A potential role for cannabichromene in modulating TRP channels during acute respiratory distress syndrome

Antiviral effect of cannabidiol on K18-hACE2 transgenic mice infected with SARS-CoV-2

The aim of this study was to determine the antiviral activity of cannabidiol (CBD) against SARS-CoV-2 infection. CBD is the second most studied cannabinoid obtained from Cannabis plants. We investigated the potential use of CBD, which has so far proven to have a positive effect on different diseases, in the SARS-CoV-2 infection. To test this, in vivo studies were carried out using K18-hACE2 transgenic mice. To reveal the potential therapeutic effect of the CBD at the histopathological and molecular level challenge experiments were performed. The study was designed with two groups (n = 10) and in the treatment group animals were infected with SARS-CoV-2 virus strain B.1.1.7 alpha before the administration of CBD. While the disease progressed and resulted in death in the control group that was infected by the virus alone, it was observed that the infection slowed down and the survival rate increased in the mice treated with CBD along with the virus. In this study, K18-hACE2 transgenic mice infected with the wild SARS-CoV-2 virus were used to investigate and prove the antiviral activity of CBD.

The Development of Cannabinoids as Therapeutic Agents in the United States

Cannabis is one of the oldest and widely used substances in the world. Cannabinoids within the cannabis plant, known as phytocannabinoids, mediate cannabis' effects through interactions with the body's endogenous cannabinoid system. This endogenous system, the endocannabinoid system, has important roles in physical and mental health. These roles point to the potential to develop cannabinoids as therapeutic agents while underscoring the risks related to interfering with the endogenous system during nonmedical use. This scoping narrative review synthesizes the current evidence for both the therapeutic and adverse effects of the major (i.e., Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol) and lesser studied minor phytocannabinoids, from nonclinical to clinical research. We pay particular attention to the areas where evidence is well established, including analgesic effects after acute exposures and neurocognitive risks after acute and chronic use. In addition, drug development considerations for cannabinoids as therapeutic agents within the United States are reviewed. The proposed clinical study design considerations encourage methodological standards for greater scientific rigor and reproducibility to ultimately extend our knowledge of the risks and benefits of cannabinoids for patients and providers. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This work provides a review of prior research related to phytocannabinoids, including therapeutic potential and known risks in the context of drug development within the United States. We also provide study design considerations for future cannabinoid drug development.

Identification and Characterization of Cannabichromene's Major Metabolite Following Incubation with Human Liver Microsomes

Cannabichromene (CBC) is a minor cannabinoid within the array of over 120 cannabinoids identified in the Cannabis sativa plant. While CBC does not comprise a significant portion of whole plant material, it is available to the public in a purified and highly concentrated form. As minor cannabinoids become more popular due to their potential therapeutic properties, it becomes crucial to elucidate their metabolism in humans. Therefore, the goal of this was study to identify the major CBC phase I-oxidized metabolite generated in vitro following incubation with human liver microsomes. The novel metabolite structure was identified as 2'-hydroxycannabicitran using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Following the identification, in silico molecular modeling experiments were conducted and predicted 2'-hydroxycannabicitran to fit in the orthosteric site of both the CB1 and CB2 receptors. When tested in vitro utilizing a competitive binding assay, the metabolite did not show significant binding to either the CB1 or CB2 receptors. Further work necessitates the determination of potential activity of CBC and the here-identified phase I metabolite in other non-cannabinoid receptors.

Effect of High-Tunnel and Open-Field Production on the Yield, Cannabinoids, and Volatile Profiles in Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Inflorescence

This study discovered the impact of high-tunnel (i.e., unheated greenhouse) and open-field production on two industrial hemp cultivars (SB1 and CJ2) over their yield parameters, cannabinoid development, and volatile profiles. Development of neutral cannabinoids (CBD, THC, and CBC), acidic cannabinoids (CBDA, THCA, and CBCA), and total cannabinoids during floral maturation were investigated. The volatile profiles of hemp flowers were holistically compared via HS-SPME-GC/MS. Findings indicated a high tunnel as an efficient practice for achieving greater total weight, stem number, and caliper, especially in the SB1 cultivar. Harvesting high-tunnel-grown SB1 cultivars during early flower maturation could obtain a high CBD yield while complying with THC regulations. Considering the volatile profiles, hemp flowers mainly consisted of mono- and sesquiterpenoids, as well as oxygenated mono- and sesquiterpenoids. Volatile analysis revealed the substantial impact of cultivars on the volatile profile compared to the production systems.

Opportunities, Challenges, and Scientific Progress in Hemp Crops

The resurgence of cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) has been propelled by changes in the legal framework governing its cultivation and use, increased demand for hemp-derived products, and studies recognizing the industrial and health benefits of hemp. This has led to the creation of novel high-cannabidiol, low-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol varieties, enabling hemp crop expansion worldwide. This review elucidates the recent implications for hemp cultivation in Europe, with a focus on the legislative impacts on the cultivation practices, prospective breeding efforts, and dynamic scientific landscape surrounding this crop. We also review the current cultivars' cannabinoid composition of the European hemp market and its major differences with that of the United States.

Toll-like receptor signalling as a cannabinoid target

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have become a focus in biomedicine and biomedical research given the roles of this unique family of innate immune proteins in immune activation, infection, and autoimmunity. It is evident that TLR dysregulation, and subsequent alterations in TLR-mediated inflammatory signalling, can contribute to disease pathogenesis, and TLR targeted therapies are in development. This review highlights evidence that cannabinoids are key regulators of TLR signalling. Cannabinoids include component of the plant Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa), synthetic and endogenous ligands, and overall represent a class of compounds whose therapeutic potential and mechanism of action continues to be elucidated. Cannabinoid-based medicines are in the clinic, and are furthermore under intense investigation for broad clinical development to manage symptoms of a range of disorders. In this review, we present an overview of research evidence that signalling linked to a range of TLRs is targeted by cannabinoids, and such cannabinoid mediated effects represent therapeutic avenues for further investigation. First, we provide an overview of TLRs, adaptors and key signalling events, alongside a summary of evidence that TLRs are linked to disease pathologies. Next, we discuss the cannabinoids system and the development of cannabinoid-based therapeutics. Finally, for the bulk of this review, we systematically outline the evidence that cannabinoids (plant-derived cannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids, and endogenous cannabinoid ligands) can cross-talk with innate immune signalling governed by TLRs, focusing specifically on each member of the TLR family. Cannabinoids should be considered as key regulators of signalling controlled by TLRs, and such regulation should be a major focus in terms of the anti-inflammatory propensity of the cannabinoid system.

A Simple Chiral 1H NMR Method for the Discrimination of (R)- and (S)-Cannabichromene in Complex Natural Mixtures and Their Effects on TRPA1 Activity

In recent years, the enantiomeric ratio of cannabichromene (CBC) within the cannabis plant has attracted significant attention. Cannabichromene is one of the well-known cannabinoids found in cannabis, along with THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol). Cannabichromene exists as a scalemic mixture, meaning it has two enantiomers, (S)-cannabichromene and (R)-cannabichromene, with the ratio between these enantiomers varying among different cannabis strains and even within individual plants. This study presents an accurate and robust chiral NMR method for analyzing cannabichromene's enantiomeric ratio, a well-investigated cannabinoid with numerous pharmacological targets. The use of Pirkle's alcohol as the chiral solvating agent (CSA) or, alternatively, the use of (S)-ibuprofen as a chiral derivatizing agent (CDA) facilitated this analysis. Moreover, the chiral NMR method proves to be a user-friendly tool, easily applicable within any NMR facility, and an expanded investigation of cannabichromene chirality may provide insights into the origin, cultivation, treatment, and processing of Cannabis sativa plants. This study also undertakes a pharmacological examination of the (R)- and (S)-cannabichromenes concerning their most extensively studied pharmacological target, the TRPA1 channels, with the two enantiomers showing the same strong agonistic effect as the racemic mixture.

Inhalant Cannabidiol Inhibits Glioblastoma Progression Through Regulation of Tumor Microenvironment

Introduction: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common invasive brain tumor composed of diverse cell types with poor prognosis. The highly complex tumor microenvironment (TME) and its interaction with tumor cells play important roles in the development, progression, and durability of GBM. Angiogenic and immune factors are two major components of TME of GBM; their interplay is a major determinant of tumor vascularization, immune profile, as well as immune unresponsiveness of GBM. Given the ineffectiveness of current standard therapies (surgery, radiotherapy, and concomitant chemotherapy) in managing patients with GBM, it is necessary to develop new ways of treating these lethal brain tumors. Targeting TME, altering tumor ecosystem may be a viable therapeutic strategy with beneficial effects for patients in their fight against GBM. Materials and Methods: Given the potential therapeutic effects of cannabidiol (CBD) in a wide spectrum of diseases, including malignancies, we tested, for the first time, whether inhalant CBD can inhibit GBM tumor growth using a well-established orthotopic murine model. Optical imaging, histology, immunohistochemistry, and flow cytometry were employed to describe the outcomes such as tumor progression, cancer cell signaling pathways, and the TME. Results: Our findings showed that inhalation of CBD was able to not only limit the tumor growth but also to alter the dynamics of TME by repressing P-selectin, apelin, and interleukin (IL)-8, as well as blocking a key immune checkpoint-indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). In addition, CBD enhanced the cluster of differentiation (CD) 103 expression, indicating improved antigen presentation, promoted CD8 immune responses, and reduced innate Lymphoid Cells within the tumor. Conclusion: Overall, our novel findings support the possible therapeutic role of inhaled CBD as an effective, relatively safe, and easy to administer treatment adjunct for GBM with significant impacts on the cellular and molecular signaling of TME, warranting further research.

TRP (transient receptor potential) ion channel family: structures, biological functions and therapeutic interventions for diseases

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels are sensors for a variety of cellular and environmental signals. Mammals express a total of 28 different TRP channel proteins, which can be divided into seven subfamilies based on amino acid sequence homology: TRPA (Ankyrin), TRPC (Canonical), TRPM (Melastatin), TRPML (Mucolipin), TRPN (NO-mechano-potential, NOMP), TRPP (Polycystin), TRPV (Vanilloid). They are a class of ion channels found in numerous tissues and cell types and are permeable to a wide range of cations such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, and others. TRP channels are responsible for various sensory responses including heat, cold, pain, stress, vision and taste and can be activated by a number of stimuli. Their predominantly location on the cell surface, their interaction with numerous physiological signaling pathways, and the unique crystal structure of TRP channels make TRPs attractive drug targets and implicate them in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Here, we review the history of TRP channel discovery, summarize the structures and functions of the TRP ion channel family, and highlight the current understanding of the role of TRP channels in the pathogenesis of human disease. Most importantly, we describe TRP channel-related drug discovery, therapeutic interventions for diseases and the limitations of targeting TRP channels in potential clinical applications.

Development and Validation of a GC-FID Method for the Quantitation of 20 Different Acidic and Neutral Cannabinoids

For decades, Cannabis sativa had been illegal to sell or consume around the world, including in the United States. However, in light of the recent 2018 Farm Bill and the legalization of hemp across the US, various cannabis preparations have flooded the market, making it essential to be able to quantitate the levels of the different acidic and neutral cannabinoids in C. sativa and to have a complete cannabinoid profile of the different chemovars of the cannabis plant. A GC-FID method was developed and validated for the analysis of 20 acidic and neutral cannabinoids as trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives. The analyzed cannabinoids include cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabinolic acid (CBNA), cannabielsoic acid (CBEA), cannabicyclolic acid (CBLA), cannabichromenic acid (CBCA), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid (Δ⁹-THCVA), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (Δ⁹-THCAA), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabidivarin (CBDV), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabichromene (CBC), trans-Δ⁸-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁸-THC), trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicitran (CBT), and cannabielsoin (CBE). The method limit of detection (LOD) was as low as 0.1 µg/mL, while the limit of quantitation ranged from 0.25 µg/mL to 0.5 µg/mL. The precision (%RSD) was < 10%, while trueness ranged from 90 - 107%. The developed method is simple, accurate, and sensitive for the quantitation of all 20 acidic and neutral cannabinoids. Finally, the proposed method was successfully applied to the quantitation of the cannabinoids in different cannabis chemovars grown at the University of Mississippi.

Therapeutic Effects of Cannabinoids and Their Applications in COVID-19 Treatment

Cannabis sativa is one of the first medicinal plants used by humans. Its medical use remains controversial because it is a psychotropic drug whose use has been banned. Recently, however, some countries have approved its use, including for recreational and medical purposes, and have allowed the scientific study of its compounds. Cannabis is characterized by the production of special types of natural products called phytocannabinoids that are synthesized exclusively by this genus. Phytocannabinoids and endocannabinoids are chemically different, but both pharmacologically modulate CB1, CB2, GRP55, GRP119 and TRPV1 receptor activities, involving activities such as memory, sleep, mood, appetite and motor regulation, pain sensation, neuroinflammation, neurogenesis and apoptosis. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are phytocannabinoids with greater pharmacological potential, including anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective and anticonvulsant activities. Cannabidiol is showing promising results for the treatment of COVID-19, due to its capability of acting on the unleashed cytokine storm, on the proteins necessary for both virus entry and replication and on the neurological consequences of patients who have been infected by the virus. Here, we summarize the latest knowledge regarding the advantages of using cannabinoids in the treatment of COVID-19.

Cannabis - a Rewritten History and Its Pulmonary Consequences

Cannabis presents itself as another challenge of the last decade. Better and better deciphered through in-depth studies, this drug remains a source of scientific debates. Legalized in some states, it competes with tobacco regarding the effects generating respiratory symptoms, chronic bronchitis, bronchial cancer, respiratory infections, etc. In this article we will review the pharmacology, epidemiology, clinical and prevention aspects and try to demonstrate which of these are the most effective means of prevention. This review proves once again that this drug has many hidden dangers.

A review of natural products, their effects on SARS-CoV-2 and their utility as lead compounds in the discovery of drugs for the treatment of COVID-19

During the COVID-19 pandemic lasting now for well more than a year, nearly 247 million cases have been diagnosed and over 5 million deaths have been recorded worldwide as of November 2021. The devastating effects of the SARS-CoV-2 virus on the immune system lead to the activation of signaling pathways involved in inflammation and the production of inflammatory cytokines. SARS-CoV-2 displays a great deal of homology with other coronaviruses, especially SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV which all display similar components which may serve as targets, namely the Spike (S) protein, the main protease (MPro) which is a chymotrypsin-like protease (CLPro) and RNA-directed RNA polymerase (RdRp). Natural constituents found in traditional herbal medicines, dietary supplements and foods demonstrate activity against SARS-CoV-2 by affecting the production of cytokines, modulating cell signaling pathways related to inflammation and even by direct interaction with targets found in the virus. This has been demonstrated by the application of fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments, assays of cytopathic effect (CPE) and in silico molecular docking studies that estimate binding strength. Glycyrrhizin, flavonoids such as quercetin, kaempferol and baicalein, and other polyphenols are the most common constituents found in Traditional Chinese Medicines that modulate inflammation and cell signaling pathways, and bind viral targets demonstrating valuable effects against SARS-CoV-2. However, the bioavailability of these natural products and their dependence on each other in extracts make it difficult to assess their actual utility in the treatment of COVID-19. Therefore, more can be learned through rational drug design based on natural products and from well-designed clinical trials employing specific doses of standardized combinations.