1
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Chen Z, Ding H, Zhu H, Huang S, Yan C, Chen ZY. Additional mechanism for selective absorption of cholesterol and Phytosterols. Food Chem 2024; 458:140300. [PMID: 38964108 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Phytosterols are structurally similar to cholesterol but they are much less absorbed (<2%) than cholesterol (>50%) in the intestine. We hypothesize that phytosterols are poor substrates of intestinal acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase 2 (ACAT2), and thus minimal phytosterol esters are formed and packed into chylomicrons, leading to their low absorption. Two isotope tracing models, including a radioactive hamster microsomal ACAT2 reaction model and a differentiated Caco-2 cell model, were established to examine the specificity of ACAT2 to various sterols, including cholesterol, sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol. Both models consistently demonstrated that only cholesterol but not phytosterols could be efficiently esterified by ACAT2 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Molecular docking further suggested that unfavorable interactions existed between ACAT2 and phytosterols. In conclusion, phytosterols are poor substrates of ACAT2 and thus minimally absorbed. This work provides a theoretical basis for the use of phytosterol-based supplements in treating dyslipidemia and preventing heart diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixing Chen
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China..
| | - Huafang Ding
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China..
| | - Hanyue Zhu
- School of Food Science and Engineering / Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Intelligent Food Manufacturing, Foshan University, Foshan, Guangdong, China
| | - Shouhe Huang
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China..
| | - Chi Yan
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China..
| | - Zhen-Yu Chen
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 999077, China..
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2
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Fauste E, Panadero MI, Pérez-Armas M, Donis C, López-Laiz P, Sevillano J, Sánchez-Alonso MG, Ramos-Álvarez MP, Otero P, Bocos C. Maternal fructose intake aggravates the harmful effects of a Western diet in rat male descendants impacting their cholesterol metabolism. Food Funct 2024; 15:6147-6163. [PMID: 38767501 DOI: 10.1039/d4fo01466a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Scope: fructose consumption from added sugars correlates with the epidemic rise in MetS and CVD. Maternal fructose intake has been described to program metabolic diseases in progeny. However, consumption of fructose-containing beverages is allowed during gestation. Cholesterol is also a well-known risk factor for CVD. Therefore, it is essential to study Western diets which combine fructose and cholesterol and how maternal fructose can influence the response of progeny to these diets. Methods and results: a high-cholesterol (2%) diet combined with liquid fructose (10%), as a model of an unhealthy Western diet, was administered to descendants from control and fructose-fed mothers. Gene (mRNA and protein) expression and plasma, fecal and tissue parameters of cholesterol metabolism were measured. Interestingly, progeny from fructose-fed dams consumed less liquid fructose and cholesterol-rich chow than males from control mothers. Moreover, descendants of fructose-fed mothers fed a Western diet showed an increased cholesterol elimination through bile and feces than males from control mothers. Despite these mitigating circumstances to develop a proatherogenic profile, the same degree of hypercholesterolemia and severity of steatosis were observed in all descendants fed a Western diet, independently of maternal intake. An increased intestinal absorption of cholesterol, synthesis, esterification, and assembly into lipoprotein found in males from fructose-fed dams consuming a Western diet could be the cause. Moreover, an augmented GLP2 signalling seen in these animals would explain this enhanced lipid absorption. Conclusions: maternal fructose intake, through a fetal programming, makes a Western diet considerably more harmful in their descendants than in the offspring from control mothers.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Fauste
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - M I Panadero
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - M Pérez-Armas
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - C Donis
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - P López-Laiz
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - J Sevillano
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - M G Sánchez-Alonso
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - M P Ramos-Álvarez
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - P Otero
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
| | - C Bocos
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain.
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3
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Ferrari A, Whang E, Xiao X, Kennelly JP, Romartinez-Alonso B, Mack JJ, Weston T, Chen K, Kim Y, Tol MJ, Bideyan L, Nguyen A, Gao Y, Cui L, Bedard AH, Sandhu J, Lee SD, Fairall L, Williams KJ, Song W, Munguia P, Russell RA, Martin MG, Jung ME, Jiang H, Schwabe JW, Young SG, Tontonoz P. Aster-dependent nonvesicular transport facilitates dietary cholesterol uptake. Science 2023; 382:eadf0966. [PMID: 37943936 PMCID: PMC11073449 DOI: 10.1126/science.adf0966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Intestinal absorption is an important contributor to systemic cholesterol homeostasis. Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1 (NPC1L1) assists in the initial step of dietary cholesterol uptake, but how cholesterol moves downstream of NPC1L1 is unknown. We show that Aster-B and Aster-C are critical for nonvesicular cholesterol movement in enterocytes. Loss of NPC1L1 diminishes accessible plasma membrane (PM) cholesterol and abolishes Aster recruitment to the intestinal brush border. Enterocytes lacking Asters accumulate PM cholesterol and show endoplasmic reticulum cholesterol depletion. Aster-deficient mice have impaired cholesterol absorption and are protected against diet-induced hypercholesterolemia. Finally, the Aster pathway can be targeted with a small-molecule inhibitor to manipulate cholesterol uptake. These findings identify the Aster pathway as a physiologically important and pharmacologically tractable node in dietary lipid absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Ferrari
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Emily Whang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Xu Xiao
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - John P. Kennelly
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | | | - Julia J. Mack
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Thomas Weston
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Kai Chen
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 999077, China
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley WA 6009, Australia
| | - Youngjae Kim
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Marcus J. Tol
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Lara Bideyan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Alexander Nguyen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yajing Gao
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Liujuan Cui
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Alexander H. Bedard
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jaspreet Sandhu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Stephen D. Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Louise Fairall
- Institute for Structural and Chemical Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Kevin J. Williams
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- UCLA Lipidomics Core, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Wenxin Song
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Priscilla Munguia
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Robert A. Russell
- National Deuteration Facility, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Heights, Australia
| | - Martin G. Martin
- Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Michael E. Jung
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Haibo Jiang
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 999077, China
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley WA 6009, Australia
| | - John W.R. Schwabe
- Institute for Structural and Chemical Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Stephen G. Young
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Peter Tontonoz
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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4
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Ferrari A, Whang E, Xiao X, Kennelly JP, Romartinez-Alonso B, Mack JJ, Weston T, Chen K, Kim Y, Tol MJ, Bideyan L, Nguyen A, Gao Y, Cui L, Bedard AH, Sandhu J, Lee SD, Fairall L, Williams KJ, Song W, Munguia P, Russell RA, Martin MG, Jung ME, Jiang H, Schwabe JWR, Young SG, Tontonoz P. Aster-dependent non-vesicular transport facilitates dietary cholesterol uptake. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.07.548168. [PMID: 37503112 PMCID: PMC10369906 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.07.548168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Intestinal cholesterol absorption is an important contributor to systemic cholesterol homeostasis. Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1 (NPC1L1), the target of the drug ezetimibe (EZ), assists in the initial step of dietary cholesterol uptake. However, how cholesterol moves downstream of NPC1L1 is unknown. Here we show that Aster-B and Aster-C are critical for non-vesicular cholesterol movement in enterocytes, bridging NPC1L1 at the plasma membrane (PM) and ACAT2 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Loss of NPC1L1 diminishes accessible PM cholesterol in enterocytes and abolishes Aster recruitment to the intestinal brush border. Enterocytes lacking Asters accumulate cholesterol at the PM and display evidence of ER cholesterol depletion, including decreased cholesterol ester stores and activation of the SREBP-2 transcriptional pathway. Aster-deficient mice have impaired cholesterol absorption and are protected against diet-induced hypercholesterolemia. Finally, we show that the Aster pathway can be targeted with a small molecule inhibitor to manipulate dietary cholesterol uptake. These findings identify the Aster pathway as a physiologically important and pharmacologically tractable node in dietary lipid absorption. One-Sentence Summary Identification of a targetable pathway for regulation of dietary cholesterol absorption.
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5
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Griffett K, Burris TP. Development of LXR inverse agonists to treat MAFLD, NASH, and other metabolic diseases. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1102469. [PMID: 36817797 PMCID: PMC9932051 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1102469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of LXR activity by synthetic agonists has been the focus of many drug discovery efforts with a focus on treatment of dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Many agonists have been developed, but all have been hindered due to their ability to efficaciously stimulate de novo lipogenesis. Here, we review the development of LXR inverse agonists that were originally optimized for their ability to enable recruitment of corepressors leading to silencing of genes that drive de novo lipogenesis. Such compounds have efficacy in animal models of MAFLD, dyslipidemia, and cancer. Several classes of LXR inverse agonists have been identified and one is now in clinical trials for treatment of severe dyslipidemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Griffett
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Thomas P. Burris
- The University of Florida Genetics Institute, Gainesville, FL, United States,*Correspondence: Thomas P. Burris,
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6
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Wei X, Gao Y, Cheng F, Yun S, Chang M, Cao J, Cheng Y, Feng C. The Effects of a High-Fat/Cholesterol Diet on the Intestine of Rats Were Attenuated by Sparassis latifolia Polysaccharides. Food Technol Biotechnol 2022; 60:469-487. [PMID: 36816874 PMCID: PMC9901340 DOI: 10.17113/ftb.60.04.22.7561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Research background Sparassis latifolia polysaccharides can regulate lipids and cholesterol in serum and liver. However, little is known about the regulation mechanism of the polysaccharides on cholesterol metabolism and especially the causal relationship with gut microbiota regulation. This study will provide a theoretical basis for the cholesterol-lowering mechanism of S. latifolia polysaccharides and further development of functional foods. Experimental approach In this study, we investigated how the regulation mechanism of Sparassis latifolia polysaccharides affects intestinal cholesterol metabolism in high-fat and high-cholesterol diet-fed rats. Briefly, enzymatic colorimetric microplate assay was used to determine the concentration of faecal bile acid. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to detect the content of cholesterol and alcohol in faeces. Haematoxylin and eosin staining method was applied to observe the changes in the structure of the small intestine tissue. The related gene expressions in jejunum and ileum were detected by real-time fluorescent quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The related protein expressions in jejunum were studied by using Western blot. High-throughput sequencing was used to detect the intestinal flora changes of the caecal contents. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was applied to detect the concentration of short-chain fatty acids in the caecal content. Results and conclusions The results showed that Sparassis latifolia polysaccharides could improve the intestinal morphological structure and physiological indices in rats fed high-fat and high-cholesterol diet. Moreover, it could improve intestinal cholesterol metabolism disorder induced by high-fat and high-cholesterol diets via the reduction of the expression of HMGCR, NPC1L1, ACAT2, MTP, ASBT and IBABP mRNA or protein, increasing ABCG8 mRNA expression. In addition, it could also increase the relative abundance of Bacteroides, Butyricicoccus, Parabacteroides, Parasutteerella and Alloprevotella and the short-chain fatty acid concentration, to comprehensively regulate the intestinal cholesterol metabolism. The metabolomics analysis found that Sparassis latifolia polysaccharides could affect lipid, carbohydrate and other related metabolites. Some biomarkers associated with cholesterol metabolism correlated significantly with the abundance of specific intestinal microbiota. Novelty and scientific contribution These findings indicate that Sparassis latifolia polysaccharides could attenuate intestinal cholesterol metabolism disorder, correlating with modulating gut microbiota and improving host metabolism. They provide theoretical support for the development of Sparassis latifolia as a new food resource.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wei
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China
| | - Yuan Gao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China
| | - Feier Cheng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China
| | - Shaojun Yun
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China
| | - Mingchang Chang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China,Shanxi Research Station for Engineering Technology of Edible Fungi, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PRChina
| | - Jinling Cao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China
| | - Yanfen Cheng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China
| | - Cuiping Feng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu 030801, Shanxi, PR. China,Corresponding author: Phone: +13835498063, E-mail:
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7
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SCD1 is nutritionally and spatially regulated in the intestine and influences systemic postprandial lipid homeostasis and gut-liver crosstalk. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2022; 1867:159195. [PMID: 35718096 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2022.159195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-membrane resident protein that inserts a double bond into saturated fatty acids, converting them into their monounsaturated counterparts. Previous studies have demonstrated an important role for SCD1 in modulating tissue and systemic health. Specifically, lack of hepatic or cutaneous SCD1 results in significant reductions in tissue esterified lipids. While the intestine is an important site of lipid esterification and assimilation into the body, the regulation of intestinal SCD1 or its impact on lipid composition in the intestine and other tissues has not been investigated. Here we report that unlike other lipogenic enzymes, SCD1 is enriched in the distal small intestine and in the colon of chow-fed mice and is robustly upregulated by acute refeeding of a high-sucrose diet. We generated a mouse model lacking SCD1 specifically in the intestine (iKO mice). These mice have significant reductions not only in intestinal lipids, but also in plasma triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, cholesterol esters, and free cholesterol. Additionally, hepatic accumulation of diacylglycerols is significantly reduced in iKO mice. Comprehensive targeted lipidomic profiling revealed a consistent reduction in the myristoleic (14:1) to myristic (14:0) acid ratios in intestine, liver, and plasma of iKO mice. Consistent with the reduction of the monounsaturated fatty acid myristoleic acid in hepatic lipids of chow fed iKO mice, hepatic expression of Pgc-1α, Sirt1, and related fatty acid oxidation genes were reduced in chow-fed iKO mice. Further, lack of intestinal SCD1 reduced expression of de novo lipogenic genes in distal intestine of chow-fed mice and in the livers of mice fed a lipogenic high-sucrose diet. Taken together, these studies reveal a novel pattern of expression of SCD1 in the intestine. They also demonstrate that intestinal SCD1 modulates lipid content and composition of not only intestinal tissues, but also that of plasma and liver. Further, these data point to intestinal SCD1 as a modulator of gut-liver crosstalk, potentially through the production of novel signaling lipids such as myristoleic acid. These data have important implications to understanding how intestinal SCD1 may modulate risk for post-prandial lipemia, hepatic steatosis, and related pathologies.
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8
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Tian Y, Zhao Y, Yu W, Melak S, Niu Y, Wei W, Zhang L, Chen J. ACAT2 Is a Novel Negative Regulator of Pig Intramuscular Preadipocytes Differentiation. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12020237. [PMID: 35204738 PMCID: PMC8961576 DOI: 10.3390/biom12020237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Intramuscular fat (IMF) is considered as the fat deposited between muscle fibers. The extracellular matrix microenvironment of adipose tissue is of critical importance for the differentiation, remodeling and function of adipocytes. Therefore, in this study we extracted the muscle tissue centrifugal fluid (MTF) of the longissimus dorsi of Erhualian pigs to mimic the microenvironment of intramuscular pre-adipocytes. MTF of pigs with low intramuscular fat level can inhibit pig intramuscular pre-adipocytes differentiation. Then, proteomics technology (iTRAQ) was used to analyze the MTF with different IMF content, and it was found that individuals with high IMF had low ACAT2 (Acyl-CoA: cholesterol acyltransferases 2) levels, while individuals with low IMF had high ACAT2 levels. Significant changes took place in the pathways involved in coenzyme A, which are closely related to fat and cholesterol metabolism. Therefore, we speculate that ACAT2, as an important element involved in cholesterol metabolism, may become a potential molecular marker for the mechanism of pig intramuscular preadipocytes differentiation. Overexpression of ACAT2 in pig intramuscular pre-adipocytes can inhibit their differentiation, while adding ACAT2 inhibitor avasimibe can rescue the process. Knockdown of srebp2 or ldlr, which are two key genes closely related to ACAT2 and cholesterol metabolism, can inhibit pig intramuscular pre-adipocytes differentiation. Overall, our results suggest that ACAT2 is a novel negative regulator of intramuscular adipocyte differentiation through regulation of pparγ, cebpα signaling and srebp2/ldlr signaling involved in cholesterol metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Tian
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
| | - Yuelei Zhao
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
| | - Wensai Yu
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
| | - Sherif Melak
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
- Animal Production Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Giza 12618, Egypt
| | - Yingfang Niu
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
| | - Wei Wei
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
| | - Lifan Zhang
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
| | - Jie Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; (Y.T.); (Y.Z.); (W.Y.); (S.M.); (Y.N.); (W.W.); (L.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-25-84399269; Fax: +86-25-84399269
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9
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Long T, Liu Y, Li X. Molecular structures of human ACAT2 disclose mechanism for selective inhibition. Structure 2021; 29:1410-1418.e4. [PMID: 34520735 PMCID: PMC8642284 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2021.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum-localized acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferases (ACAT), including ACAT1 and ACAT2, convert cholesterol to cholesteryl esters that become incorporated into lipoproteins or stored in cytosolic lipid droplets. Selective inhibition of ACAT2 has been shown to considerably attenuate hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis in mice. Here, we report cryogenic electron microscopy structures of human ACAT2 bound to its specific inhibitor pyripyropene A or the general ACAT inhibitor nevanimibe. Structural analysis reveals that ACAT2 has a topology in membranes similar to that of ACAT1. A catalytic core with an entry site occupied by a cholesterol molecule and another site for allosteric activation of ACAT2 is observed in these structures. Enzymatic assays show that mutations within sites of cholesterol entry or allosteric activation attenuate ACAT2 activity in vitro. Together, these results reveal mechanisms for ACAT2-mediated esterification of cholesterol, providing a blueprint to design new ACAT2 inhibitors for use in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Long
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Xiaochun Li
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA; Department of Biophysics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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10
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Li H, Yu XH, Ou X, Ouyang XP, Tang CK. Hepatic cholesterol transport and its role in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and atherosclerosis. Prog Lipid Res 2021; 83:101109. [PMID: 34097928 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2021.101109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a quickly emerging global health problem representing the most common chronic liver disease in the world. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease represents the leading cause of mortality in NAFLD patients. Cholesterol metabolism has a crucial role in the pathogenesis of both NAFLD and atherosclerosis. The liver is the major organ for cholesterol metabolism. Abnormal hepatic cholesterol metabolism not only leads to NAFLD but also drives the development of atherosclerotic dyslipidemia. The cholesterol level in hepatocytes reflects the dynamic balance between endogenous synthesis, uptake, esterification, and export, a process in which cholesterol is converted to neutral cholesteryl esters either for storage in cytosolic lipid droplets or for secretion as a major constituent of plasma lipoproteins, including very-low-density lipoproteins, chylomicrons, high-density lipoproteins, and low-density lipoproteins. In this review, we describe decades of research aimed at identifying key molecules and cellular players involved in each main aspect of hepatic cholesterol metabolism. Furthermore, we summarize the recent advances regarding the biological processes of hepatic cholesterol transport and its role in NAFLD and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Li
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Xiao-Hua Yu
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan 460106, China
| | - Xiang Ou
- Department of Endocrinology, the First Hospital of Changsha, Changsha, Hunan 410005, China
| | - Xin-Ping Ouyang
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience Research, Hengyang Key Laboratory of Neurodegeneration and Cognitive Impairment, Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
| | - Chao-Ke Tang
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
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11
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Kim YJ, Yoon DS, Jung UJ. Efficacy of nobiletin in improving hypercholesterolemia and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in high-cholesterol diet-fed mice. Nutr Res Pract 2021; 15:431-443. [PMID: 34349877 PMCID: PMC8313391 DOI: 10.4162/nrp.2021.15.4.431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES Nobiletin (NOB), a citrus flavonoid, is reported to have beneficial effects on cardiovascular and metabolic health. However, there is limited research investigating the effect of long-term supplementation with low-dose NOB on high-cholesterol diet (HCD)-induced hypercholesterolemia and non-obese nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Therefore, we investigated the influence of NOB on hypercholesterolemia and NAFLD in HCD-fed mice. SUBJECTS/METHODS C57BL/6J mice were fed a normal diet (ND) or HCD (35 kcal% fat, 1.25% cholesterol, 0.5% cholic acid) with or without NOB (0.02%) for 20 weeks. RESULTS HCD feeding markedly reduced the final body weight compared to ND feeding, with no apparent energy intake differences. NOB supplementation suppressed HCD-induced weight loss without altering energy intake. Moreover, NOB significantly decreased the total cholesterol (TC) levels and the low-density lipoprotein (LDL)/very-LDL-cholesterol to TC ratio, and increased the high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol/TC ratio in plasma, compared to those for HCD feeding alone. The plasma levels of inflammatory and atherosclerosis markers (C-reactive protein, oxidized LDL, interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1) were significantly lower, whereas those of anti-atherogenic adiponectin and paraoxonase were higher in the NOB-supplemented group than in the HCD control group. Furthermore, NOB significantly decreased liver weight, hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride contents, and lipid droplet accumulation by inhibiting messenger RNA expression of hepatic genes and activity levels of cholesterol synthesis-, esterification-, and fatty acid synthesis-associated enzymes, concomitantly enhancing fatty acid oxidation-related gene expression and enzyme activities. Dietary NOB supplementation may protect against hypercholesterolemia and NAFLD via regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism in HCD-fed mice; these effects are associated with the amelioration of inflammation and reductions in the levels of atherosclerosis-associated cardiovascular markers. CONCLUSIONS The present study suggests that NOB may serve as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of HCD-induced hypercholesterolemia and NAFLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Je Kim
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Dae Seong Yoon
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Korea
| | - Un Ju Jung
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, Korea
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12
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Pathak P, Helsley RN, Brown AL, Buffa JA, Choucair I, Nemet I, Gogonea CB, Gogonea V, Wang Z, Garcia-Garcia JC, Cai L, Temel R, Sangwan N, Hazen SL, Brown JM. Small molecule inhibition of gut microbial choline trimethylamine lyase activity alters host cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2020; 318:H1474-H1486. [PMID: 32330092 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00584.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The gut microbe-derived metabolite trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) has recently been linked to cardiovascular disease (CVD) pathogenesis, prompting the development of therapeutic strategies to reduce TMAO. Previous work has shown that experimental alteration of circulating TMAO levels via dietary alterations or inhibition of the host TMAO producing enzyme flavin containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3) is associated with reorganization of host cholesterol and bile acid metabolism in mice. In this work, we set out to understand whether recently developed nonlethal gut microbe-targeting small molecule choline trimethylamine (TMA) lyase inhibitors also alter host cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. Treatment of mice with the mechanism-based choline TMA lyase inhibitor, iodomethylcholine (IMC), increased fecal neutral sterol loss in the form of coprostanol, a bacteria metabolite of cholesterol. In parallel, IMC treatment resulted in marked reductions in the intestinal sterol transporter Niemann-pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) and reorganization of the gut microbial community, primarily reversing choline supplemented diet-induced changes. IMC also prevented diet-driven hepatic cholesterol accumulation, causing both upregulation of the host hepatic bile acid synthetic enzyme CYP7A1 and altering the expression of hepatic genes critical for bile acid feedback regulation. These studies suggest that the gut microbiota-driven TMAO pathway is closely linked to both microbe and host sterol and bile acid metabolism. Collectively, as gut microbe-targeting choline TMA lyase inhibitors move through the drug discovery pipeline from preclinical models to human studies, it will be important to understand how these drugs impact both microbe and host cholesterol and bile acid metabolism.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The gut microbe-dependent metabolite trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) has been strongly associated with cardiovascular mortality, prompting drug discovery efforts to identify points of therapeutic intervention within the microbe host TMAO pathway. Recently, mechanism-based small molecule inhibitors of the major bacterial trimethylamine (TMA) lyase enzymes have been developed, and these drugs show efficacy as anti-atherothrombotic agents. The novel findings of this study are that small molecule TMA lyase inhibition results in beneficial reorganization of host cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. This study confirms previous observations that the gut microbial TMAO pathway is intimately linked to host cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and provides further rationale for the development of small molecule choline TMA lyase inhibitors for the treatment of cardiometabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Pathak
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Robert N Helsley
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Amanda L Brown
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Jennifer A Buffa
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Ibrahim Choucair
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Ina Nemet
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Camelia Baleanu Gogonea
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Valentin Gogonea
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Zeneng Wang
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | | | - Lei Cai
- Department of Physiology and Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Ryan Temel
- Department of Physiology and Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Naseer Sangwan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Stanley L Hazen
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Heart and Vascular Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - J Mark Brown
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
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13
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Ohshiro T, Imuta S, Hijikuro I, Yagyu H, Takahashi T, Doi T, Ishibashi S, Tomoda H. The Anti-atherogenic Activity of Beauveriolide Derivative BVD327, a Sterol O-Acyltransferase 2-Selective Inhibitor, in Apolipoprotein E Knockout Mice. Biol Pharm Bull 2020; 43:951-958. [PMID: 32475917 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b19-00913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The fungal 13-membered cyclodepsipeptides, beauveriolides I and III, were previously reported to be atheroprotective activity in mouse models via inhibiting sterol O-acyltransferase (SOAT) activity. A total of 149 beauveriolide derivatives (BVDs) synthesized combinatorially were evaluated in in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) analysis and inhibitory activity toward the two SOAT isozymes, SOAT1 and SOAT2. Hence, only 11 BVDs exhibited SOAT2-selective inhibition. Among these, we chose BVD327, which had the highest ADME score, for further evaluation. BVD327 administration (50 mg/kg/d, per os (p.o.)) significantly decreased atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta and heart (25.4 ± 6.9 and 20.6 ± 2.9%, respectively) in apolipoprotein E knockout (Apoe-/-) mice fed a cholesterol-enriched diet (0.2% cholesterol and 21% fat) for 12 weeks. These findings indicate that beauveriolide derivatives can be used as anti-atherosclerotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taichi Ohshiro
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University
- Medicinal Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University
| | | | | | - Hiroaki Yagyu
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Jichi Medical University
| | | | - Takayuki Doi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University
| | - Shun Ishibashi
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Jichi Medical University
| | - Hiroshi Tomoda
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University
- Medicinal Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University
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14
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Lopez AM, Ramirez CM, Taylor AM, Jones RD, Repa JJ, Turley SD. Ontogenesis and Modulation of Intestinal Unesterified Cholesterol Sequestration in a Mouse Model of Niemann-Pick C1 Disease. Dig Dis Sci 2020; 65:158-167. [PMID: 31312996 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-019-05736-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in the NPC1 gene result in sequestration of unesterified cholesterol (UC) and glycosphingolipids in most tissues leading to multi-organ disease, especially in the brain, liver, lungs, and spleen. Various data from NPC1-deficient mice suggest the small intestine (SI) is comparatively less affected, even in late stage disease. METHODS Using the Npc1nih mouse model, we measured SI weights and total cholesterol (TC) levels in Npc1-/- versus Npc1+/+ mice as a function of age, and then after prolonged ezetimibe-induced inhibition of cholesterol absorption. Next, we determined intestinal levels of UC and esterified cholesterol (EC), and cholesterol synthesis rates in Npc1-/- and Npc1+/+ mice, with and without the cholesterol-esterifying enzyme SOAT2, following a once-only subcutaneous injection with 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (2HPβCD). RESULTS By ~ 42 days of age, intestinal TC levels averaged ~ 2.1-fold more (mostly UC) in the Npc1-/- versus Npc1+/+ mice with no further increase thereafter. Chronic ezetimibe treatment lowered intestinal TC levels in the Npc1-/- mice by only ~ 16%. In Npc1-/- mice given 2HPβCD 24 h earlier, UC levels fell, EC levels increased (although less so in mice lacking SOAT2), and cholesterol synthesis was suppressed equally in the Npc1-/-:Soat2+/+ and Npc1-/-:Soat2-/- mice. CONCLUSIONS The low and static levels of intestinal UC sequestration in Npc1-/- mice likely reflect the continual sloughing of cells from the mucosa. This sequestration is blunted by about the same extent following a single acute treatment with 2HPβCD as it is by a prolonged ezetimibe-induced block of cholesterol absorption.
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MESH Headings
- 2-Hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin/pharmacology
- Animals
- Cholesterol/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Ezetimibe/pharmacology
- Female
- Intestinal Absorption/drug effects
- Intestinal Mucosa/drug effects
- Intestinal Mucosa/metabolism
- Intestine, Small/drug effects
- Intestine, Small/metabolism
- Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/deficiency
- Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins/genetics
- Male
- Mice, 129 Strain
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Niemann-Pick C1 Protein
- Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C/drug therapy
- Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C/genetics
- Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C/metabolism
- Sterol O-Acyltransferase/genetics
- Sterol O-Acyltransferase/metabolism
- Sterol O-Acyltransferase 2
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Lopez
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Charina M Ramirez
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Anna M Taylor
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, 75080, USA
| | - Ryan D Jones
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Joyce J Repa
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Stephen D Turley
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA.
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15
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Xu Y, Du X, Turner N, Brown AJ, Yang H. Enhanced acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activity increases cholesterol levels on the lipid droplet surface and impairs adipocyte function. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:19306-19321. [PMID: 31727739 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol plays essential structural and signaling roles in mammalian cells, but too much cholesterol can cause cytotoxicity. Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferases 1 and 2 (ACAT1/2) convert cholesterol into its storage form, cholesteryl esters, regulating a key step in cellular cholesterol homeostasis. Adipose tissue can store >50% of whole-body cholesterol. Interestingly, however, almost no ACAT activity is present in adipose tissue, and most adipose cholesterol is stored in its free form. We therefore hypothesized that increased cholesterol esterification may have detrimental effects on adipose tissue function. Here, using several approaches, including protein overexpression, quantitative RT-PCR, immunofluorescence, and various biochemical assays, we found that ACAT1 expression is significantly increased in the adipose tissue of the ob/ob mice. We further demonstrated that ACAT1/2 overexpression partially inhibited the differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. In mature adipocytes, increased ACAT activity reduced the size of lipid droplets (LDs) and inhibited lipolysis and insulin signaling. Paradoxically, the amount of free cholesterol increased on the surface of LDs in ACAT1/2-overexpressing adipocytes, accompanied by increased LD localization of caveolin-1. Moreover, cholesterol depletion in adipocytes by treating the cells with cholesterol-deficient media or β-cyclodextrins induced changes in cholesterol distribution that were similar to those caused by ACAT1/2 overexpression. Our results suggest that ACAT1/2 overexpression increases the level of free cholesterol on the LD surface, thereby impeding adipocyte function. These findings provide detailed insights into the role of free cholesterol in LD and adipocyte function and suggest that ACAT inhibitors have potential utility for managing disorders associated with extreme obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Xu
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, the University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Ximing Du
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, the University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Nigel Turner
- School of Medical Sciences, the University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Andrew J Brown
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, the University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Hongyuan Yang
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, the University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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16
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Goldberg IJ, Reue K, Abumrad NA, Bickel PE, Cohen S, Fisher EA, Galis ZS, Granneman JG, Lewandowski ED, Murphy R, Olive M, Schaffer JE, Schwartz-Longacre L, Shulman GI, Walther TC, Chen J. Deciphering the Role of Lipid Droplets in Cardiovascular Disease: A Report From the 2017 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Workshop. Circulation 2019; 138:305-315. [PMID: 30012703 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.118.033704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Lipid droplets (LDs) are distinct and dynamic organelles that affect the health of cells and organs. Much progress has been made in understanding how these structures are formed, how they interact with other cellular organelles, how they are used for storage of triacylglycerol in adipose tissue, and how they regulate lipolysis. Our understanding of the biology of LDs in the heart and vascular tissue is relatively primitive in comparison with LDs in adipose tissue and liver. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute convened a working group to discuss how LDs affect cardiovascular diseases. The goal of the working group was to examine the current state of knowledge on the cell biology of LDs, including current methods to study them in cells and organs and reflect on how LDs influence the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. This review summarizes the working group discussion and recommendations on research areas ripe for future investigation that will likely improve our understanding of atherosclerosis and heart function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karen Reue
- University of California, Los Angeles (K.R.)
| | | | - Perry E Bickel
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (P.E.B.)
| | - Sarah Cohen
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (S.C.)
| | | | - Zorina S Galis
- National Institutes of Health/National, Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD (Z.S.G., M.O., L.S.-L., J.C.)
| | | | | | | | - Michelle Olive
- National Institutes of Health/National, Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD (Z.S.G., M.O., L.S.-L., J.C.)
| | | | - Lisa Schwartz-Longacre
- National Institutes of Health/National, Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD (Z.S.G., M.O., L.S.-L., J.C.)
| | - Gerald I Shulman
- Yale University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New Haven, CT (G.I.S.)
| | - Tobias C Walther
- Harvard University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA (T.C.W.)
| | - Jue Chen
- National Institutes of Health/National, Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, MD (Z.S.G., M.O., L.S.-L., J.C.).
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17
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Chang NY, Chan YJ, Ding ST, Lee YH, HuangFu WC, Liu IH. Sterol O-Acyltransferase 2 Contributes to the Yolk Cholesterol Trafficking during Zebrafish Embryogenesis. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167644. [PMID: 27936201 PMCID: PMC5147938 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To elucidate whether Sterol O-acyltransferase (Soat) mediates the absorption and transportation of yolk lipids to the developing embryo, zebrafish soat1 and soat2 were cloned and studied. In the adult zebrafish, soat1 was detected ubiquitously while soat2 mRNA was detected specifically in the liver, intestine, brain and testis. Whole mount in situ hybridization demonstrated that both soat1 and soat2 expressed in the yolk syncytial layer, hatching gland and developing cardiovascular as well as digestive systems, suggesting that Soats may play important roles in the lipid trafficking and utilization during embryonic development. The enzymatic activity of zebrafish Soat2 was confirmed by Oil Red O staining in the HEK293 cells overexpressing this gene, and could be quenched by Soat2 inhibitor Pyripyropene A (PPPA). The zebrafish embryos injected with PPPA or morpholino oligo against soat2 in the yolk showed significantly larger yolk when compared with wild-type embryos, especially at 72 hpf, indicating a slower rate of yolk consumption. Our result indicated that zebrafish Soat2 is catalytically active in synthesizing cholesteryl esters and contributes to the yolk cholesterol trafficking during zebrafish embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nai-Yun Chang
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Ju Chan
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Torng Ding
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biotechnology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Hua Lee
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chun HuangFu
- The Ph.D. Program for Cancer Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsuan Liu
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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18
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Dongsheng H, Zhuo Z, Jiamin L, Hailan M, Lijuan H, Fan C, Dan Y, He Z, Yun X. Proteomic Analysis of the Peri-Infarct Area after Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation in Experimental Stroke. Aging Dis 2016; 7:623-634. [PMID: 27699085 PMCID: PMC5036957 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2016.0121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Among various therapeutic approaches for stroke, treatment with human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) has acquired some promising results. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We analyzed the protein expression spectrum of the cortical peri-infarction region after ischemic stroke followed by treatment with hUC-MSCs, and found 16 proteins expressed differentially between groups treated with or without hUC-MSCs. These proteins were further determined by Gene Ontology term analysis and network with CD200-CD200R1, CCL21-CXCR3 and transcription factors. Three of them: Abca13, Grb2 and Ptgds were verified by qPCR and ELISA. We found the protein level of Abca13 and the mRNA level of Grb2 consistent with results from the proteomic analysis. Finally, the function of these proteins was described and the potential proteins that deserve to be further studied was also highlighted. Our data may provide possible underlying mechanisms for the treatment of stroke using hUC-MSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Dongsheng
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Zhang Zhuo
- 4Department of Gastroenterology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Lao Jiamin
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Meng Hailan
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Han Lijuan
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Chen Fan
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Ye Dan
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Zhang He
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Xu Yun
- 1Department of Neurology, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital, and; 2Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China.; 3The State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210008, China; 5Jiangsu Province Stroke Center for Diagnosis and Therapy, Nanjing 210008, China; 6Nanjing Neuropsychiatry Clinic Medical Center, Nanjing 210008, China
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Ding Y, Xiao C, Wu Q, Xie Y, Li X, Hu H, Li L. The Mechanisms Underlying the Hypolipidaemic Effects of Grifola frondosa in the Liver of Rats. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1186. [PMID: 27536279 PMCID: PMC4971090 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated the hypolipidaemic effects of Grifola frondosa and its regulation mechanism involved in lipid metabolism in liver of rats fed a high-cholesterol diet. The body weights and serum lipid levels of control rats, of hyperlipidaemic rats, and of hyperlipidaemic rats treated with oral G. frondosa were determined. mRNA expression and concentration of key lipid metabolism enzymes were investigated. Serum cholesterol, triacylglycerol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were markedly decreased in hyperlipidaemic rats treated with G. frondosa compared with untreated hyperlipidaemic rats. mRNA expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR), acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT2), apolipoprotein B (ApoB), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) were significantly down-regulated, while expression of cholesterol 7-alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) was significantly up-regulated in the livers of treated rats compared with untreated hyperlipidaemic rats. The concentrations of these enzymes also paralleled the observed changes in mRNA expression. Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) were used to identify 20 proteins differentially expressed in livers of rats treated with G. frondosa compared with untreated hyperlipidemic rats. Of these 20 proteins, seven proteins were down-regulated, and 13 proteins were up-regulated. These findings indicate that the hypolipidaemic effects of G. frondosa reflected its modulation of key enzymes involved in cholesterol and triacylglycerol biosynthesis, absorption, and catabolic pathways. G. frondosa may exert anti-atherosclerotic effects by inhibiting LDL oxidation through down-regulation and up-regulating proteins expression in the liver of rats. Therefore, G. frondosa may produce both hypolipidaemic and anti-atherosclerotic effects, and potentially be of use as a functional food for the treatment or prevention of hyperlipidaemia and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinrun Ding
- School of Bioscience and Bioengineering, South China University of TechnologyGuangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of MicrobiologyGuangzhou, China
- Department of Biology, Basic Medical College, Guangdong Medical UniversityZhangjiang, China
| | - Chun Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of MicrobiologyGuangzhou, China
| | - Qingping Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of MicrobiologyGuangzhou, China
| | - Yizhen Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of MicrobiologyGuangzhou, China
| | - Xiangmin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of MicrobiologyGuangzhou, China
| | - Huiping Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of MicrobiologyGuangzhou, China
| | - Liangqiu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of MicrobiologyGuangzhou, China
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20
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Warrier M, Zhang J, Bura K, Kelley K, Wilson MD, Rudel LL, Brown JM. Sterol O-Acyltransferase 2-Driven Cholesterol Esterification Opposes Liver X Receptor-Stimulated Fecal Neutral Sterol Loss. Lipids 2016; 51:151-7. [PMID: 26729489 PMCID: PMC5221701 DOI: 10.1007/s11745-015-4116-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Statin drugs have proven a successful and relatively safe therapy for the treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, even with the substantial low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol lowering achieved with statin treatment, CVD remains the top cause of death in developed countries. Selective inhibitors of the cholesterol esterifying enzyme sterol-O acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2) hold great promise as effective CVD therapeutics. In mouse models, previous work has demonstrated that either antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) or small molecule inhibitors of SOAT2 can effectively reduce CVD progression, and even promote regression of established CVD. Although it is well known that SOAT2-driven cholesterol esterification can alter both the packaging and retention of atherogenic apoB-containing lipoproteins, here we set out to determine whether SOAT2-driven cholesterol esterification can also impact basal and liver X receptor (LXR)-stimulated fecal neutral sterol loss. These studies demonstrate that SOAT2 is a negative regulator of LXR-stimulated fecal neutral sterol loss in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manya Warrier
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
- Department of Pathology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Kanwardeep Bura
- Department of Pathology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Kathryn Kelley
- Department of Pathology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Martha D Wilson
- Department of Pathology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Lawrence L Rudel
- Department of Pathology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - J Mark Brown
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27157, USA.
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21
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Lopez AM, Chuang JC, Posey KS, Ohshiro T, Tomoda H, Rudel LL, Turley SD. PRD125, a potent and selective inhibitor of sterol O-acyltransferase 2 markedly reduces hepatic cholesteryl ester accumulation and improves liver function in lysosomal acid lipase-deficient mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2015; 355:159-67. [PMID: 26283692 PMCID: PMC4613965 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.115.227207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In most organs, the bulk of cholesterol is unesterified, although nearly all possess a varying capability of esterifying cholesterol through the action of either sterol O-acyltransferase (SOAT) 1 or, in the case of hepatocytes and enterocytes, SOAT2. Esterified cholesterol (EC) carried in plasma lipoproteins is hydrolyzed by lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) when they are cleared from the circulation. Loss-of-function mutations in LIPA, the gene that encodes LAL, result in Wolman disease or cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD). Hepatomegaly and a massive increase in tissue EC levels are hallmark features of both disorders. While these conditions can be corrected with enzyme replacement therapy, the question arose as to whether pharmacological inhibition of SOAT2 might reduce tissue EC accretion in CESD. When weaned at 21 days, Lal(-/-) mice, of either gender, had a whole liver cholesterol content that was 12- to 13-fold more than that of matching Lal(+/+) littermates (23 versus 1.8 mg, respectively). In Lal(-/-) males given the selective SOAT2 inhibitor PRD125 1,11-O-o-methylbenzylidene-7-O-p-cyanobenzoyl-1,7,11-trideacetylpyripyropene A in their diet (∼10 mg/day per kg body weight) from 21 to 53 days, whole liver cholesterol content was 48.6 versus 153.7 mg in untreated 53-day-old Lal(-/-) mice. This difference reflected a 59% reduction in hepatic EC concentration (mg/g), combined with a 28% fall in liver mass. The treated mice also showed a 63% reduction in plasma alanine aminotransferase activity, in parallel with decisive falls in hepatic mRNA expression levels for multiple proteins that reflect macrophage presence and inflammation. These data implicate SOAT2 as a potential target in CESD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Lopez
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas (A.M.L., J-C.C., K.S.P., S.D.T.); Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., H.T.); and Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., L.L.R.)
| | - Jen-Chieh Chuang
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas (A.M.L., J-C.C., K.S.P., S.D.T.); Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., H.T.); and Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., L.L.R.)
| | - Kenneth S Posey
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas (A.M.L., J-C.C., K.S.P., S.D.T.); Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., H.T.); and Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., L.L.R.)
| | - Taichi Ohshiro
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas (A.M.L., J-C.C., K.S.P., S.D.T.); Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., H.T.); and Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., L.L.R.)
| | - Hiroshi Tomoda
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas (A.M.L., J-C.C., K.S.P., S.D.T.); Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., H.T.); and Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., L.L.R.)
| | - Lawrence L Rudel
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas (A.M.L., J-C.C., K.S.P., S.D.T.); Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., H.T.); and Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., L.L.R.)
| | - Stephen D Turley
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas (A.M.L., J-C.C., K.S.P., S.D.T.); Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Science, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., H.T.); and Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., L.L.R.)
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Ohshiro T, Ohtawa M, Nagamitsu T, Matsuda D, Yagyu H, Davis MA, Rudel LL, Ishibashi S, Tomoda H. New pyripyropene A derivatives, highly SOAT2-selective inhibitors, improve hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis in atherogenic mouse models. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2015; 355:299-307. [PMID: 26338984 PMCID: PMC4613958 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.115.227348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterol O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2; also known as ACAT2) is considered as a new therapeutic target for the treatment or prevention of hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. Fungal pyripyropene A (PPPA: 1,7,11-triacyl type), the first SOAT2-selective inhibitor, proved orally active in vivo using atherogenic mouse models. The purpose of the present study was to demonstrate that the PPPA derivatives (PRDs) prove more effective in the mouse models than PPPA. Among 196 semisynthetic PPPA derivatives, potent, SOAT2-selective, and stable PRDs were selected. In vivo antiatherosclerotic activity of selected PRDs was tested in apolipoprotein E knockout (Apoe(-/-)) mice or low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout (Ldlr(-/-)) mice fed a cholesterol-enriched diet (0.2% cholesterol and 21% fat) for 12 weeks. During the PRD treatments, no detrimental side effects were observed. Among three PRDs, Apoe(-/-) mice treated with PRD125 (1-,11-O-benzylidene type) at 1 mg/kg/day had significantly lower total plasma cholesterol concentration by 57.9 ± 9.3%; further, the ratio of cholesteryl oleate to cholesteryl linoleate in low-density lipoprotein was lower by 55.6 ± 7.5%, respectively. The hepatic cholesteryl ester levels and SOAT2 activity in the small intestines and livers of the PRD-treated mice were selectively lowered. The atherosclerotic lesion areas in the aortae of PRD125-treated mice were significantly lower at 62.2 ± 13.1%, respectively. Furthermore, both PRDs were also orally active in atherogenic Ldlr(-/-) mice. Among the PRDs tested, PRD125 was the most potent in both mouse models. These results suggest that SOAT2-selective inhibitors such as PRD125 have a high potential as poststatin agents for treatment and/or prevention in patients with atherosclerosis and hypercholesterolemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taichi Ohshiro
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Masaki Ohtawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Tohru Nagamitsu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Daisuke Matsuda
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Hiroaki Yagyu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Matthew A Davis
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Lawrence L Rudel
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Shun Ishibashi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
| | - Hiroshi Tomoda
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, Tokyo, Japan (T.O., M.O., T.N., D.M., H.T.); Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Tochigi, Japan (T.O., H.Y., S.I.); and Department of Internal Medicine, Section on Molecular Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina (T.O., M.A.D., L.L.R.)
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23
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Melchior JT, Olson JD, Kelley KL, Wilson MD, Sawyer JK, Link KM, Rudel LL. Targeted Knockdown of Hepatic SOAT2 With Antisense Oligonucleotides Stabilizes Atherosclerotic Plaque in ApoB100-only LDLr-/- Mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2015; 35:1920-7. [PMID: 26229140 PMCID: PMC4552612 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.115.305747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that the attenuation of cholesterol oleate packaging into apoB-containing lipoproteins will arrest progression of pre-existing atherosclerotic lesions. APPROACH AND RESULTS Atherosclerosis was induced in apoB-100 only, LDLr(-/-) mice by feeding a diet enriched in cis-monounsaturated fatty acids for 24 weeks. A subset of mice was then euthanized to quantify the extent of atherosclerosis. The remaining mice were continued on the same diet (controls) or assigned to the following treatments for 16 weeks: (1) a diet enriched in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, (2) the cis-monounsaturated fatty acid diet plus biweekly injections of an antisense oligonucleotide specific to hepatic sterol-O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2); or (3) the cis-monounsaturated fatty acid diet and biweekly injections of a nontargeting hepatic antisense oligonucleotide. Extent of atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta was monitored morphometrically in vivo with magnetic resonance imaging and ex vivo histologically and immunochemically. Hepatic knockdown of SOAT2 via antisense oligonucleotide treatment arrested lesion growth and stabilized lesions. CONCLUSIONS Hepatic knockdown of SOAT2 in apoB100-only, LDLr(-/-) mice resulted in remodeling of aortic atherosclerotic lesions into a stable phenotype, suggesting SOAT2 is a viable target for the treatment of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Melchior
- From the Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences (J.T.M., K.L.K., M.D.W., J.K.S., L.L.R.), and Department of Radiology, Center for Biomolecular Imaging (J.D.O., K.M.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - John D Olson
- From the Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences (J.T.M., K.L.K., M.D.W., J.K.S., L.L.R.), and Department of Radiology, Center for Biomolecular Imaging (J.D.O., K.M.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - Kathryn L Kelley
- From the Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences (J.T.M., K.L.K., M.D.W., J.K.S., L.L.R.), and Department of Radiology, Center for Biomolecular Imaging (J.D.O., K.M.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - Martha D Wilson
- From the Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences (J.T.M., K.L.K., M.D.W., J.K.S., L.L.R.), and Department of Radiology, Center for Biomolecular Imaging (J.D.O., K.M.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - Janet K Sawyer
- From the Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences (J.T.M., K.L.K., M.D.W., J.K.S., L.L.R.), and Department of Radiology, Center for Biomolecular Imaging (J.D.O., K.M.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - Kerry M Link
- From the Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences (J.T.M., K.L.K., M.D.W., J.K.S., L.L.R.), and Department of Radiology, Center for Biomolecular Imaging (J.D.O., K.M.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC
| | - Lawrence L Rudel
- From the Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences (J.T.M., K.L.K., M.D.W., J.K.S., L.L.R.), and Department of Radiology, Center for Biomolecular Imaging (J.D.O., K.M.L.), Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC.
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24
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He X, Leow KY, Yang H, Heng CK. Functional characterization of two single nucleotide polymorphisms of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 2. Gene 2015; 566:236-41. [PMID: 25917363 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.04.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 2 (ACAT2) plays a critical role in the formation of cholesteryl esters from cholesterol and fatty acids, and is a potential target for treating hypercholesterolemia. We recently reported the significant effects of two human ACAT2 gene polymorphisms, 41A>G (Glu(14)Gly, rs9658625) and 734C>T (Thr(254)Ile, rs2272296), on plasma lipid levels and coronary artery disease susceptibility in a case-control association study. In the present study, we evaluated the possible biological influence of the two polymorphism using two approaches. METHODS In the first approach, the functional impact of the two polymorphisms was predicted in-silico using available web-based software, and in the second approach, the varying functions of the two polymorphisms were characterized in in vitro experiments, using ACAT2-deficient AC-29 cells. RESULTS Our results show that the enzymatic activity of mutant Glu(14)Gly is approximately two times higher than wildtype, and that this increase is primarily due to the increased expression and/or stability of the mutant ACAT2 protein. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that the genetic variation at Glu(14)Gly is functionally important and may contribute to ACAT2 protein expression and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuelian He
- Department of Paediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Khoo Teck Puat-National University Children's Medical Institute, National University Health System, Singapore; Central Laboratory, Wuhan Children's Hospital, China.
| | - Koon-Yeow Leow
- Department of Paediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Khoo Teck Puat-National University Children's Medical Institute, National University Health System, Singapore
| | - Hongyuan Yang
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chew-Kiat Heng
- Department of Paediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Khoo Teck Puat-National University Children's Medical Institute, National University Health System, Singapore.
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25
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Dávalos A, Chroni A. Antisense oligonucleotides, microRNAs, and antibodies. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2015; 224:649-89. [PMID: 25523006 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-09665-0_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The specificity of Watson-Crick base pairing and the development of several chemical modifications to oligonucleotides have enabled the development of novel drug classes for the treatment of different human diseases. This review focuses on promising results of recent preclinical or clinical studies on targeting HDL metabolism and function by antisense oligonucleotides and miRNA-based therapies. Although many hurdles regarding basic mechanism of action, delivery, specificity, and toxicity need to be overcome, promising results from recent clinical trials and recent approval of these types of therapy to treat dyslipidemia suggest that the treatment of HDL dysfunction will benefit from these unique clinical opportunities. Moreover, an overview of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) developed for the treatment of dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease and currently being tested in clinical studies is provided. Initial studies have shown that these compounds are generally safe and well tolerated, but ongoing large clinical studies will assess their long-term safety and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Dávalos
- Laboratory of Disorders of Lipid Metabolism and Molecular Nutrition, Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies (IMDEA)-Food, Ctra. de Cantoblanco 8, 28049, Madrid, Spain,
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26
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Lopez AM, Posey KS, Turley SD. Deletion of sterol O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2) function in mice deficient in lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) dramatically reduces esterified cholesterol sequestration in the small intestine and liver. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 454:162-6. [PMID: 25450374 PMCID: PMC4312202 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.10.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Sterol O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2), also known as ACAT2, is the major cholesterol esterifying enzyme in the liver and small intestine (SI). Esterified cholesterol (EC) carried in certain classes of plasma lipoproteins is hydrolyzed by lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) when they are cleared from the circulation. Loss-of-function mutations in LIPA, the gene that encodes LAL, result in Wolman disease (WD) or cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD). Hepatomegaly and a massive increase in tissue EC levels are hallmark features of both disorders. While these conditions can be corrected with enzyme replacement therapy, the question arose as to what effect the loss of SOAT2 function might have on tissue EC sequestration in LAL-deficient mice. When weaned at 21 days, Lal(-)(/)(-):Soat2(+)(/)(+) mice had a whole liver cholesterol content (mg/organ) of 24.7 mg vs 1.9mg in Lal(+/+):Soat2(+/+) littermates, with almost all the excess sterol being esterified. Over the next 31 days, liver cholesterol content in the Lal(-)(/)(-):Soat2(+)(/)(+) mice increased to 145 ± 2 mg but to only 29 ± 2 mg in their Lal(-)(/)(-):Soat2(-)(/)(-) littermates. The level of EC accumulation in the SI of the Lal(-)(/)(-):Soat2(-)(/)(-) mice was also much less than in their Lal(-)(/)(-):Soat2(+)(/)(+) littermates. In addition, there was a >70% reduction in plasma transaminase activities in the Lal(-)(/)(-):Soat2(-)(/)(-) mice. These studies illustrate how the severity of disease in a mouse model for CESD can be substantially ameliorated by elimination of SOAT2 function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M Lopez
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9151, United States.
| | - Kenneth S Posey
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9151, United States.
| | - Stephen D Turley
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-9151, United States.
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Zhang J, Sawyer JK, Marshall SM, Kelley KL, Davis MA, Wilson MD, Brown JM, Rudel LL. Cholesterol esters (CE) derived from hepatic sterol O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2) are associated with more atherosclerosis than CE from intestinal SOAT2. Circ Res 2014; 115:826-33. [PMID: 25239141 PMCID: PMC4209196 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.115.304378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cholesterol esters (CE), especially cholesterol oleate, generated by hepatic and intestinal sterol O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2) play a critical role in cholesterol homeostasis. However, it is unknown whether the contribution of intestine-derived CE from SOAT2 would have similar effects in promoting atherosclerosis progression as for liver-derived CE. OBJECTIVE To test whether, in low-density lipoprotein receptor null (LDLr(-/-)) mice, the conditional knockout of intestinal SOAT2 (SOAT2(SI-/SI-)) or hepatic SOAT2 (SOAT2(L-/L-)) would equally limit atherosclerosis development compared with the global deletion of SOAT2 (SOAT2(-/-)). METHODS AND RESULTS SOAT2 conditional knockout mice were bred with LDLr(-/-) mice creating LDLr(-/-) mice with each of the specific SOAT2 gene deletions. All mice then were fed an atherogenic diet for 16 weeks. SOAT2(SI-/SI-)LDLr(-/-) and SOAT2(-/-)LDLr(-/-) mice had significantly lower levels of intestinal cholesterol absorption, more fecal sterol excretion, and lower biliary cholesterol levels. Analysis of plasma LDL showed that all mice with SOAT2 gene deletions had LDL CE with reduced percentages of cholesterol palmitate and cholesterol oleate. Each of the LDLr(-/-) mice with SOAT2 gene deletions had lower accumulations of total cholesterol and CE in the liver compared with control mice. Finally, aortic atherosclerosis development was significantly lower in all mice with global or tissue-restricted SOAT2 gene deletions. Nevertheless, SOAT2(-/-)LDLr(-/-) and SOAT2(L-/L-)LDLr(-/-) mice had less aortic CE accumulation and smaller aortic lesions than SOAT2(SI-/SI-)LDLr(-/-) mice. CONCLUSIONS SOAT2-derived CE from both the intestine and liver significantly contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, although the CE from the hepatic enzyme appeared to promote more atherosclerosis development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zhang
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.)
| | - Janet K Sawyer
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.)
| | - Stephanie M Marshall
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.)
| | - Kathryn L Kelley
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.)
| | - Matthew A Davis
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.)
| | - Martha D Wilson
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.)
| | - J Mark Brown
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.)
| | - Lawrence L Rudel
- From the Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC (J.Z., J.K.S., S.M.M., K.L.K., M.A.D., M.D.W., L.L.R.); and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, OH (S.M.M., J.M.B.).
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28
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Marshall SM, Gromovsky AD, Kelley KL, Davis MA, Wilson MD, Lee RG, Crooke RM, Graham MJ, Rudel LL, Brown JM, Temel RE. Acute sterol o-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2) knockdown rapidly mobilizes hepatic cholesterol for fecal excretion. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98953. [PMID: 24901470 PMCID: PMC4047063 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is LDL cholesterol, which can be reduced by increasing cholesterol excretion from the body. Fecal cholesterol excretion can be driven by a hepatobiliary as well as a non-biliary pathway known as transintestinal cholesterol efflux (TICE). We previously showed that chronic knockdown of the hepatic cholesterol esterifying enzyme sterol O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2) increased fecal cholesterol loss via TICE. To elucidate the initial events that stimulate TICE, C57Bl/6 mice were fed a high cholesterol diet to induce hepatic cholesterol accumulation and were then treated for 1 or 2 weeks with an antisense oligonucleotide targeting SOAT2. Within 2 weeks of hepatic SOAT2 knockdown (SOAT2HKD), the concentration of cholesteryl ester in the liver was reduced by 70% without a reciprocal increase in hepatic free cholesterol. The rapid mobilization of hepatic cholesterol stores resulted in a ∼ 2-fold increase in fecal neutral sterol loss but no change in biliary cholesterol concentration. Acute SOAT2HKD increased plasma cholesterol carried primarily in lipoproteins enriched in apoB and apoE. Collectively, our data suggest that acutely reducing SOAT2 causes hepatic cholesterol to be swiftly mobilized and packaged onto nascent lipoproteins that feed cholesterol into the TICE pathway for fecal excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie M. Marshall
- Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Anthony D. Gromovsky
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Foundation – Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Kathryn L. Kelley
- Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Matthew A. Davis
- Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Martha D. Wilson
- Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Richard G. Lee
- Cardiovascular Group, Antisense Drug Discovery, Isis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, California, United States of America
| | - Rosanne M. Crooke
- Cardiovascular Group, Antisense Drug Discovery, Isis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, California, United States of America
| | - Mark J. Graham
- Cardiovascular Group, Antisense Drug Discovery, Isis Pharmaceuticals, Carlsbad, California, United States of America
| | - Lawrence L. Rudel
- Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - J. Mark Brown
- Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Foundation – Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Ryan E. Temel
- Department of Pathology, Section on Lipid Sciences, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
- Saha Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
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Pedrelli M, Davoodpour P, Degirolamo C, Gomaraschi M, Graham M, Ossoli A, Larsson L, Calabresi L, Gustafsson JÅ, Steffensen KR, Eriksson M, Parini P. Hepatic ACAT2 knock down increases ABCA1 and modifies HDL metabolism in mice. PLoS One 2014; 9:e93552. [PMID: 24695360 PMCID: PMC3973598 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES ACAT2 is the exclusive cholesterol-esterifying enzyme in hepatocytes and enterocytes. Hepatic ABCA1 transfers unesterified cholesterol (UC) to apoAI, thus generating HDL. By changing the hepatic UC pool available for ABCA1, ACAT2 may affect HDL metabolism. The aim of this study was to reveal whether hepatic ACAT2 influences HDL metabolism. DESIGN WT and LXRα/β double knockout (DOKO) mice were fed a western-type diet for 8 weeks. Animals were i.p. injected with an antisense oligonucleotide targeted to hepatic ACAT2 (ASO6), or with an ASO control. Injections started 4 weeks after, or concomitantly with, the beginning of the diet. RESULTS ASO6 reduced liver cholesteryl esters, while not inducing UC accumulation. ASO6 increased hepatic ABCA1 protein independently of the diet conditions. ASO6 affected HDL lipids (increased UC) only in DOKO, while it increased apoE-containing HDL in both genotypes. In WT mice ASO6 led to the appearance of large HDL enriched in apoAI and apoE. CONCLUSIONS The use of ASO6 revealed a new pathway by which the liver may contribute to HDL metabolism in mice. ACAT2 seems to be a hepatic player affecting the cholesterol fluxes fated to VLDL or to HDL, the latter via up-regulation of ABCA1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Pedrelli
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Molecular Nutrition Unit, Department of Bioscience and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Padideh Davoodpour
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Chiara Degirolamo
- Division of Lipid Science, Department of Pathology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Monica Gomaraschi
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Mark Graham
- Cardiovascular Group, Department of Antisense Drug Discovery, Isis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Carlsbad, California, United States of America
| | - Alice Ossoli
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Lilian Larsson
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Laura Calabresi
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Jan-Åke Gustafsson
- Molecular Nutrition Unit, Department of Bioscience and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Knut R. Steffensen
- Molecular Nutrition Unit, Department of Bioscience and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mats Eriksson
- Molecular Nutrition Unit, Department of Bioscience and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paolo Parini
- Division of Clinical Chemistry, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Molecular Nutrition Unit, Department of Bioscience and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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30
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Vix M, Diana M, Liu KH, D'Urso A, Mutter D, Wu HS, Marescaux J. Evolution of glycolipid profile after sleeve gastrectomy vs. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass: results of a prospective randomized clinical trial. Obes Surg 2013. [PMID: 23207829 DOI: 10.1007/s11695-012-0827-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aims to report glycolipid changes after sleeve gastrectomy (SG) or Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) in the setting of a prospective randomized clinical trial. METHODS One hundred patients were randomly assigned to RYGB (n = 45) and SG (n = 55). Fasting glucose, insulin, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c%), triglycerides, and serum cholesterol (total, HDL, and LDL) were evaluated at inclusion and after 1, 3, 6, and 12 months. The index for homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and β cell function (HOMA-B) were assessed. RESULTS Mean postoperative 1-, 3-, 6-, and 12-month excess weight loss was 25.39, 43.47, 63.75, and 80.38 % after RYGB and 25.25, 51.32, 64.67, and 82.97 % after SG, respectively. Mean fasting glucose and fasting serum insulin were similarly and statistically significantly reduced in both RYGB and SG. Mean HOMA-IR improved in both groups, particularly in case of high preoperative values, and mean HOMA-B improved at 1 year after RYGB. HbA1c% dropped from 5.66 % (SD = 0.61) to 5.57 % (SD = 0.32) after RYGB and from 5.64 % (SD = 0.43) to 5.44 % (SD = 0.43) after SG. Total cholesterol was significantly higher at 1 month (p = 0.04), 3 months (p = 0.03), and 1 year (p = 0.005) after SG as compared to RYGB. LDL cholesterol decreased significantly after RYGB at 1 month (p = 0.03), 3 months (p = 0.0001), and 1 year (p = 0.0004) as compared to SG. HDL cholesterol was increased at 1 year in the RYGB group but not in the SG group. Triglycerides decreased similarly in both groups. CONCLUSIONS Short-term glycemic control was comparable after SG and RYGB. An improved lipid profile was noted after RYGB in patients with abnormal preoperative values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Vix
- IRCAD-IHU, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.
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31
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Yap CS, Sinha RA, Ota S, Katsuki M, Yen PM. Thyroid hormone negatively regulates CDX2 and SOAT2 mRNA expression via induction of miRNA-181d in hepatic cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 440:635-9. [PMID: 24103759 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.09.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) regulate transcription of many metabolic genes in the liver through its nuclear receptors (TRs). Although the molecular mechanisms for positive regulation of hepatic genes by TH are well understood, much less is known about TH-mediated negative regulation. Recently, several nuclear hormone receptors were shown to downregulate gene expression via miRNAs. To further examine the potential role of miRNAs in TH-mediated negative regulation, we used a miRNA microarray to identify miRNAs that were directly regulated by TH in a human hepatic cell line. In our screen, we discovered that miRNA-181d is a novel hepatic miRNA that was regulated by TH in hepatic cell culture and in vivo. Furthermore, we identified and characterized two novel TH-regulated target genes that were downstream of miR-181d signaling: caudal type homeobox 2 (CDX2) and sterol O-acyltransferase 2 (SOAT2 or ACAT2). CDX2, a known positive regulator of hepatocyte differentiation, was regulated by miR-181d and directly activated SOAT2 gene expression. Since SOAT2 is an enzyme that generates cholesteryl esters that are packaged into lipoproteins, our results suggest miR-181d plays a significant role in the negative regulation of key metabolic genes by TH in the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chui Sun Yap
- Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, 8, College Road, Singapore 169857, Singapore
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32
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Ruggles KV, Turkish A, Sturley SL. Making, baking, and breaking: the synthesis, storage, and hydrolysis of neutral lipids. Annu Rev Nutr 2013; 33:413-51. [PMID: 23701589 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-071812-161254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The esterification of amphiphilic alcohols with fatty acids is a ubiquitous strategy implemented by eukaryotes and some prokaryotes to conserve energy and membrane progenitors and simultaneously detoxify fatty acids and other lipids. This key reaction is performed by at least four evolutionarily unrelated multigene families. The synthesis of this "neutral lipid" leads to the formation of a lipid droplet, which despite the clear selective advantage it confers is also a harbinger of cellular and organismal malaise. Neutral lipid deposition as a cytoplasmic lipid droplet may be thermodynamically favored but nevertheless is elaborately regulated. Optimal utilization of these resources by lipolysis is similarly multigenic in determination and regulation. We present here a perspective on these processes that originates from studies in model organisms, and we include our thoughts on interventions that target reductions in neutral lipids as therapeutics for human diseases such as obesity and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly V Ruggles
- Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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33
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Bonamassa B, Moschetta A. Atherosclerosis: lessons from LXR and the intestine. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2013; 24:120-8. [PMID: 23158108 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2012.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Revised: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Modulation of the cholesterol-sensing liver X receptors (LXRs) and their downstream targets has emerged as promising therapeutic avenues in atherosclerosis. The intestine is important for its unique capabilities to act as a gatekeeper for cholesterol absorption and to participate in the process of cholesterol elimination in the feces and reverse cholesterol transport (RCT). Pharmacological and genetic intestine-specific LXR activation have been shown to protect against atherosclerosis. In this review we discuss the LXR-targeted molecular players in the enterocytes as well as the intestine-driven pathways contributing to cholesterol homeostasis with therapeutic potential as targets in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis..
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Bonamassa
- Laboratory of Lipid Metabolism and Cancer, Department of Translational Pharmacology, Consorzio Mario Negri Sud, Via Nazionale 8/A, 66030 Santa Maria Imbaro (CH), Italy
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34
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Xie 谢畅 C, Zhou 周章森 ZS, Li 李钠 N, Bian 卞艳 Y, Wang 王永建 YJ, Wang 王丽娟 LJ, Li 李伯良 BL, Song 宋保亮 BL. Ezetimibe blocks the internalization of NPC1L1 and cholesterol in mouse small intestine. J Lipid Res 2012; 53:2092-2101. [PMID: 22811412 PMCID: PMC3435542 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m027359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Revised: 07/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The multiple transmembrane protein Niemann-Pick C1 like1 (NPC1L1) is essential for intestinal cholesterol absorption. Ezetimibe binds to NPC1L1 and is a clinically used cholesterol absorption inhibitor. Recent studies in cultured cells have shown that NPC1L1 mediates cholesterol uptake through vesicular endocytosis that can be blocked by ezetimibe. However, how NPC1L1 and ezetimibe work in the small intestine is unknown. In this study, we found that NPC1L1 distributed in enterocytes of villi and transit-amplifying cells of crypts. Acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase 2 (ACAT2), another important protein for cholesterol absorption by providing cholesteryl esters to chylomicrons, was mainly presented in the apical cytoplasm of enterocytes. NPC1L1 and ACAT2 were highly expressed in jejunum and ileum. ACAT1 presented in the Paneth cells of crypts and mesenchymal cells of villi. In the absence of cholesterol, NPC1L1 was localized on the brush border of enterocytes. Dietary cholesterol induced the internalization of NPC1L1 to the subapical layer beneath the brush border and became partially colocalized with the endosome marker Rab11. Ezetimibe blocked the internalization of NPC1L1 and cholesterol and caused their retention in the plasma membrane. This study demonstrates that NPC1L1 mediates cholesterol entering enterocytes through vesicular endocytosis and that ezetimibe blocks this step in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Xie 谢畅
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Zhang-Sen Zhou 周章森
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Na Li 李钠
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Yan Bian 卞艳
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Yong-Jian Wang 王永建
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Li-Juan Wang 王丽娟
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Bo-Liang Li 李伯良
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
| | - Bao-Liang Song 宋保亮
- The State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
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35
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Inhibition of cholesterol absorption: targeting the intestine. Pharm Res 2012; 29:3235-50. [PMID: 22923351 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-012-0858-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis, the gradual formation of a lipid-rich plaque in the arterial wall is the primary cause of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD), the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Hypercholesterolemia, elevated circulating cholesterol, was identified as a key risk factor for CAD in epidemiological studies. Since the approval of Mevacor in 1987, the primary therapeutic intervention for hypercholesterolemia has been statins, drugs that inhibit the biosynthesis of cholesterol. With improved understanding of the risks associated with elevated cholesterol levels, health agencies are recommending reductions in cholesterol that are not achievable in every patient with statins alone, underlying the need for improved combination therapies. The whole body cholesterol pool is derived from two sources, biosynthesis and diet. Although statins are effective at reducing the biosynthesis of cholesterol, they do not inhibit the absorption of cholesterol, making this an attractive target for adjunct therapies. This report summarizes the efforts to target the gastrointestinal absorption of cholesterol, with emphasis on specifically targeting the gastrointestinal tract to avoid the off-target effects sometimes associated with systemic exposure.
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