically intact model of longitudinal muscle fascicle growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Hinks
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Martino V. Franchi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences,, University of Padua, Padova, Veneto, Italy
| | - Geoffrey A. Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Ramírez-delaCruz M, Bravo-Sánchez A, Esteban-García P, Jiménez F, Abián-Vicén J. Effects of Plyometric Training on Lower Body Muscle Architecture, Tendon Structure, Stiffness and Physical Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:40. [PMID: 35312884 PMCID: PMC8938535 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00431-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plyometric training (PT) has been widely studied in sport science. However, there is no review that determines the impact of PT on the structural variables and mechanical properties of the lower limbs and physical performance. OBJECTIVE The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to determine the effects of PT on lower body muscle architecture, tendon structure, stiffness and physical performance. METHODS Five electronic databases were analysed. The inclusion criteria were: (1) Availability in English; (2) Experimental studies that included a PT of at least eight sessions; and (3) Healthy adults subjects. Four meta-analyses were performed using Review Manager software: (1) muscle architecture; (2) tendon structure; (3) muscle and tendon stiffness; (4) physical performance. RESULTS From 1008 search records, 32 studies were eligible for meta-analysis. Muscle architecture meta-analysis found a moderate effect of PT on muscle thickness (Standard Mean Difference (SMD): 0.59; [95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.47, 0.71]) and fascicle length (SMD: 0.51; [95% CI 0.26, 0.76]), and a small effect of PT on pennation angle (SMD: 0.29; [95% CI 0.02, 0.57]). The meta-analysis found a moderate effect of PT on tendon stiffness (SMD: 0.55; [95% CI 0.28, 0.82]). The lower body physical performance meta-analysis found a moderate effect of PT on jumping (SMD: 0.61; [95% CI 0.47, 0.74]) and strength (SMD: 0.57; [95% CI 0.42, 0.73]). CONCLUSION PT increased the thickness, pennation angle and fascicle length of the evaluated muscles. In addition, plyometrics is an effective tool for increasing tendon stiffness and improving jump and strength performance of the lower body.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Ramírez-delaCruz
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. Carlos III S/N, 45071, Toledo, Spain
| | - Alfredo Bravo-Sánchez
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. Carlos III S/N, 45071, Toledo, Spain
| | - Paula Esteban-García
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. Carlos III S/N, 45071, Toledo, Spain
| | - Fernando Jiménez
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. Carlos III S/N, 45071, Toledo, Spain
| | - Javier Abián-Vicén
- Performance and Sport Rehabilitation Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. Carlos III S/N, 45071, Toledo, Spain.
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Zhu WG, Hibbert JE, Lin KH, Steinert ND, Lemens JL, Jorgenson KW, Newman SM, Lamming DW, Hornberger TA. Weight Pulling: A Novel Mouse Model of Human Progressive Resistance Exercise. Cells 2021; 10:cells10092459. [PMID: 34572107 PMCID: PMC8465477 DOI: 10.3390/cells10092459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study describes a mouse model of progressive resistance exercise that utilizes a full-body/multi-joint exercise (weight pulling) along with a training protocol that mimics a traditional human paradigm (three training sessions per week, ~8–12 repetitions per set, 2 min of rest between sets, approximately two maximal-intensity sets per session, last set taken to failure, and a progressive increase in loading that is based on the individual’s performance). We demonstrate that weight pulling can induce an increase in the mass of numerous muscles throughout the body. The relative increase in muscle mass is similar to what has been observed in human studies, and is associated with the same type of long-term adaptations that occur in humans (e.g., fiber hypertrophy, myonuclear accretion, and, in some instances, a fast-to-slow transition in Type II fiber composition). Moreover, we demonstrate that weight pulling can induce the same type of acute responses that are thought to drive these long-term adaptations (e.g., the activation of signaling through mTORC1 and the induction of protein synthesis at 1 h post-exercise). Collectively, the results of this study indicate that weight pulling can serve as a highly translatable mouse model of progressive resistance exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyuan G. Zhu
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (W.G.Z.); (J.E.H.); (K.H.L.); (N.D.S.); (J.L.L.); (K.W.J.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jamie E. Hibbert
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (W.G.Z.); (J.E.H.); (K.H.L.); (N.D.S.); (J.L.L.); (K.W.J.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Kuan Hung Lin
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (W.G.Z.); (J.E.H.); (K.H.L.); (N.D.S.); (J.L.L.); (K.W.J.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Nathaniel D. Steinert
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (W.G.Z.); (J.E.H.); (K.H.L.); (N.D.S.); (J.L.L.); (K.W.J.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jake L. Lemens
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (W.G.Z.); (J.E.H.); (K.H.L.); (N.D.S.); (J.L.L.); (K.W.J.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Kent W. Jorgenson
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (W.G.Z.); (J.E.H.); (K.H.L.); (N.D.S.); (J.L.L.); (K.W.J.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Sarah M. Newman
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (S.M.N.); (D.W.L.)
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Dudley W. Lamming
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA; (S.M.N.); (D.W.L.)
- William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Troy A. Hornberger
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (W.G.Z.); (J.E.H.); (K.H.L.); (N.D.S.); (J.L.L.); (K.W.J.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
- Correspondence:
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Varanoske AN, Coker NA, Johnson BADI, Belity T, Wells AJ. Influence of muscle depth and thickness on ultrasound echo intensity of the vastus lateralis. Acta Radiol 2021; 62:1178-1187. [PMID: 32996322 DOI: 10.1177/0284185120958405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultrasonography is used to evaluate muscle quality (i.e. echo intensity [EI]), but an attenuation of ultrasound waves occurs in deeper tissues, potentially affecting these measures. PURPOSE To determine whether muscle thickness (MT) affects EI and if EI varies between the superficial and deep portions of the muscle. MATERIALS AND METHODS MT, EI, subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness (SAT), tissue depth (DISDEEP), and EI of the overall (EIFULL) as well as deep (EIDEEP) and superficial (EISUPF) portions of the vastus lateralis (VL) were assessed in 33 resistance-trained males using ultrasonography. The difference (EIDIFF) between EISUPF and EIDEEP was calculated. Mean differences between EIFULL, EISUPF, and EIDEEP were analyzed using a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Relationships between measures of muscle depth/ thickness and EI were examined using Pearson's r. RESULTS EISUPF was greater than EIDEEP (P < 0.001) and EIFULL (P < 0.001). MT was negatively correlated with EIFULL (P < 0.001) and positively correlated with EIDIFF (P < 0.001). SAT was not correlated with any EI measure, but DISDEEP was positively correlated with EIDIFF (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION EI of the VL is heterogeneous, as the deeper portion produces lower values than the superficial portion. Thicker muscles present lower EI but have greater discrepancies in EI between the superficial and deep portions. Although SAT was not correlated with EI, DISDEEP was related to EIDIFF, demonstrating that the combination of MT and SAT should be considered when evaluating muscle quality. Future research is necessary to determine if changes in EI following resistance training are driven by increases in MT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa N Varanoske
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Nicholas A Coker
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Bri-Ana DI Johnson
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Tal Belity
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Adam J Wells
- Institute of Exercise Physiology and Rehabilitation Science, Division of Kinesiology, College of Health Professions and Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Naimo MA, Varanoske AN, Hughes JM, Pasiakos SM. Skeletal Muscle Quality: A Biomarker for Assessing Physical Performance Capabilities in Young Populations. Front Physiol 2021; 12:706699. [PMID: 34421645 PMCID: PMC8376973 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.706699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle quality (MQ), defined as the amount of strength and/or power per unit of muscle mass, is a novel index of functional capacity that is increasingly relied upon as a critical biomarker of muscle health in low functioning aging and pathophysiological adult populations. Understanding the phenotypical attributes of MQ and how to use it as an assessment tool to explore the efficacy of resistance exercise training interventions that prioritize functional enhancement over increases in muscle size may have implications for populations beyond compromised adults, including healthy young adults who routinely perform physically demanding tasks for competitive or occupational purposes. However, MQ has received far less attention in healthy young populations than it has in compromised adults. Researchers and practitioners continue to rely upon static measures of lean mass or isolated measures of strength and power, rather than using MQ, to assess integrated functional responses to resistance exercise training and physical stress. Therefore, this review will critically examine MQ and the evidence base to establish this metric as a practical and important biomarker for functional capacity and performance in healthy, young populations. Interventions that enhance MQ, such as high-intensity stretch shortening contraction resistance exercise training, will be highlighted. Finally, we will explore the potential to leverage MQ as a practical assessment tool to evaluate function and enhance performance in young populations in non-traditional research settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marshall A Naimo
- Military Performance Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA, United States
| | - Alyssa N Varanoske
- Military Nutrition Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA, United States.,Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN, United States
| | - Julie M Hughes
- Military Performance Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA, United States
| | - Stefan M Pasiakos
- Military Nutrition Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA, United States
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11
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Quinlan JI, Franchi MV, Gharahdaghi N, Badiali F, Francis S, Hale A, Phillips BE, Szewczyk N, Greenhaff PL, Smith K, Maganaris C, Atherton PJ, Narici MV. Muscle and tendon adaptations to moderate load eccentric vs. concentric resistance exercise in young and older males. GeroScience 2021; 43:1567-1584. [PMID: 34196903 PMCID: PMC8492846 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-021-00396-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance exercise training (RET) is well-known to counteract negative age-related changes in both muscle and tendon tissue. Traditional RET consists of both concentric (CON) and eccentric (ECC) contractions; nevertheless, isolated ECC contractions are metabolically less demanding and, thus, may be more suitable for older populations. However, whether submaximal (60% 1RM) CON or ECC contractions differ in their effectiveness is relatively unknown. Further, whether the time course of muscle and tendon adaptations differs to the above is also unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to establish the time course of muscle and tendon adaptations to submaximal CON and ECC RET. Twenty healthy young (24.5 ± 5.1 years) and 17 older males (68.1 ± 2.4 years) were randomly allocated to either isolated CON or ECC RET which took place 3/week for 8 weeks. Tendon biomechanical properties, muscle architecture and maximal voluntary contraction were assessed every 2 weeks and quadriceps muscle volume every 4 weeks. Positive changes in tendon Young's modulus were observed after 4 weeks in all groups after which adaptations in young males plateaued but continued to increase in older males, suggesting a dampened rate of adaptation with age. However, both CON and ECC resulted in similar overall changes in tendon Young's modulus, in all groups. Muscle hypertrophy and strength increases were similar between CON and ECC in all groups. However, pennation angle increases were greater in CON, and fascicle length changes were greater in ECC. Notably, muscle and tendon adaptations appeared to occur in synergy, presumably to maintain the efficacy of the muscle-tendon unit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Iain Quinlan
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.,National Institute for Health Research, Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre At University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK.,MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Martino Vladimiro Franchi
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Nima Gharahdaghi
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Francesca Badiali
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Susan Francis
- Sir Peter Mansfield Magnetic Resonance Centre, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Andrew Hale
- Sir Peter Mansfield Magnetic Resonance Centre, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Bethan Eileen Phillips
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Nathaniel Szewczyk
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK.,Ohio Musculoskeletal and Neurological Institute (OMNI) and Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 43147, USA
| | - Paul Leonard Greenhaff
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Kenneth Smith
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | | | - Phillip James Atherton
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK
| | - Marco Vincenzo Narici
- MRC Versus Arthritis Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham's Royal Derby Hospital Centre, Nottingham, UK. .,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy. .,CIR-MYO Myology Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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12
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M. Biceps Femoris Long Head Architecture and Sprint Ability in Youth Soccer Players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1616-1624. [PMID: 33952715 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Hamstring muscle architecture may be associated with sprint performance and the risk of sustaining a muscle injury, both of which increase during puberty. In this study, we investigated the m. biceps femoris long head (BFlh) cross-sectional area (ACSA), fascicle length (FL) and pennation angle (PA), and sprint performance as well as their relationship in under 13 to 15 youth soccer players. METHODS We measured 85 players in under-13 (n = 29, age = 12.5 [0.1] y, height = 155.3 [6.2] cm, weight = 43.9 [7.6] kg), under-14 (n = 25, age = 13.5 [0.3] y, height = 160.6 [7.7] cm, weight = 47.0 [6.8] kg), and under-15 (n = 31, age = 14.4 [0.3] y, height = 170.0 [7.7] cm, weight = 58.1 [8.8] kg) teams. We used ultrasound to measure BFlh ACSA, FL and PA, and sprint tests to assess 10- and 30-m sprint time, maximal velocity (vmax), and maximal acceleration (αmax). We calculated Pearson r to assess the relationship between sprint ability and architectural parameters. RESULTS All muscle architectural parameters increased from the under-13 to the under-15 age group (BFlh ACSA = 37%, BFlh FL = 11%, BFlh PA = 8%). All sprint performance parameters improved from the under-13 to under-15 age categories (30-m time = 7%, 10-m time = 4%, vmax = 9%, αmax = 7%). The BFlh ACSA was correlated with 30-m sprint time (r = -.61 (95% compatibility interval [CI] [-.73, -.45]) and vmax (r = .61, 95% CI [.45, .72]). A combination of BFlh ACSA and age best predicted 30-m time (R² = .47 [.33, .62]) and 10-m time (R² = .23 [.08, .38]). CONCLUSIONS Muscle architectural as well as sprint performance parameters increase from the under-13 to under-15 age groups. Even though we found correlations for all assessed architectural parameters, BFlh ACSA was best related to the assessed sprint parameters.
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13
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Lee HJ, Lee KW, Takeshi K, Lee YW, Kim HJ. Correlation analysis between lower limb muscle architectures and cycling power via ultrasonography. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5362. [PMID: 33686180 PMCID: PMC7940634 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84870-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary purpose was to examine the relationship between the muscle architectural characteristics of short and long-distance cyclist—including muscle thickness, fascicle angle, and fascicle length—of the anterior thigh and posterior leg and its impact in 20-s cycling power. The secondary purpose was to clarify the muscle variables that predict the cycling power by using ultrasonography to measure the muscle architectural characteristics. Twenty-four varsity cyclists participated in this study, of whom 12 were short-distance cyclists and 12 were long-distance cyclists. B-mode ultrasonography was used to measure muscle architecture parameters. A cycle ergometer was used to measure the cycling power. The rectus femoris, vastus medialis, and medial head of gastrocnemius were significantly thicker in short-distance cyclists than in long-distance cyclists at every site (p < 0.05). Our analysis revealed that the rectus femoris fascicle length at the 30% level of the thigh was a significant independent predictor of the 20-s cycling power in short-distance cyclists, while the rectus femoris fascicle angle at the 50% level was that of the 20-s cycling power in long-distance cyclists. These findings highlight the significance of rectus femoris muscle architecture to cycling power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung-Jin Lee
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Room 6 01, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang-Woo Lee
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Room 6 01, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Kurokawa Takeshi
- National Institute of Fitness & Sports in KANOYA (Coaching of Sports and Budo), 1, Shiromizucho, Kanoya City, Kagoshima Pre., 891-2311, Japan
| | - Yong-Woo Lee
- Department of Physical Education, College of Sports Science, Korea National Sport University, Yangjaedaero 1239, Songpa-gu, Seoul, 05541, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Jin Kim
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Room 6 01, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.
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14
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Nicholson G, Walker J, Dawson Z, Bissas A, Harris N. Morphological and functional outcomes of operatively treated Achilles tendon ruptures. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2020; 48:290-297. [PMID: 31662010 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2019.1685364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Objectives: Achilles tendon rupture leads to functional impairments and these may be underpinned by morphological changes in the muscle-tendon unit. The functional performance of the injured limb will be impaired regardless of time since surgery and these impairments occur alongside changes in muscle-tendon morphology. Methods: Following operative treatment of Achilles tendon rupture and short-term immobilization, 12 patients completed a battery of tests during a single visit to the laboratory (performed an average of 4.4 ± 2.6 years post-surgery). Patients completed the Achilles' tendon rupture score (ATRS), tests of the ankle and hip range of motion (ROM) and ultrasound measurements of muscle-tendon architecture. Data on isokinetic (30°/s, 60°/s) plantar flexion strength, jumping performance and walking-running were also collected on the same visit. Percentage deficits were expressed relative to the non-injured limb and determined for statistical significance (p < 0.05). Relationships between outcome measures and time since surgery were tested using Pearson's correlation coefficients (p < 0.05). Results: The repaired limb showed a shorter muscle fascicle length (12.1-19.6%), increased fascicle pennation (18.0 ± 22.14%) and reduced muscle thickness (9.1-20.1%) in the gastrocnemius and/or soleus along with greater tendon cross-sectional area (46.7 ± 34.47%). Functionally, the repaired limb displayed lower countermovement jump height (-12.6 ± 15.68%) and longer drop jump contact times (5.5 ± 5.7%). Also, the repaired limb showed reduced hip internal-external ROM (6.3 ± 8.2%) but no differences existed between limbs for plantar flexion ROM and strength or gait characteristics. Good ATRS outcomes were reported (mean: 87.9 ± 16.2, range: 43-100) which related to time since surgery (r = 0.79) but individual ATRS items did not correlate with corresponding objective measures. Conclusion: Plantar flexor atrophy following surgically treated Achilles tendon rupture is partially compensated for by remodeling of the fascicles; however, impairments may still persist many years into the postoperative period although these may be more pronounced in high-velocity activities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Josh Walker
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University , Leeds, UK
| | - Zoe Dawson
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University , Leeds, UK
| | | | - Nick Harris
- Carnegie School of Sport, Leeds Beckett University , Leeds, UK
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15
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Jorgenson KW, Phillips SM, Hornberger TA. Identifying the Structural Adaptations that Drive the Mechanical Load-Induced Growth of Skeletal Muscle: A Scoping Review. Cells 2020; 9:cells9071658. [PMID: 32660165 PMCID: PMC7408414 DOI: 10.3390/cells9071658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The maintenance of skeletal muscle mass plays a critical role in health and quality of life. One of the most potent regulators of skeletal muscle mass is mechanical loading, and numerous studies have led to a reasonably clear understanding of the macroscopic and microscopic changes that occur when the mechanical environment is altered. For instance, an increase in mechanical loading induces a growth response that is mediated, at least in part, by an increase in the cross-sectional area of the myofibers (i.e., myofiber hypertrophy). However, very little is known about the ultrastructural adaptations that drive this response. Even the most basic questions, such as whether mechanical load-induced myofiber hypertrophy is mediated by an increase in the size of the pre-existing myofibrils and/or an increase in the number myofibrils, have not been resolved. In this review, we thoroughly summarize what is currently known about the macroscopic, microscopic and ultrastructural changes that drive mechanical load-induced growth and highlight the critical gaps in knowledge that need to be filled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kent W. Jorgenson
- School of Veterinary Medicine and the Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
| | - Stuart M. Phillips
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada;
| | - Troy A. Hornberger
- School of Veterinary Medicine and the Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
- Correspondence:
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16
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Jorgenson KW, Hornberger TA. The Overlooked Role of Fiber Length in Mechanical Load-Induced Growth of Skeletal Muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2020; 47:258-259. [PMID: 31524787 DOI: 10.1249/jes.0000000000000198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kent W Jorgenson
- School of Veterinary Medicine and the Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
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17
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Nunes JP, Schoenfeld BJ, Nakamura M, Ribeiro AS, Cunha PM, Cyrino ES. Does stretch training induce muscle hypertrophy in humans? A review of the literature. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 2020; 40:148-156. [DOI: 10.1111/cpf.12622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2018] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- João Pedro Nunes
- Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory Physical Education and Sport Center Londrina State University Londrina Brazil
| | | | - Masatoshi Nakamura
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences Niigata University of Health and Welfare Niigata Japan
| | - Alex S. Ribeiro
- Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory Physical Education and Sport Center Londrina State University Londrina Brazil
- Center for Research in Health Sciences University of Northern Paraná Londrina Brazil
| | - Paolo M. Cunha
- Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory Physical Education and Sport Center Londrina State University Londrina Brazil
| | - Edilson S. Cyrino
- Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory Physical Education and Sport Center Londrina State University Londrina Brazil
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18
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Maden-Wilkinson TM, Balshaw TG, Massey GJ, Folland JP. What makes long-term resistance-trained individuals so strong? A comparison of skeletal muscle morphology, architecture, and joint mechanics. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2019; 128:1000-1011. [PMID: 31873069 PMCID: PMC7191505 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00224.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The greater muscular strength of long-term resistance-trained (LTT) individuals is often attributed to hypertrophy, but the role of other factors, notably maximum voluntary specific tension (ST), muscle architecture, and any differences in joint mechanics (moment arm), have not been documented. The aim of the present study was to examine the musculoskeletal factors that might explain the greater quadriceps strength and size of LTT vs. untrained (UT) individuals. LTT (n = 16, age 21.6 ± 2.0 yr) had 4.0 ± 0.8 yr of systematic knee extensor heavy-resistance training experience, whereas UT (n = 52; age 25.1 ± 2.3 yr) had no lower-body resistance training experience for >18 mo. Knee extension dynamometry, T1-weighted magnetic resonance images of the thigh and knee, and ultrasonography of the quadriceps muscle group at 10 locations were used to determine quadriceps: isometric maximal voluntary torque (MVT), muscle volume (QVOL), patella tendon moment arm (PTMA), pennation angle (QΘP) and fascicle length (QFL), physiological cross-sectional area (QPCSA), and ST. LTT had substantially greater MVT (+60% vs. UT, P < 0.001) and QVOL (+56%, P < 0.001) and QPCSA (+41%, P < 0.001) but smaller differences in ST (+9%, P < 0.05) and moment arm (+4%, P < 0.05), and thus muscle size was the primary explanation for the greater strength of LTT. The greater muscle size (volume) of LTT was primarily attributable to the greater QPCSA (+41%; indicating more sarcomeres in parallel) rather than the more modest difference in FL (+11%; indicating more sarcomeres in series). There was no evidence in the present study for regional hypertrophy after LTT. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Here we demonstrate that the larger muscle strength (+60%) of a long-term (4+ yr) resistance-trained group compared with untrained controls was due to their similarly larger muscle volume (+56%), primarily due to a larger physiological cross-sectional area and modest differences in fascicle length, as well as modest differences in maximum voluntary specific tension and patella tendon moment arm. In addition, the present study refutes the possibility of regional hypertrophy, despite large differences in muscle volume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Maden-Wilkinson
- Academy of Sport and Physical Activity, Faculty of Health and Wellbeing, Collegiate Campus, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom.,School of Sport, Exercise, and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas G Balshaw
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom.,Versus Arthritis Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
| | - Garry J Massey
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom.,Versus Arthritis Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan P Folland
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom.,Versus Arthritis Centre for Sport, Exercise and Osteoarthritis, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
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19
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Franchi MV, Monti E, Carter A, Quinlan JI, Herrod PJJ, Reeves ND, Narici MV. Bouncing Back! Counteracting Muscle Aging With Plyometric Muscle Loading. Front Physiol 2019; 10:178. [PMID: 30890953 PMCID: PMC6411845 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The preservation of muscle power is crucial in aging for maintaining mobility and performing daily tasks. Resistance training involving high movement velocities represents a valid strategy to slow down the rate of sarcopenia, counteracting the loss of muscle mass and muscle power. Plyometric exercise may represent an effective training modality for increasing muscle power; however, its application in older populations has been sparingly investigated, as the high impact actions involved may reduce its feasibility for older individuals. By adopting a safer modality of plyometric training, we investigated if a 6-week plyometric training intervention could increase knee extensor muscle size, architecture, force and power in 14 young (YM, age = 25.4 ± 3.5 y; means ± SD) and nine older males (OM, age = 69.7 ± 3.4 y). Volunteers trained 3 times/week using a device similar to a leg press machine where the user was required to bounce against his body mass on a trampoline. Pre-to-post training changes in isometric maximum voluntary torque (MVT), leg extension power and vastus lateralis (VL) architecture were assessed. Muscle power increased in both groups (+27% OM -P < 0.001, 20% YM -P < 0.001), although the total external work performed during the training period was significantly lower for OM (i.e., ~-47%). Both groups showed significant increases in muscle thickness (MT) (+5.8 OM -P < 0.01 vs. +3.8% YM -P < 0.01), fascicle length (Lf) (+8% OM -P < 0.001 vs. +6% YM -P < 0.001), and pennation angle (PA) (+7.5% OM -P < 0.001 vs. +4.1% YM -P < 0.001). The current study shows that trampoline-based plyometric training is an effective intervention producing a rapid increase in muscle mass and power in both young and older individuals. The training modality used in this study seems to particularly benefit the older population, targeting the morphological and functional effects of sarcopenia in human muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martino V Franchi
- Laboratory for Muscle Plasticity, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Sports Medicine Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Elena Monti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Physiology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Austin Carter
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan I Quinlan
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Philip J J Herrod
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom
| | - Neil D Reeves
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Marco V Narici
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Physiology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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20
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van der Zwaard S, Weide G, Levels K, Eikelboom MRI, Noordhof DA, Hofmijster MJ, van der Laarse WJ, de Koning JJ, de Ruiter CJ, Jaspers RT. Muscle morphology of the vastus lateralis is strongly related to ergometer performance, sprint capacity and endurance capacity in Olympic rowers. J Sports Sci 2018; 36:2111-2120. [PMID: 29473785 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1439434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Rowers need to combine high sprint and endurance capacities. Muscle morphology largely explains muscle power generating capacity, however, little is known on how muscle morphology relates to rowing performance measures. The aim was to determine how muscle morphology of the vastus lateralis relates to rowing ergometer performance, sprint and endurance capacity of Olympic rowers. Eighteen rowers (12♂, 6♀, who competed at 2016 Olympics) performed an incremental rowing test to obtain maximal oxygen consumption, reflecting endurance capacity. Sprint capacity was assessed by Wingate cycling peak power. M. vastus lateralis morphology (volume, physiological cross-sectional area, fascicle length and pennation angle) was derived from 3-dimensional ultrasound imaging. Thirteen rowers (7♂, 6♀) completed a 2000-m rowing ergometer time trial. Muscle volume largely explained variance in 2000-m rowing performance (R2 = 0.85), maximal oxygen consumption (R2 = 0.65), and Wingate peak power (R2 = 0.82). When normalized for differences in body size, maximal oxygen consumption and Wingate peak power were negatively related in males (r = -0.94). Fascicle length, not physiological cross-sectional area, attributed to normalized peak power. In conclusion, vastus lateralis volume largely explains variance in rowing ergometer performance, sprint and endurance capacity. For a high normalized sprint capacity, athletes may benefit from long fascicles rather than a large physiological cross-sectional area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan van der Zwaard
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Guido Weide
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands.,b Department of Rehabilitation Medicine , VU University Medical Centre Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Koen Levels
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Michelle R I Eikelboom
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Dionne A Noordhof
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Mathijs J Hofmijster
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Willem J van der Laarse
- c Department of Physiology, Institute for Cardiovascular Research , VU University Medical Centre Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Jos J de Koning
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Cornelis J de Ruiter
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - Richard T Jaspers
- a Department of Human Movement Sciences , Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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21
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Donti Ο, Papia K, Toubekis A, Donti A, Sands WA, Bogdanis GC. Flexibility training in preadolescent female athletes: Acute and long-term effects of intermittent and continuous static stretching. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:1453-1460. [PMID: 29086625 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1397309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study compared the acute and long-term effects of intermittent and continuous static stretching training on straight leg raise range of motion (ROM). Seventy-seven preadolescent female gymnasts were divided into a stretching (n = 57), and a control group (n = 20). The stretching group performed static stretching of the hip extensors of both legs, three times per week for 15 weeks. One leg performed intermittent (3 × 30 s with 30 s rest) while the other leg performed continuous stretching (90 s). ROM pre- and post-stretching was measured at baseline, on weeks 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and after 2 weeks of detraining. ROM was increased during both intermittent and continuous stretching training, but remained unchanged in the control group. Intermittent stretching conferred a larger improvement in ROM compared to both continuous stretching and control from week 3, until the end of training, and following detraining (p = 0.045 to 0.001 and d = 0.80 to 1.41). During detraining, ROM after the intermittent protocol decreased (p = 0.001), while it was maintained after the continuous protocol (p = 0.36). Acute increases in ROM following the intermittent stretching were also larger than in the continuous (p = 0.038). Intermittent stretching was more effective than continuous, for both long-term and acute ROM enhancement in preadolescent female athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Οlyvia Donti
- a School of Physical Education and Sport Science , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens , Athens , Greece
| | - Konstantina Papia
- a School of Physical Education and Sport Science , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens , Athens , Greece
| | - Argyris Toubekis
- a School of Physical Education and Sport Science , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens , Athens , Greece
| | - Anastasia Donti
- a School of Physical Education and Sport Science , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens , Athens , Greece
| | - William A Sands
- b High-Performance , United States Ski and Snowboard Association (USSA) , Park City , UT , USA
| | - Gregory C Bogdanis
- a School of Physical Education and Sport Science , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens , Athens , Greece
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22
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Franchi MV, Reeves ND, Narici MV. Skeletal Muscle Remodeling in Response to Eccentric vs. Concentric Loading: Morphological, Molecular, and Metabolic Adaptations. Front Physiol 2017; 8:447. [PMID: 28725197 PMCID: PMC5495834 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle contracts either by shortening or lengthening (concentrically or eccentrically, respectively); however, the two contractions substantially differ from one another in terms of mechanisms of force generation, maximum force production and energy cost. It is generally known that eccentric actions generate greater force than isometric and concentric contractions and at a lower metabolic cost. Hence, by virtue of the greater mechanical loading involved in active lengthening, eccentric resistance training (ECC RT) is assumed to produce greater hypertrophy than concentric resistance training (CON RT). Nonetheless, prevalence of either ECC RT or CON RT in inducing gains in muscle mass is still an open issue, with some studies reporting greater hypertrophy with eccentric, some with concentric and some with similar hypertrophy within both training modes. Recent observations suggest that such hypertrophic responses to lengthening vs. shortening contractions are achieved by different adaptations in muscle architecture. Whilst the changes in muscle protein synthesis in response to acute and chronic concentric and eccentric exercise bouts seem very similar, the molecular mechanisms regulating the myogenic adaptations to the two distinct loading stimuli are still incompletely understood. Thus, the present review aims to, (a) critically discuss the literature on the contribution of eccentric vs. concentric loading to muscular hypertrophy and structural remodeling, and, (b) clarify the molecular mechanisms that may regulate such adaptations. We conclude that, when matched for either maximum load or work, similar increase in muscle size is found between ECC and CON RT. However, such hypertrophic changes appear to be achieved through distinct structural adaptations, which may be regulated by different myogenic and molecular responses observed between lengthening and shortening contractions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martino V Franchi
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research, School of Medicine, University of NottinghamDerby, United Kingdom.,Laboratory for Muscle Plasticity, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of ZurichZürich, Switzerland
| | - Neil D Reeves
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityManchester, United Kingdom
| | - Marco V Narici
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research, School of Medicine, University of NottinghamDerby, United Kingdom
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Hessel AL, Lindstedt SL, Nishikawa KC. Physiological Mechanisms of Eccentric Contraction and Its Applications: A Role for the Giant Titin Protein. Front Physiol 2017; 8:70. [PMID: 28232805 PMCID: PMC5299520 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
When active muscles are stretched, our understanding of muscle function is stretched as well. Our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of concentric contraction has advanced considerably since the advent of the sliding filament theory, whereas mechanisms for increased force production during eccentric contraction are only now becoming clearer. Eccentric contractions play an important role in everyday human movements, including mobility, stability, and muscle strength. Shortly after the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction was introduced, there was a reluctant recognition that muscle behaved as if it contained an "elastic" filament. Jean Hanson and Hugh Huxley referred to this structure as the "S-filament," though their concept gained little traction. This additional filament, the giant titin protein, was identified several decades later, and its roles in muscle contraction are still being discovered. Recent research has demonstrated that, like activation of thin filaments by calcium, titin is also activated in muscle sarcomeres by mechanisms only now being elucidated. The mdm mutation in mice appears to prevent activation of titin, and is a promising model system for investigating mechanisms of titin activation. Titin stiffness appears to increase with muscle force production, providing a mechanism that explains two fundamental properties of eccentric contractions: their high force and low energetic cost. The high force and low energy cost of eccentric contractions makes them particularly well suited for athletic training and rehabilitation. Eccentric exercise is commonly prescribed for treatment of a variety of conditions including sarcopenia, osteoporosis, and tendinosis. Use of eccentric exercise in rehabilitation and athletic training has exploded to include treatment for the elderly, as well as muscle and bone density maintenance for astronauts during long-term space travel. For exercise intolerance and many types of sports injuries, experimental evidence suggests that interventions involving eccentric exercise are demonstrably superior to conventional concentric interventions. Future work promises to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that confer high force and low energy cost to eccentric contraction, as well as signaling mechanisms responsible for the beneficial effects of eccentric exercise in athletic training and rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kiisa C. Nishikawa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Bioengineering Innovation, Northern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, AZ, USA
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