Longitudinal family and peer group effects on violence and nonviolent delinquency

Investing in family-centered early childhood education: A conceptual model for preventing firearm homicide among Black male youth in the United States

INTRODUCTION

Firearms are now the number one killer of children and adolescents in the United States. Firearm homicides among Black male youth are the driver of this increase. Prevention requires a multi-faceted life course approach. Academic achievement has been identified as a protective factor. Early childhood education, which is linked to later achievement, is thus an intervention area of interest. Conceptualizing the potential links between early childhood education and reduced risk for youth firearm homicide is important for guiding policy advocacy and informing future research.

METHODS

This paper presents a conceptual model linking early childhood education to reduced risk for firearm homicide. Each link in the model is discussed, and a corresponding review of the literature is presented. The need for anti-racist policies to strengthen the impact of early childhood education is highlighted.

RESULTS

Early education and firearm homicide research are each well-established but largely disconnected. There are clear immediate benefits of early childhood education; however, these effects wane with time, particularly for youth of color. At the same time, juvenile delinquency-a major risk factor for firearm homicide-is influenced by educational inequities.

CONCLUSIONS

Effective interventions to reduce firearm homicides among Black male youth in the United States are needed. Early childhood education shows promise as an intervention. However, to have an impact, this education needs to be accessible and affordable for all, particularly families of color and low income. Societal structures and policies must also better support the positive gains seen through early childhood education to avoid dissipation.

The association between peer rejection and behavior problems of migrant adolescents in China: A moderated mediation model of delinquent peer affiliation and parenting

Facing a stressful environment of peer rejection and discrimination, Chinese migrant adolescents are at high risk of developing behavior problems while receiving insufficient family support. In this context, the current study aimed to explore the pathway from peer rejection to adolescent behavior problems via the mediating role of delinquent peer affiliation and with the moderating roles of parental company and parental monitoring taken into consideration. A sample of 2041 migrant adolescents (46.2% female, mean age = 13.595) was drawn from the first and second waves of the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) for running a moderated mediation model. The results demonstrated that peer rejection positively predicted behavior problems through the mediator of delinquent peer affiliation (indirect effect = 0.007, 95% CI = [0.003, 0.014]). This mediating mechanism was moderated by parental company and by parental monitoring. Our study deepened the theoretical understanding and application of the general strain theory by showing how the interaction of peer stressors and parenting elements affected the behavior of migrant adolescents in a Chinese context. Further studies could pay more attention to the dynamic interplay between the family and peer systems, especially for rejected and marginalized adolescent groups. Limitations and implications for future school-based and family-based practices are also discussed.

Recollections of Maternal and Paternal Punitive Discipline in Childhood and Violent Attitudes and Behaviors in Adulthood: A Mediation Model

This cross-sectional retrospective study on a convenience sample of 973 Greek undergraduate students examined whether the violent socialization in childhood and the criminal history in adolescence would be mediators between parents' harsh discipline and young adults' violent attitudes and behaviors (VA/B). Structural Equation Modelling indicated that both the mothers' and fathers' punitive discipline at age 10 have an indirect impact, through the mediators, on young adults' VA/B. A direct effect was also found from mothers' and fathers' punitive discipline to violence approval and from fathers' punitive discipline to antisocial personality symptoms, and corporal punishment law attitude. The findings suggest that early experiences of harsh discipline may increase the risk of adult's violence and call for multilevel prevention and intervention programs targeting both parents and children.

Pathways From Family Violence to Adolescent Violence: Examining the Mediating Mechanisms

PURPOSE

Past research has documented a significant relationship between family violence and adolescent violence. However, much is unknown about the processes through which this association occurs, especially in the non-Western cultural context. To address this gap, we propose an integrated model encompassing multiple pathways that connect family violence to adolescent violence. Specifically, this study investigates how family violence is related to adolescent violence through violent peer association, normative beliefs about violence, and negative emotions.

METHOD

We tested the model using the two-wave survey data collected from a probability sample of more than 1,100 adolescents residing in one of the largest metropolitan areas in China in 2015 to 2016.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated that family violence predicted adolescent violence perpetration. Violent peer association, normative beliefs, and negative emotions, however, mediated much of the relationship between family violence and adolescent violence.

Vicarious Victimization, Negative Emotions, and Maladaptive Coping: Investigating the Role of Violent Peers

According to general strain theory's (GST) vicarious strain hypothesis, individuals' behavior is influenced by witnessing or having knowledge of others' stressful experiences, especially those within their network. Drawing on Agnew's GST, the current study examines the relationship between peer victimization and violent offending, as well as the potential intervening factors in this relationship. The primary research questions are: (a) does vicarious strain occur through having friends who are victimized? And (b) what role does violent peers play in the coping process? Data for the analysis were obtained from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescents to Adult Health's friendship network data. Results from multivariate analysis show that victimization of ones' friend (or peer victimization) is associated with depression as well as personal involvement in violent offending. This relationship, however, is fully mediated by depression. Regarding deviant peers, a three-way interaction effect was observed, specifically peer victimization, involvement with peers, and associating violent peers was a significant predictor of violent offending. Findings from the current study highlight the importance of considering the role of deviant peers in the coping process. Results lend support to Agnew's GST. Implications for theory and research are discussed.

A Longitudinal Study of Authoritative Parenting, Juvenile Delinquency and Crime Victimization among Chinese Adolescents

Empirical research on the relationship between authoritative parenting and crime victimization has been sparse, although this style of parenting has been identified as an effective parenting practice for inhibiting offending behavior among children and adolescents. The current research aims at filling this gap by examining the influences of authoritative parenting on juvenile delinquency and crime victimization, as well as the mechanisms connecting the processes. Using two-wave survey data collected from a probability sample of 1066 Chinese adolescents, the current study employed a structural equation modeling analysis to test the relationships. The results indicated that authoritative parenting negatively predicted juvenile delinquency and crime victimization. Further, adolescent mental health problems and delinquent peer association partially mediated the influence of authoritative parenting on delinquency, while adolescent mental health problems, delinquent peer association, and juvenile delinquency fully mediated the relationship between authoritative parenting and crime victimization. The results also showed that juvenile delinquency positively predicted future crime victimization. Overall, this study demonstrated that authoritative parenting operated as a protective factor against juvenile delinquency and crime victimization.

Arab youth involvement in violence: A socio-ecological gendered perspective

BACKGROUND

Previous research has extensively used a socio-ecological perspective to find the correlates of youth involvement in violence. However, little is known about the extent to which ecological factors correlated with youth violence are affected by gender, especially in non-Western cultures.

OBJECTIVE

The role of gender in the association between individual, family, and contextual factors and Arab youth involvement in several types of violence (severe physical, moderate physical, and verbal and indirect violence) was explored using a socio-ecological perspective.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

The study was based on a large random sample of 3,178 Arab students, aged 11-18, from Israel.

METHODS

Information was collected from the adolescents through a structured, anonymous self-report questionnaire which they completed in the classroom under the guidance of a research assistant. Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured for all participants.

RESULTS

Gender was found to moderate the association between impulsivity and parental support and all types of violence except verbal violence. No interaction effect was found in the association between affiliation with delinquent peers and exposure to community violence and Arab youth involvement in violence.

CONCLUSIONS

The results emphasize the importance of exploring gender differences with respect to risk and protective factors for violence. This knowledge is an important step in the design and implementation of gender-specific intervention strategies to deal with youth violence.

Associations of Parental Monitoring and Violent Peers with Latino Youth Violence

This study aimed to examine the associations of parental monitoring and violent peers with violence among Latino youth, and whether these associations varied by acculturation. 133 adolescents were surveyed. Associations between parental monitoring, peer violence, and physical and non-physical violence were examined using bivariate and multivariable negative binomial regression. Multivariable analysis was stratified by age and acculturation. A path model examined whether peer violence mediated the relationship between parental monitoring and youth violence. Stratified analysis demonstrated that peer violence increased the risk of physical (RR = 1.24; 95% CI 1.02-1.20) and non-physical violence (RR = 1.32; 95% CI 1.08-1.62) for high-acculturated youth, whereas parental monitoring was protective for low-acculturated youth (physical RR = 0.88; 95% CI 0.78-0.99; non-physical RR = 0.80; 95% CI 0.68-0.93). In path analysis, low parental monitoring increased risk of involvement with violent peers, which was associated with increased risk of youth violence. Interventions may benefit from focusing on parental monitoring, peer violence, and tailoring by acculturation.

Evaluating the Role of Family Context Within a Randomized Adolescent HIV-Risk Prevention Trial

Project STYLE is a multi-site 3-arm RCT comparing family-based, adolescent-only, and general health promotion interventions with 721 adolescents in mental health treatment. This study reports 12-month outcomes for family context and sexual risk behaviors, and explores the role of baseline family context in modifying treatment response. Using the full sample, there were sustained benefits for parent-reported sexual communication (d = 0.28), and adolescent-reported parental monitoring (d = 0.24), with minimal differences in risk behaviors. Latent profile analysis identified four family context classes: struggling (n = 177), authoritative (n = 183), authoritarian (n = 175), and permissive (n = 181). The authoritarian and permissive classes were also distinguished by disagreement between parent and adolescent report of family context. Classes differed in terms of baseline mental health burden and baseline sexual risk behavior. Classes showed different patterns of treatment effects, with the struggling class showing consistent benefit for both family context and sexual risk. In contrast, the authoritarian class showed a mixed response for family context and increased sexual risk.

How do individual predispositions and family dynamics contribute to academic adjustment through the middle school years? The mediating role of friends' characteristics

This study examined the mediating effect of friends' characteristics (problem behavior and academic achievement) in the association between students' background (family and individual factors) and later academic adjustment, as operationalized by problem behavior and academic achievement. We recruited 998 participants in three public middle schools and used three annual waves of data collection (Grades 6, 7, and 8). We found that students' own academic achievement and problem behavior are predictors of later adjustment. Friendship choices are identified as a mediation mechanism that contributes to consistent adjustment from the beginning to the end of middle school. Specifically, high-achieving students in Grade 6 tend to associate with high-achieving friends and are unlikely to associate with friends who exhibit problem behavior in Grade 7, which results in continued achievement in Grade 8. Associating with high-achieving friends in Grade 7 also mediated the link between adolescent problem behavior in Grade 6 and academic achievement by Grade 8. Friends' characteristics in Grade 7 did not mediate the effect of any family factor measured in Grade 6. In general, our results suggest friendship selection is central to sustained success throughout the middle school years.

Positive Peer Association Among Black American Youth and the Roles of Ethnic Identity and Gender

The study examined whether peer association, a subtype of peer influence that involves the indirect modeling of behaviors, can promote positive development among Black American adolescents living in high-risk neighborhoods. Data were collected during a three-year longitudinal study from a sample of 316 Black American adolescents (M = 11.65 years). As positive peer association increased over time, youth experienced an increase in self-esteem, school connectedness, paternal and maternal closeness, and a decrease in supportive beliefs about aggression. Additionally, lower ethnic identity appeared to account for why some youth experienced a sharper increase in maternal and paternal closeness as positive peer association increased. Future interventions should consider harnessing the ability of prosocial peers to foster healthy development.

The Relation Between a Sense of Meaning in Life and Suicide Potential Among Disadvantaged Adolescent Girls

The study examines the influence of the sense of meaning in life, or its absence, on the suicide potential of disadvantaged adolescent girls in Israel who reside in boarding school ( n = 50) compared with adolescent girls in a rehabilitation project ( n = 31), and between them and normative adolescent girls ( n = 128). The research findings indicate a negative relation between meaning in life and suicide potential, which exists only among the normative adolescent girls and the disadvantaged adolescent girls residing in the boarding school. This relation does not exist among the disadvantaged adolescent girls in the rehabilitation project. The explanation for this unusual finding is, apparently, the early stage of rehabilitation at which the adolescent girls are found. In conclusion, this study joins previous studies that propose prevention, intervention, and therapy programs based on increasing adolescent (disadvantaged and not disadvantaged) strength factors by finding meaning to their lives.

Pathways linking intergenerational cultural dissonance and alcohol use among Asian American youth: The role of family conflict, parental involvement, and peer behavior

A difference in degree of acculturation between immigrant parents and children, known as intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD), is a risk factor for adolescent alcohol use. We used path analysis with 292 Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents from immigrant families in the United States to measure potential mediators (family conflict, parental involvement/monitoring, association with deviant peers) of the ICD-alcohol use relationship. The hypothesized model was an adequate data fit among both groups. Among Cambodian adolescents, higher ICD levels significantly predicted increased family conflict, which in turn was associated with reduced parental involvement/monitoring, increased association with deviant peers, and a subsequently higher risk of alcohol use (p < .05 for all coefficients). We also found significant indirect effects of ICD on alcohol use among Vietnamese adolescents through family conflict and parental involvement/monitoring (p < .05 for all coefficients) but not through peer behavior. For both groups, there was no direct effect of ICD on alcohol use outside these pathways. Identification of significant mediators provides potential targets for preventing alcohol use among these populations. In addition, differences in path coefficients between Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents underscore the importance of conducting analyses stratified by Asian ethnic group.

Child and adolescent risk factors that differentially predict violent versus nonviolent crime

While most research on the development of antisocial and criminal behavior has considered nonviolent and violent crime together, some evidence points to differential risk factors for these separate types of crime. The present study explored differential risk for nonviolent and violent crime by investigating the longitudinal associations between three key child risk factors (aggression, emotion dysregulation, and social isolation) and two key adolescent risk factors (parent detachment and deviant peer affiliation) predicting violent and nonviolent crime outcomes in early adulthood. Data on 754 participants (46% African American, 50% European American, 4% other; 58% male) oversampled for aggressive-disruptive behavior were collected across three time points. Parents and teachers rated aggression, emotion dysregulation, and social isolation in fifth grade (middle childhood, age 10-11); parents and youth rated parent detachment and deviant peer affiliation in seventh and eighth grade (early adolescence, age 12-14) and arrest data were collected when participants were 22-23 years old (early adulthood). Different pathways to violent and nonviolent crime emerged. The severity of child dysfunction in late childhood, including aggression, emotion dysregulation, and social isolation, was a powerful and direct predictor of violent crime. Although child dysfunction also predicted nonviolent crime, the direct pathway accounted for half as much variance as the direct pathway to violent crime. Significant indirect pathways through adolescent socialization experiences (peer deviancy) emerged for nonviolent crime, but not for violent crime, suggesting adolescent socialization plays a more distinctive role in predicting nonviolent than violent crime. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Reciprocal Effects of Positive Future Expectations, Threats to Safety, and Risk Behavior Across Adolescence

We examined the reciprocal relationships among positive future expectations, expected threats to future safety, depression, and individual substance use and delinquency using 4 waves of data (N = 248-338) from African American and Latino adolescent male participants in the Chicago Youth Development Study. Individual positive future expectations and expected threats to safety were assessed at each wave and modeled as latent constructs. Individual substance use and delinquency were assessed at each wave and represented as ordinal variables ranging from low to high. Categorical autoregressive cross-lagged structural models were used to examine the hypothesized reciprocal relationships between both aspects of future expectations construct and risk behavior across adolescence. Analyses show that future expectations has important effects on youth substance use and involvement in delinquency, both of which in turn decrease positive expectations and increase expectation of threats to future safety across adolescence. Similarly, low positive expectations for the future continued to predict increased substance use and involvement in delinquency. The expected threats to safety construct was significantly correlated with delinquency within time. These effects are observed across adolescence after controlling for youth depression and race. Findings support the reciprocal effects hypothesis of a negative reinforcing cycle in the relationships between future expectations and both substance use and involvement in delinquent behavior across adolescence. The enduring nature of these relationships underscores the importance of future expectation as a potential change mechanism for intervention and prevention efforts to promote healthy development; vulnerable racial and ethnic minority male adolescents may especially benefit from such intervention.

Evidence-Based Psychosocial Treatments for Adolescents With Disruptive Behavior

This article updates the earlier reviews of evidence-based psychosocial treatments for disruptive behavior in adolescents (Brestan & Eyberg, 1998; Eyberg, Nelson, & Boggs, 2008), focusing primarily on the treatment literature published from 2007 to 2014. Studies were identified through an extensive literature search and evaluated using Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (JCCAP) level of support criteria, which classify studies as well-established, probably efficacious, possibly efficacious, experimental, or of questionable efficacy based on existing evidence. The JCCAP criteria have undergone modest changes in recent years. Thus, in addition to evaluating new studies from 2007 to 2014 for this update, all adolescent-focused articles that had been included in the 1998 and 2008 reviews were reexamined. In total, 86 empirical papers published over a 48-year period and covering 50 unique treatment protocols were identified and coded. Two multicomponent treatments that integrate strategies from family, behavioral, and cognitive-behavioral therapy met criteria as well-established. Summaries are provided for those treatments, as well as for two additional multicomponent treatments and two cognitive-behavioral treatments that met criteria as probably efficacious. Treatments designated as possibly efficacious, experimental, or of questionable efficacy are listed. In addition, moderator/mediator research is summarized. Results indicate that since the prior reviews, there has been a noteworthy expansion of research on treatments for adolescent disruptive behavior, particularly treatments that are multicomponent in nature. Despite these advances, more research is needed to address key gaps in the field. Implications of the findings for future science and clinical practice are discussed.

Efficacy of a Universal Brief Intervention for Violence Among Urban Emergency Department Youth

BACKGROUND

Violent injury is the leading cause of death among urban youth. Emergency department (ED) visits represent an opportunity to deliver a brief intervention (BI) to reduce violence among youth seeking medical care in high-risk communities.

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to determine the efficacy of a universally applied BI addressing violence behaviors among youth presenting to an urban ED.

METHODS

ED youth (14 to 20 years old) seeking medical or injury-related care in a Level I ED (October 2011-March 2015) and screening positive for a home address within the intervention or comparison neighborhood of a larger youth violence project were enrolled in this quasi-experimental study. Based on home address, participants were assigned to receive either the 30-minute therapist-delivered BI (Project Sync) or a resource brochure (enhanced usual care [EUC] condition). The Project Sync BI combined motivational interviewing and cognitive skills training, including a review of participant goals, tailored feedback, decisional balance exercises, role-playing exercises, and linkage to community resources. Participants completed validated survey measures at baseline and a 2-month follow-up assessment. Main outcome measures included self-report of physical victimization, aggression, and self-efficacy to avoid fighting. Poisson and zero-inflated Poisson regression analyses analyzed the effects of the BI, compared to the EUC condition, on primary outcomes.

RESULTS

A total of 409 eligible youth (82% participation) were enrolled and assigned to receive either the BI (n = 263) or the EUC condition (n = 146). Two-month follow-up was 91% (n = 373). There were no significant baseline differences between study conditions. Among the entire sample, mean (±SD) age was 17.7 (±1.9) years, 60% were female, 93% were African American, and 79% reported receipt of public assistance. Of participants, 9% presented for a violent injury, 9% reported recent firearm carriage, 20% reported recent alcohol use, and 39% reported recent marijuana use. Compared with the EUC group, participants in the therapist BI group showed self-reported reductions in frequency of violent aggression (therapist, -46.8%; EUC, -36.9%; incident rate ratio [IRR] = 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.76 to 0.99) and increased self-efficacy for avoiding fighting (therapist, +7.2%; EUC, -1.3%; IRR = 1.09; 95% CI = 1.02 to 1.15). No significant changes were noted for victimization.

CONCLUSIONS

Among youth seeking ED care in a high-risk community, a brief, universally applied BI shows promise in increased self-efficacy for avoiding fighting and a decrease in the frequency of violent aggression.

Assessing future expectations of low-income minority young men: Survival-threats and positive expectations

Future expectations, a subset of overall orientation, represent youths' most realistic appraisals of future outcomes, and has been demonstrated to be associated with a range of health risk behaviors and wellbeing. The current study extends previous measurement efforts to operationalize and measure future expectations by estimating a multidimensional model of future expectations encompassing both positive and survival-based expectations, and using longitudinal data to test the consistency of these constructs over time. The current work uses data from six waves of the Chicago Youth Development Study (n=338), a sample of African American and Latino young men from low income neighborhoods in an urban center, to test a hypothesized multidimensional structure of future expectations across adolescence. Test retest confirmatory factor analyses from six waves of data covering the mean age range of 12 to 19 years reveal good model fit for the hypothesized multidimensional model of future expectations at each wave. Strong measurement invariance based on race/ethnicity is established for the multidimensional model. Implications for a latent construct approach to future expectations with low-income racial/ethnic minority young men are discussed.

The Promotive and Protective Effects of Family Factors in the Context of Peer and Community Risks for Aggression

A clearer understanding of the promotive factors that reduce adolescents' involvement in aggression and the protective factors that mitigate the influence of risk factors that emerge during adolescence is needed to inform prevention efforts. This study examined the promotive and protective influences of family factors on physical aggression using data collected from aggressive and socially-influential adolescents (N = 537; 35 % female) at the beginning of sixth grade and at three subsequent waves across the following 3 years. Family characteristics (i.e., better family functioning, higher perceived parental support for nonviolence, and lower parental support for fighting) at the start of the sixth grade exerted promotive effects that reduced levels of aggression at subsequent waves. Some support was also found for protective influences. A foundation of good family functioning at the start of sixth grade buffered adolescents from the risks from delinquent peers, from the spring of sixth grade to the spring of seventh grade. Low parental support for fighting reduced risks associated with witnessing community violence, from the fall to the spring of sixth grade, but at low levels of risk only. These findings suggest that interventions targeting high-risk adolescents might benefit by enhancing both promotive and protective family factors.

Delinquency and association with behavioral disorders and substance abuse

Objective: to determine the incidence and associations of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder (CD), and substance abuse disorder (SAD) in adolescents in conflict with the law in a Brazilian cohort. Methods: the Brazilian version of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged-Children (K-SADS-PL) was administered to 69 adolescent boys who were incarcerated for 45 days in the city of Curitiba, Brazil. Results: mean age was 15.5 years (range, 12-16.9 years) and most adolescents originated from disadvantaged social classes (87%). They resided in neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city or towns in the greater metropolitan area. Truancy and low educational achievement were common, with 73.9% not currently attending school and 43.4% not having finished the 5th grade. The great majority lived in single-parent families and many had relatives who themselves had problems with the law. Psychiatric disorders were apparent in 81.1% of the subjects, with the most common disorders being CD (59.4%), SAD (53.6%), and ADHD (43.5%). Both ADHD (p <0.001) and CD (p <0.01) had significant associations with substance abuse. Conclusion: in male adolescents in conflict with the law, ADHD, CD, and SAD were all found to be associated with delinquency.

Family Functioning and High Risk Adolescents' Aggressive Behavior: Examining Effects by Ethnicity

The relationship between family functioning and adolescents' physical aggression has been well established, but whether these relationships might differ by ethnicity has received less attention. Ethnic variations may be important for targeting prevention programs to specific youth and families. This study examined the longitudinal relationship between family cohesion, parental monitoring, and physical aggression using data from the Multisite Violence Prevention Project sample of high-risk youth (elevated aggression). Participants were 1,232 high-risk middle school students (65% male; 70% African American; 15% Hispanic). Meaningful demographic variations were identified. After controlling for intervention condition and study site, family cohesion was significantly negatively related to physical aggression, more so for Hispanic youth. Parental monitoring was negatively associated with physical aggression for African American youth only. Our findings point to the importance of developing culturally sensitive family interventions to prevent physical aggression in middle school.

Delinquency in Adolescent Girls: Using a Confluence Approach to Understand the Influences of Parents and Peers

Determining the interdependence of family and peer influences on the development of delinquency is critical to defining and implementing effective interventions. This study explored the longitudinal relationship among harsh punishment, positive parenting, peer delinquency, and adolescent delinquency using data from a sub-sample of the Pittsburgh Girls Study. Participants were 622 adolescent girls (42% European American, 53% African American); families living in low-income neighborhoods were oversampled. After controlling for the effects of race, living in a single parent household, and receipt of public assistance, harsh punishment and peer delinquency in early adolescence were positively related to delinquency in mid-adolescence. No significant main effects of positive parenting or interaction effects between parenting and peer delinquency were observed. Thus, the effects of harsh parenting and peer delinquency are independent and perhaps additive, rather than interdependent. Results indicate the continued importance of targeting both parenting and peer relationships to prevent delinquency in adolescent girls.

The predictive influence of family and neighborhood assets on fighting and weapon carrying from mid- to late adolescence

Using a developmental, social-ecological approach to understand the etiology of health-risk behavior and inform primary prevention efforts, we assess the predictive effects of family and neighborhood social processes on youth physical fighting and weapon carrying. Specifically, we focus on relationships among youth and their parents, family communication, parental monitoring, as well as sense of community and neighborhood informal social control, support, concerns, and disorder. This study advances knowledge through its investigation of family and neighborhood structural factors and social processes together, employment of longitudinal models that estimate effects over adolescent development, and use of self-report and observational measures. Data from 1,093 youth/parent pairs were analyzed from the Youth Assets Study using a Generalized Estimating Equation approach; family and neighborhood assets and risks were analyzed as time varying and lagged. Similar family assets affected physical fighting and weapon carrying, whereas different neighborhood social processes influenced the two forms of youth violence. Study findings have implications for the primary prevention of youth violence, including the use of family-based approaches that build relationships and parental monitoring skills and community-level change approaches that promote informal social control and reduce neighborhood concerns about safety.

Stressful life experiences and peer externalizing behaviors mediate the relation between reduced family support and externalizing symptoms in low-income urban youth

Family support, urban stressors, and peer behavior were examined in relation to externalizing symptoms in 605 predominantly low-income urban sixth through eighth grade adolescents. Mother and father support were each associated with lower levels of externalizing symptoms in both males and females. For males, father absence was associated with increased peer externalizing behavior and heightened rates of youth externalizing symptoms. Stress (in the form of major life events, daily hassles, and exposure to violence) and peer externalizing behavior were examined as mediators of the relation between parent support and youth externalizing symptoms. Increased stress exposure mediated the relation between weak mother and father support and youth externalizing symptoms. Additionally, for females, peer externalizing behavior mediated the relation between weak mother support and youth externalizing symptoms.

Psychological dysregulation during adolescence mediates the association of parent-child attachment in childhood and substance use disorder in adulthood

OBJECTIVE

This prospective study tested the hypothesis that psychological dysregulation in mid-adolescence (age 16) mediates the association between parent-child attachment in late childhood (age 10-12) and development of substance use disorder (SUD) in adulthood (age 22).

METHOD

The Youth Attachment to Parents Scale (YAPS) was developed in 10-12-year-old boys and girls (N = 694) at baseline residing in western Pennsylvania. Psychological dysregulation was measured by the neurobehavior disinhibition trait. Substance use was assessed at ages 10-12, 12-14, 16 and 19. SUD was diagnosed at age 22 using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders. The mediation of parent-child attachment and SUD by neurobehavior disinhibition was tested separately for mothers and fathers while controlling for baseline substance use.

RESULTS

Psychological dysregulation mediates the association between attachment to mothers and SUD, and partially mediates the association between attachment to fathers and SUD. Significant mediation effects remains after controlling for baseline substance use.

CONCLUSION

Optimal prevention of SUD should include ameliorating both psychological dysregulation predisposing to SUD and quality of the parent-child relationship.

Genetic and environmental influences on affiliation with deviant peers during adolescence and early adulthood

Adolescence and early adulthood is a time when peer groups become increasingly influential in the lives of young people. Youths exposed to deviant peers risk susceptibility to externalizing behaviors and related psychopathology. In addition to environmental correlates of deviant peer affiliation, a growing body of evidence has suggested that affiliation with deviant peers is heritable. This study examined the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on affiliation with deviant peers, changes in the relative importance of these factors, and which of these factors contribute to the stability of affiliation across this critical developmental period using a longitudinal twin study design that assessed same-sex twins (485 monozygotic pairs, 271 dizygotic pairs) at 3 discrete ages: 15, 18, and 21 years of age. Biometric models revealed that genetic influences increased with age. New genetic influences appeared during late adolescence, and no new genetic influences emerged by age 21. Environmental influences shared by sibling pairs decreased with age, while the proportion of nonshared environmental effects unique to each individual remained relatively stable over the course of development. Shared environmental influences were largely age-overlapping, whereas nonshared environmental influences were largely age-specific. In summary, this study found variance in affiliation with deviant peers is explained by shared and nonshared environment effects as well as by genetic influences (46% by age 21), supporting the role of genetically influenced selection factors. The shared environment was almost exclusively responsible for the stability in late adolescence, while genetic influences were primarily responsible for stability in early adulthood.

Differential Effects of Parental Controls on Adolescent Substance Use: For Whom Is the Family Most Important?

OBJECTIVE

Social control theory assumes that the ability of social constraints to deter juvenile delinquency will be invariant across individuals. This paper tests this hypothesis and examines the degree to which there are differential effects of parental controls on adolescent substance use.

METHODS

Analyses are based on self-reported data from 7,349 10th-grade students and rely on regression mixture models to identify latent classes of individuals who may vary in the effects of parental controls on drug use.

RESULTS

All parental controls were significantly related to adolescent drug use, with higher levels of control associated with less drug use. The effects of instrumental parental controls (e.g., parental management strategies) on drug use were shown to vary across individuals, while expressive controls (e.g., parent/child attachment) had uniform effects in reducing drug use. Specifically, poor family management and more favorable parental attitudes regarding children's drug use and delinquency had stronger effects on drug use for students who reported greater attachment to their neighborhoods, less acceptance of adolescent drug use by neighborhood residents, and fewer delinquent peers, compared to those with greater community and peer risk exposure. Parental influences were also stronger for Caucasian students versus those from other racial/ethnic groups, but no differences in effects were found based on students' gender or commitment to school.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings demonstrate support for social control theory, and also help to refine and add precision to this perspective by identifying groups of individuals for whom parental controls are most influential. Further, they offer an innovative methodology that can be applied to any criminological theory to examine the complex forces that result in illegal behavior.

The longitudinal relationship between peer violence and popularity and delinquency in adolescent boys: examining effects by family functioning

Mapping the relationship of peer influences and parental/family characteristics on delinquency can help expand the understanding of findings that show an interdependence between peer and family predictors. This study explored the longitudinal relationship between two characteristics of peer relationships (violence and perceived popularity) with subsequent individual delinquency and the moderating role of family characteristics (cohesion and parental monitoring) using data from the Chicago Youth Development Study. Participants were 364 inner-city residing adolescent boys (54% African American; 40% Hispanic). After controlling for the effects of age and ethnicity, peer violence is positively related to boys' delinquency. The effect of popularity depends on parental monitoring, such that the relationship between popularity and delinquency is positive when parental monitoring is low, but there is no relationship when parental monitoring is high. Furthermore, parental monitoring contributes to the relationship between peer violence and delinquency such that there is a stronger relationship when parental monitoring is low. Additionally, there is a stronger relationship between peer violence and delinquency for boys from high cohesive families. Findings point to the value of attention to multiple aspects of peer and family relationships in explaining and intervening in the risk for delinquency. Furthermore, findings indicate the importance of family-focused interventions in preventing delinquency.

Mediators of effects of a selective family-focused violence prevention approach for middle school students

This study examined how parenting and family characteristics targeted in a selective prevention program mediated effects on key youth proximal outcomes related to violence perpetration. The selective intervention was evaluated within the context of a multi-site trial involving random assignment of 37 schools to four conditions: a universal intervention composed of a student social-cognitive curriculum and teacher training, a selective family-focused intervention with a subset of high-risk students, a condition combining these two interventions, and a no-intervention control condition. Two cohorts of sixth-grade students (total N = 1,062) exhibiting high levels of aggression and social influence were the sample for this study. Analyses of pre-post change compared to controls using intent-to-treat analyses found no significant effects. However, estimates incorporating participation of those assigned to the intervention and predicted participation among those not assigned revealed significant positive effects on student aggression, use of aggressive strategies for conflict management, and parental estimation of student's valuing of achievement. Findings also indicated intervention effects on two targeted family processes: discipline practices and family cohesion. Mediation analyses found evidence that change in these processes mediated effects on some outcomes, notably aggressive behavior and valuing of school achievement. Results support the notion that changing parenting practices and the quality of family relationships can prevent the escalation in aggression and maintain positive school engagement for high-risk youth.

Father's and mother's perceptions of parenting styles as mediators of the effects of parental psychopathology on antisocial behavior in outpatient children and adolescents

The aim was to examine the potential mediating role of father's and mother's parenting styles in the association between parental psychopathology and antisocial behavior in children, and whether this pathway was moderated by child's sex. Participants included both parents and 338 Spanish outpatient children between 8 and 17 years (56.5% boys). Parenting style had a mediating effect on the studied relationships. Maternal psychopathology was positively associated with antisocial behavior in children, either directly or partially by parenting style, while paternal psychopathology was positively associated with offspring antisocial behavior only through the mediator role of parenting style. Child's sex did not moderate these relationships. Parenting style could be a target for prevention and intervention of antisocial behavior in the offspring of parents with mental health problems.

Family process and peer deviance influences on adolescent aggression: longitudinal effects across early and middle adolescence

Beginning in sixth grade at an average age of 11.9 years, 416 adolescents and their parents participated in 4 waves of data collection involving family observations and multiple-reporter assessments. Ecological theory and the process-person-context-time (PPCT) model guided the hypotheses and analyses. Lagged, growth curve models revealed that family hostility and peer deviance affiliation predicted adolescent aggression in the subsequent year. Family warmth played only a minor role in protecting against adolescent aggression. In hostile or low-warmth families, peer deviance affiliation linked to a declining aggression trajectory consistent with the arena of comfort hypothesis. The longitudinal findings suggest a nonadditive, synergistic interplay between family and peer contexts across time in adding nuance to understanding the adolescent aggression.

Effect of parental bereavement on health risk behaviors in youth: a 3-year follow-up

OBJECTIVE

To examine the course of health risk behaviors (HRBs) during a 3-year period after a parent's death in bereaved youth compared with nonbereaved youth (control subjects).

DESIGN

A longitudinal population-based study.

SETTING

Bereaved families were recruited through coroner records and by advertisement. Control families were recruited using random-digit dialing and by advertisement.

PARTICIPANTS

Two hundred forty parentally bereaved offspring were compared with 183 nonbereaved control offspring.

MAIN EXPOSURE

Sudden parental death due to accident, suicide, or sudden disease-related (natural) death.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The sum of the total number of HRBs at a clinically significant frequency threshold assessed 9, 21, and 33 months after the parent's death.

RESULTS

The bereaved group showed a higher number of HRBs over time compared with the nonbereaved group (univariate effect sizes, 0.22-0.52; P < .04), even after taking into account correlates of bereavement and of HRBs, such as youth aggression, as well as antisocial and anxiety disorders of the deceased parent.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental bereavement is associated with higher HRBs in youth over time, even after controlling for other covariates associated with bereavement and HRBs. Clinicians should be aware that bereaved youth may be vulnerable to HRBs. Further work is warranted on interventions to attenuate the negative effect of bereavement on HRBs.

Multicultural Mastery Scale for youth: multidimensional assessment of culturally mediated coping strategies

Self-mastery refers to problem-focused coping facilitated through personal agency. Communal mastery describes problem solving through an interwoven social network. This study investigates an adaptation of self- and communal mastery measures for youth. Given the important distinction between family and peers in the lives of youth, these adaptation efforts produced Mastery-Family and Mastery-Friends subscales, along with a Mastery-Self subscale. We tested these measures for psychometric properties and internal structure with 284 predominately Yup'ik Eskimo Alaska Native adolescents (12- to 18-year-olds) from rural, remote communities-a non-Western culturally distinct group hypothesized to display higher levels of collectivism and communal mastery. Results demonstrate a subset of items adapted for youth function satisfactorily, a 3-response alternative format provided meaningful information, and the subscale's underlying structure is best described through 3 distinct first-order factors organized under 1 higher order mastery factor.

Juvenile Offences Among Hospitalized Adolescent Inhalant Users in Istanbul: A Comparison Regarding Place of Residence

In this research, juvenile offenses and associated behaviors among adolescent inhalant users in Istanbul were investigated and inhalant users living in the street were compared to inhalant users living with their families. An interview questionnaire developed by the researchers was administered to 200 male adolescent inhalant users who were hospitalized during 2002-2003. More than half of the sample had committed juvenile offenses at least once in their lifetime, 16.3% had entered a house of corrections, 91.5% had friends who committed juvenile offenses, and the majority had been taken to a police station at least once in their lifetime. The rates for juvenile offenses, being taken to the police station, committing crimes to obtain money to buy drugs, and obtaining income through illegal activities were higher among adolescents living in the street than adolescents living with their families. Although the juvenile offense rate was higher among adolescents living in the street, it can be suggested that both groups live in subcultures that have a tendency towards crime, and inhalant use is part of these subcultures. Juvenile offense interventions can be useful for all inhalant users.

Parents as moderators of the impact of school norms and peer influences on aggression in middle school students

This study examined parenting variables as protective factors to reduce the influence of school and peer risk factors on adolescents' aggression. Five waves of data spanning 3 years were collected from 5,581 students at 37 schools who began the 6th grade in 2001 or 2002. Class-level and perceived school norms supporting aggression, delinquent peer associations, parental support for fighting and support for nonviolence, and parental involvement were each associated with physical aggression across all waves. Each parenting variable moderated 1 or more risk factors, with the magnitude of many effects varying by gender and decreasing over time. Implications for the role parents may play in reducing the impact of school and peer risk factors for aggression are discussed.

Parents' promotion of psychological autonomy, psychological control, and Mexican-American adolescents' adjustment

Mexican-American adolescents are at an elevated risk for adjustment difficulties. In an effort to identify parenting practices that can affect the adjustment of Mexican-American youth, the current study examined parents' promotion of psychological autonomy and parents' psychological control as perceived by Mexican-American early adolescents, and explored their associations with adolescents' adjustment in the context of acculturation. In 5th grade, 134 (54.5% female) Mexican-American adolescents reported on their acculturation level and the parenting practices of their mothers and fathers. In 5th and 7th grade, adolescents also reported on their depressive symptoms, number of delinquent friends, and self-worth. Perceptions of promotion of psychological autonomy and of psychological control were positively correlated. However, perceptions of more promotion of psychological autonomy and of less psychological control predicted fewer depressive symptoms 2 years later. Perceptions of more promotion of psychological autonomy also predicted fewer delinquent friends two years later. Finally, perceptions of more promotion of psychological autonomy predicted higher self-worth only among less acculturated adolescents. The study underscores the roles that promotion of psychological autonomy and psychological control may play in Mexican-American children's well-being during early adolescence.

Motivations for Gang Membership in Lagos, Nigeria

The current study explores the major challenges (in the form of risk factors) that may influence unemployed youths’ involvement in gang and criminal activity in Lagos, Nigeria. A combination of techniques (e.g., oral, in-depth interviews, and questionnaires) were used for the data collection. The computed outcomes establish some of the major conditions (e.g., large families, rural/urban migration, poverty, and police corruption) faced by the vulnerable youths before turning to gang and criminal activity as an alternative opportunity to improve their lot in life. The possible implications of the current findings on risk-focused prevention strategies are discussed.

Accuracy and bias in adolescents' perceptions of friends' substance use

This study tested competing hypotheses related to the false consensus effect and pluralistic ignorance by examining the accuracy and bias of adolescents' perceptions of peer substance use and the effects of their own substance use, gender, and age on perceptions of peer behavior. Two samples (ns = 163 and 2,194) that collected data on peer nominations, perceptions of peer substance use, and self-reports of substance use were used in analyses. Results from both samples provided evidence supporting the false consensus effect, that is, adolescents' reports of their friends' substance use were biased in the direction of their own use. Users and nonusers did not differ in accuracy of perceptions; however, across all substances and samples, they differed significantly in bias. Substance users displayed nearly perfect liberal bias, assuming their friends also used substances. Nonusers displayed an opposite, conservative bias, assuming their friends did not use substances. Gender and age differences in bias also were observed, with older adolescents and girls having more liberal biases than younger adolescents and boys. Results suggest the importance of differentiating the effects of actual and perceived peer substance use.

The role of perceived parent monitoring and support on urban child and adolescent problem behavior

Parental practices on problem behavior based on gender and age effects with urban youth were studied. Participants were 8-17 years old (N = 3,658; 66% African-American) and logistic regression models were conducted. For pre-teen females, decreased friend monitoring was related to high problem behavior; for teen females, lower maternal support and decreased home monitoring were significant. None of the models were significant for pre-teen males and lack of home monitoring was significant for teen males. Strategies for preventing problem behavior within urban communities will be more effective if they are tailored to gender and developmental factors.

An Ecological Approach to Understanding Youth Violence: The Mediating Role of Substance Use

The authors tested an ecological model that posits mediating variables (substance use and mental health) in the association between ecological factors (family closeness, school closeness, and peer closeness) and youth violence in a sample of 4,783 adolescents. Model including substance use present significantly less total effect between ecological factors and youth violence than do models without substance use. Additional probing of significant mediation effect using the Sobel test was performed and suggested that substance use did function as a mediator in the hypothesized path. Considerations of adolescent violence should recognize the possible role of ecological factors and how their influence may vary by substance use.

Parent and peer predictors of physical dating violence perpetration in early adolescence: tests of moderation and gender differences

This study examined parenting and peer predictors of physical dating violence perpetration during early adolescence and tested moderation among these predictors and gender. Participants were 2,824 ethnically diverse sixth-grade students with a recent boyfriend/girlfriend who was part of a multisite, longitudinal investigation of the development and prevention of violence among middle school students. Those students who reported having a boyfriend/girlfriend reported significantly more drug use and delinquent activity and were more likely to be male. Twenty-nine percent of youth with a boyfriend/girlfriend reported perpetrating physical aggression against their boyfriend/girlfriend. Parenting and peer variables were significant predictors of physical dating violence. However, gender moderated the association between parenting practices and physical dating violence, with parental monitoring inversely linked to dating violence for boys and parent support for nonaggression inversely linked to dating violence for girls. Parent support for aggression also moderated the association between peer deviancy and reported perpetration. Finally, gender moderated the interaction between peer deviancy and parent support for nonaggressive solutions.

Gender differences in risk and promotive classifications associated with adolescent delinquency

How likely are children exposed to multiple risk factors to engage in delinquent behavior, to what extent do promotive factors mitigate exposure to these risk factors, and do the predictors of delinquent behavior differ by gender? To address these questions, the authors analyzed data from youths (229 boys, 187 girls) who completed the third wave of the Lehigh Longitudinal Study using Latent Profile Analysis. A unique risk and promotive class with slightly elevated rates of exposure to parental violence, mean levels of other risk factors and low levels of promotive factors was present for girls but not for boys. Additionally, for boys and girls, high-risk, low-promotive individuals were significantly more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than low-risk, high-promotive cases. Findings suggest the need to examine risk and promotive factors in combination to account for their shared influences on developmental outcomes for youth.

Enhancing parenting skills among nonresident African American fathers as a strategy for preventing youth risky behaviors

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a theoretically based, culturally specific family intervention designed to prevent youth risky behaviors by influencing the parenting attitudes and behaviors of nonresident African American fathers and the parent-child interactions, intentions to avoid violence, and aggressive behaviors of their preadolescent sons. A sample of 158 intervention and 129 comparison group families participated. ANCOVA results indicated that the intervention was promising for enhancing parental monitoring, communication about sex, intentions to communicate, race-related socialization practices, and parenting skills satisfaction among fathers. The intervention was also beneficial for sons who reported more monitoring by their fathers, improved communication about sex, and increased intentions to avoid violence. The intervention was not effective in reducing aggressive behaviors among sons. Findings are discussed from a family support perspective, including the need to involve nonresident African American fathers in youth risky behavior prevention efforts.

Racial/ethnic differences in parental concern about their child's drug use in a nationally representative sample in the United States

INTRODUCTION

Parental concern and negative attitudes toward drug use may prevent youth from being involved in drug use. However, few studies have addressed parental concern about children's drug use and its possible variation by race/ethnicity. In this study, we explored the potential racial/ethnic differences in parental concern about their children's drug use with a nationally representative sample.

METHODS

The data were from the 2003 National Survey of Children's Health, a random household telephone survey of parents of children up to age 17 (n = 102353). The analytic sample was restricted to parents of children aged 6 to 17 years (n = 61046). Multivariate logistic regression models, controlling for children's age, gender, family structure, and family poverty level, were fitted, simultaneously accommodating the complex survey design.

RESULTS

Parents of African American and Hispanic children expressed more concern than parents of white children, even after controlling for potential confounders (adjusted odds ratio (AOR), 1.9; 95% CI, 1.8-2.1 and AOR, 1.9; 95% Cl, 1.7-2.1, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The level of parental concern about adolescent drug use was different across race/ethnicity groups. The results may have implications for parental participation in school-based adolescent prevention programs.

Developmental pathways to conduct problems: a further test of the childhood and adolescent-onset distinction

This study tested several theoretically important differences between youth with a childhood-onset and youth with an adolescent-onset to their severe conduct problems. Seventy-eight pre-adjudicated adolescent boys (ranging in age from 11 to 18) housed in two short-term detention facilities and one outpatient program for youth at risk for involvement in the juvenile justice system participated in the current study. The sample was divided into those with a childhood-onset to their serious conduct problem behavior (n = 47) and those with an adolescent-onset (n = 31). The childhood-onset group showed greater levels of dysfunctional parenting, callous-unemotional traits, and affiliation with delinquent peers. The only variable more strongly associated with the adolescent-onset group was lower scores on a measure of traditionalism.

Mediators of neighborhood influences on externalizing behavior in preadolescent children

This study tested a mediation model of neighborhood influences on children's externalizing behavior. In the proposed model, neighborhood disadvantage, ethnic heterogeneity, and low residential stability affect children's behavior indirectly through their impact on neighborhood social processes, which in turn influence parenting and deviant peer affiliations. A community sample of 704 preadolescents (76% African American, 22% Caucasian) and their parents and teachers provided information for the study. Neighborhood concentrated poverty, derived from the 2000 U.S. Census, was positively associated with children's externalizing behavior. This effect was fully mediated by neighborhood social processes and parenting quality, while deviant peer affiliations made independent contributions to problem behavior. The final mediation model explained children's externalizing behavior equally well across gender and ethnicity, suggesting the presence of universal processes.