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Grinman DY, Boras-Granic K, Takyar FM, Dann P, Hens JR, Marmol C, Lee J, Choi J, Chodosh LA, Sola MEG, Wysolmerski JJ. PTHrP induces STAT5 activation, secretory differentiation and accelerates mammary tumor development. Breast Cancer Res 2022; 24:30. [PMID: 35440032 PMCID: PMC9020078 DOI: 10.1186/s13058-022-01523-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) is required for embryonic breast development and has important functions during lactation, when it is produced by alveolar epithelial cells and secreted into the maternal circulation to mobilize skeletal calcium used for milk production. PTHrP is also produced by breast cancers, and GWAS studies suggest that it influences breast cancer risk. However, the exact functions of PTHrP in breast cancer biology remain unsettled. METHODS We developed a tetracycline-regulated, MMTV (mouse mammary tumor virus)-driven model of PTHrP overexpression in mammary epithelial cells (Tet-PTHrP mice) and bred these mice with the MMTV-PyMT (polyoma middle tumor-antigen) breast cancer model to analyze the impact of PTHrP overexpression on normal mammary gland biology and in breast cancer progression. RESULTS Overexpression of PTHrP in luminal epithelial cells caused alveolar hyperplasia and secretory differentiation of the mammary epithelium with milk production. This was accompanied by activation of Stat5 and increased expression of E74-like factor-5 (Elf5) as well as a delay in post-lactation involution. In MMTV-PyMT mice, overexpression of PTHrP (Tet-PTHrP;PyMT mice) shortened tumor latency and accelerated tumor growth, ultimately reducing overall survival. Tumors overproducing PTHrP also displayed increased expression of nuclear pSTAT5 and Elf5, increased expression of markers of secretory differentiation and milk constituents, and histologically resembled secretory carcinomas of the breast. Overexpression of PTHrP within cells isolated from tumors, but not PTHrP exogenously added to cell culture media, led to activation of STAT5 and milk protein gene expression. In addition, neither ablating the Type 1 PTH/PTHrP receptor (PTH1R) in epithelial cells nor treating Tet-PTHrP;PyMT mice with an anti-PTH1R antibody prevented secretory differentiation or altered tumor latency. These data suggest that PTHrP acts in a cell-autonomous, intracrine manner. Finally, expression of PTHrP in human breast cancers is associated with expression of genes involved in milk production and STAT5 signaling. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggests that PTHrP promotes pathways leading to secretory differentiation and proliferation in both normal mammary epithelial cells and in breast tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Y Grinman
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC S120, Box 208020, New Haven, CT, 06520-8020, USA.
| | - Kata Boras-Granic
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC S120, Box 208020, New Haven, CT, 06520-8020, USA
| | - Farzin M Takyar
- Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Pamela Dann
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC S120, Box 208020, New Haven, CT, 06520-8020, USA
| | - Julie R Hens
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC S120, Box 208020, New Haven, CT, 06520-8020, USA
| | | | - Jongwon Lee
- Brain Korea 21 Plus Project for Biomedical Science, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jungmin Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lewis A Chodosh
- Department of Cancer Biology, Perlman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Martin E Garcia Sola
- Departamento de Fisiología y Biología Molecular y Celular, Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIByNE), CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - John J Wysolmerski
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC S120, Box 208020, New Haven, CT, 06520-8020, USA
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Demaret T, Wintjens R, Sana G, Docquir J, Bertin F, Ide C, Monestier O, Karadurmus D, Benoit V, Maystadt I. Case Report: Inactivating PTH/PTHrP Signaling Disorder Type 1 Presenting With PTH Resistance. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:928284. [PMID: 35846276 PMCID: PMC9280615 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.928284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
PTH resistance is characterized by elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels, hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia and it is classically associated with GNAS locus genetic or epigenetic defects. Inactivating PTH/PTHrP signaling disorders (iPPSD) define overlapping phenotypes based on their molecular etiology. iPPSD1 is associated with PTH1R variants and variable phenotypes including ossification anomalies and primary failure of tooth eruption but no endocrine disorder. Here we report on a 10-month-old child born from consanguineous parents, who presented with mild neurodevelopmental delay, seizures, enlarged fontanelles, round face, and bilateral clinodactyly. Hand x-rays showed diffuse delayed bone age, osteopenia, short metacarpal bones and cone-shaped distal phalanges. A diagnosis of PTH resistance was made on the basis of severe hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, elevated PTH and normal vitamin D levels on blood sample. The patient was treated with calcium carbonate and alfacalcidol leading to rapid bio-clinical improvement. Follow-up revealed multiple agenesis of primary teeth and delayed teeth eruption, as well as Arnold-Chiari type 1 malformation requiring a ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement. GNAS gene analysis showed no pathogenic variation, but a likely pathogenic homozygous substitution c.723C>G p.(Asp241Glu) in PTH1R gene was found by trio-based whole exome sequencing. We studied the deleterious impact of the variant on the protein conformation with bioinformatics tools. In conclusion, our study reports for the first time PTH resistance in a child with a biallelic PTH1R mutation, extending thereby the clinical spectrum of iPPSD1 phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanguy Demaret
- Centre de Génétique Humaine, Institut de Pathologie et Génétique (IPG), Gosselies, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Tanguy Demaret,
| | - René Wintjens
- Unité Microbiologie, Chimie Bioorganique et Macromoléculaire (CP206/04), Institut de Pharmacie, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Gwenaelle Sana
- Service de Pédiatrie, Grand Hôpital de Charleroi (GHdC), Charleroi, Belgium
| | - Joachim Docquir
- Service de Pédiatrie, Grand Hôpital de Charleroi (GHdC), Charleroi, Belgium
| | - Frederic Bertin
- Service de Radiologie, Grand Hôpital de Charleroi (GHdC), Charleroi, Belgium
| | - Christophe Ide
- Service de Radiologie, Grand Hôpital de Charleroi (GHdC), Charleroi, Belgium
| | - Olivier Monestier
- Centre de Génétique Humaine, Institut de Pathologie et Génétique (IPG), Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Deniz Karadurmus
- Centre de Génétique Humaine, Institut de Pathologie et Génétique (IPG), Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Valerie Benoit
- Centre de Génétique Humaine, Institut de Pathologie et Génétique (IPG), Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Isabelle Maystadt
- Centre de Génétique Humaine, Institut de Pathologie et Génétique (IPG), Gosselies, Belgium
- Département de Médecine, Unité de Recherche en Physiologie Moléculaire (URPhyM), Université de Namur (UNamur), Namur, Belgium
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Khurana N, Pulsipher A, Ghandehari H, Alt JA. Meta-analysis of global and high throughput public gene array data for robust vascular gene expression discovery in chronic rhinosinusitis: Implications in controlled release. J Control Release 2021; 330:878-888. [PMID: 33144181 PMCID: PMC7906912 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.10.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic inflammation is known to cause alterations in vascular homeostasis that directly affects blood vessel morphogenesis, angiogenesis, and tissue permeability. These phenomena have been investigated and exploited for targeted drug delivery applications in the context of cancers and other disease processes. Vascular pathophysiology and its associated genes and signaling pathways, however, have not been systematically investigated in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). Understanding the interplay between key vascular signaling pathways and top biomarkers associated with CRS may facilitate the development of new targeted delivery strategies and treatment paradigms. Herein, we report findings from a gene meta-analysis to identify key vascular pathways and top genes involved in CRS. METHODS Proprietary software (Illumina BaseSpace Correlation Engine) and open-access data sets were used to perform a gene meta-analysis to systematically determine significant differences between key vascular biomarkers and vascular signaling pathways expressed in sinonasal tissue biopsies of controls and patients with CRS. RESULTS Thirteen studies were initially identified, and then reduced to five after applying exclusion principle algorithms. Genes associated with vasculature development and blood vessel morphogenesis signaling pathways were identified to be overexpressed among the top 15 signaling pathways. Out of many significantly upregulated genes, the levels of pro angiogenic genes such as early growth response (EGR3), platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM1) and L-selectin (SELL) were particularly significant in patients with CRS compared to controls. DISCUSSION Key vascular biomarkers and signaling pathways were significantly overexpressed in patients with CRS compared to controls, suggesting a contribution of vascular dysfunction in CRS pathophysiology. Vascular dysregulation and permeability may afford opportunities to develop drug delivery systems to improve efficacy and reduce toxicity of CRS treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitish Khurana
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Utah Center for Nanomedicine, Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Abigail Pulsipher
- Utah Center for Nanomedicine, Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Division of Otolaryngology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Hamidreza Ghandehari
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Utah Center for Nanomedicine, Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Division of Otolaryngology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Jeremiah A Alt
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Utah Center for Nanomedicine, Nano Institute of Utah, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Division of Otolaryngology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA.
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Yang LK, Hou ZS, Tao YX. Biased signaling in naturally occurring mutations of G protein-coupled receptors associated with diverse human diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2021; 1867:165973. [PMID: 32949766 PMCID: PMC7722056 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2020.165973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play critical roles in transmitting a variety of extracellular signals into the cells and regulate diverse physiological functions. Naturally occurring mutations that result in dysfunctions of GPCRs have been known as the causes of numerous diseases. Significant progresses have been made in elucidating the pathophysiology of diseases caused by mutations. The multiple intracellular signaling pathways, such as G protein-dependent and β-arrestin-dependent signaling, in conjunction with recent advances on biased agonism, have broadened the view on the molecular mechanism of disease pathogenesis. This review aims to briefly discuss biased agonism of GPCRs (biased ligands and biased receptors), summarize the naturally occurring GPCR mutations that cause biased signaling, and propose the potential pathophysiological relevance of biased mutant GPCRs associated with various endocrine diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Kun Yang
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Zhi-Shuai Hou
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Ya-Xiong Tao
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States.
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Grippaudo C, Cafiero C, D'Apolito I, Re A, Genuardi M, Chiurazzi P, Frazier-Bowers SA. A novel nonsense PTH1R variant shows incomplete penetrance of primary failure of eruption: a case report. BMC Oral Health 2019; 19:249. [PMID: 31730001 PMCID: PMC6858648 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-019-0944-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aim of this work was to describe a rare inheritance pattern of Primary Failure of Eruption (PFE) in a small family with incomplete penetrance of PFE and a novel nonsense PTH1R variant. CASE PRESENTATION The proband, a 26 year-old man with a significant bilateral open-bite, was diagnosed with PFE using clinical and radiographic characteristics. DNA was extracted from the proband and his immediate family using buccal swabs and the entire PTH1R coding sequence was analyzed, revealing a novel heterozygous nonsense variant in exon 7 of PTH1R (c.505G > T). This variant introduces a premature stop codon in position 169, predicted to result in the production of a truncated and non-functional protein. This variant has never been reported in association with PFE and is not present in the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD). Interestingly, the c.505G > T variant has also been identified in the unaffected mother of our proband, suggesting incomplete penetrance of PFE. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we report a new PTH1R variant that segregates in an autosomal dominant pattern and causes PFE with incomplete penetrance. This underlines the diagnostic value of a thorough clinical and genetic analysis of all family members in order to estimate accurate recurrence risks, identify subtle clinical manifestations and provide proper management of PFE patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Grippaudo
- Istituto di Clinica Odontoiatrica, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A.Gemelli" IRCCS, Roma, Italy.
| | - Concetta Cafiero
- Istituto di Clinica Odontoiatrica, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A.Gemelli" IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Isabella D'Apolito
- Istituto di Clinica Odontoiatrica, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A.Gemelli" IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Agnese Re
- Istituto di Fisiologia Umana, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy.,Istituto di Biologia Cellulare e Neurobiologia, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Roma, Italy
| | - Maurizio Genuardi
- Istituto di Medicina Genomica, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A.Gemelli" IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Pietro Chiurazzi
- Istituto di Medicina Genomica, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A.Gemelli" IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Sylvia A Frazier-Bowers
- Department of Orthodontics, School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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DeLaurier A, Alvarez CL, Wiggins KJ. hdac4 mediates perichondral ossification and pharyngeal skeleton development in the zebrafish. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6167. [PMID: 30643696 PMCID: PMC6329341 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are epigenetic factors that function to repress gene transcription by removing acetyl groups from the N-terminal of histone lysines. Histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4), a class IIa HDAC, has previously been shown to regulate the process of endochondral ossification in mice via repression of Myocyte enhancer factor 2c (MEF2C), a transcriptional activator of Runx2, which in turn promotes chondrocyte maturation and production of bone by osteoblasts. Methods & Materials In this study, we generated two zebrafish lines with mutations in hdac4 using CRISPR/Cas9 and analyzed mutants for skeletal phenotypes and expression of genes known to be affected by Hdac4 expression. Results Lines have insertions causing a frameshift in a proximal exon of hdac4 and a premature stop codon. Mutations are predicted to result in aberrant protein sequence and a truncated protein, eliminating the Mef2c binding domain and Hdac domain. Zygotic mutants from two separate lines show a significant increase in ossification of pharyngeal ceratohyal cartilages at 7 days post fertilization (dpf) (p < 0.01, p < 0.001). At 4 dpf, mutant larvae have a significant increase of expression of runx2a and runx2b in the ceratohyal cartilage (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively). A subset of maternal-zygotic (mz) mutant and heterozygote larvae (40%) have dramatically increased ossification at 7 dpf compared to zygotic mutants, including formation of a premature anguloarticular bone and mineralization of the first and second ceratobranchial cartilages and symplectic cartilages, which normally does not occur until fish are approximately 10 or 12 dpf. Some maternal-zygotic mutants and heterozygotes show loss of pharyngeal first arch elements (25.9% and 10.2%, respectively) and neurocranium defects (30.8% and 15.2%, respectively). Analysis of RNA-seq mRNA transcript levels and in situ hybridizations from zygotic stages to 75–90% epiboly indicates that hdac4 is highly expressed in early embryos, but diminishes by late epiboly, becoming expressed again in larval stages. Discussion Loss of function of hdac4 in zebrafish is associated with increased expression of runx2a and runx2b targets indicating that a role for hdac4 in zebrafish is to repress activation of ossification of cartilage. These findings are consistent with observations of precocious cartilage ossification in Hdac4 mutant mice, demonstrating that the function of Hdac4 in skeletal development is conserved among vertebrates. Expression of hdac4 mRNA in embryos younger than 256–512 cells indicates that there is a maternal contribution of hdac4 to the early embryo. The increase in ossification and profound loss of first pharyngeal arch elements and anterior neurocranium in a subset of maternal-zygotic mutant and heterozygote larvae suggests that maternal hdac4 functions in cartilage ossification and development of cranial neural crest-derived structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- April DeLaurier
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of South Carolina-Aiken, Aiken, SC, United States of America
| | - Cynthia Lizzet Alvarez
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of South Carolina-Aiken, Aiken, SC, United States of America
| | - Kali J Wiggins
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of South Carolina-Aiken, Aiken, SC, United States of America
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Mechanical constraint from growing jaw facilitates mammalian dental diversity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:9403-9408. [PMID: 28808032 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1707410114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Much of the basic information about individual organ development comes from studies using model species. Whereas conservation of gene regulatory networks across higher taxa supports generalizations made from a limited number of species, generality of mechanistic inferences remains to be tested in tissue culture systems. Here, using mammalian tooth explants cultured in isolation, we investigate self-regulation of patterning by comparing developing molars of the mouse, the model species of mammalian research, and the bank vole. A distinct patterning difference between the vole and the mouse molars is the alternate cusp offset present in the vole. Analyses of both species using 3D reconstructions of developing molars and jaws, computational modeling of cusp patterning, and tooth explants cultured with small braces show that correct cusp offset requires constraints on the lateral expansion of the developing tooth. Vole molars cultured without the braces lose their cusp offset, and mouse molars cultured with the braces develop a cusp offset. Our results suggest that cusp offset, which changes frequently in mammalian evolution, is more dependent on the 3D support of the developing jaw than other aspects of tooth shape. This jaw-tooth integration of a specific aspect of the tooth phenotype indicates that organs may outsource specific aspects of their morphology to be regulated by adjacent body parts or organs. Comparative studies of morphologically different species are needed to infer the principles of organogenesis.
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Nampoothiri S, Fernández-Rebollo E, Yesodharan D, Gardella TJ, Rush ET, Langman CB, Jüppner H. Jansen Metaphyseal Chondrodysplasia due to Heterozygous H223R-PTH1R Mutations With or Without Overt Hypercalcemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101:4283-4289. [PMID: 27410178 PMCID: PMC5095231 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2016-2054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Jansen's metaphyseal chondrodysplasia (JMC) is a rare skeletal dysplasia characterized by abnormal endochondral bone formation and typically severe hypercalcemia despite normal/low levels of PTH. Five different heterozygous activating PTH/PTHrP receptor (PTH1R) mutations that change one of three different amino acid residues are known to cause JMC. OBJECTIVES Establishing the diagnosis of JMC during infancy or early childhood can be challenging, especially in the absence of family history and/or overt hypercalcemia. We therefore sought to provide radiographic findings supporting this diagnosis early in life. PATIENTS AND METHODS Three patients, a mother and her two sons, had radiographic evidence for JMC. However, obvious hypercalcemia and suppressed PTH levels were encountered only in both affected children. Sanger sequencing and endonuclease (SphI) digestion of PCR-amplified genomic DNA were performed to search for the H223R-PTH1R mutation. RESULTS The heterozygous H223R mutation was identified in all three affected individuals. Surprisingly, however, the now 38-year-old mother was never overtly hypercalcemic and was therefore not diagnosed until her sons were found to be affected by JMC at the ages of 28 months and 40 days, respectively. The presented radiographic findings at different ages will help diagnose other infants/toddlers suspected of having JMC. CONCLUSION The H223R mutation is typically associated with profound hypercalcemia despite low/normal PTH levels. However, the findings presented herein show that overt hypercalcemia is not always encountered in JMC, even if caused by this relatively frequent mutation, which is similar to observations with other PTH1R mutations that show less constitutive activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheela Nampoothiri
- Department of Pediatric Genetics (S.N., D.Y.), Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Aims Ponekkara PO, Cochin 682041, Kerala, India; Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation (E.T.R.), University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198; Department of Kidney Diseases (C.B.L.), Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; and Endocrine Unit (E.F.-R., T.J.G., H.J.) and Pediatric Nephrology Unit (H.J.), Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Eduardo Fernández-Rebollo
- Department of Pediatric Genetics (S.N., D.Y.), Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Aims Ponekkara PO, Cochin 682041, Kerala, India; Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation (E.T.R.), University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198; Department of Kidney Diseases (C.B.L.), Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; and Endocrine Unit (E.F.-R., T.J.G., H.J.) and Pediatric Nephrology Unit (H.J.), Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Dhanya Yesodharan
- Department of Pediatric Genetics (S.N., D.Y.), Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Aims Ponekkara PO, Cochin 682041, Kerala, India; Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation (E.T.R.), University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198; Department of Kidney Diseases (C.B.L.), Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; and Endocrine Unit (E.F.-R., T.J.G., H.J.) and Pediatric Nephrology Unit (H.J.), Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Thomas J Gardella
- Department of Pediatric Genetics (S.N., D.Y.), Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Aims Ponekkara PO, Cochin 682041, Kerala, India; Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation (E.T.R.), University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198; Department of Kidney Diseases (C.B.L.), Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; and Endocrine Unit (E.F.-R., T.J.G., H.J.) and Pediatric Nephrology Unit (H.J.), Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Eric T Rush
- Department of Pediatric Genetics (S.N., D.Y.), Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Aims Ponekkara PO, Cochin 682041, Kerala, India; Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation (E.T.R.), University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198; Department of Kidney Diseases (C.B.L.), Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; and Endocrine Unit (E.F.-R., T.J.G., H.J.) and Pediatric Nephrology Unit (H.J.), Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Craig B Langman
- Department of Pediatric Genetics (S.N., D.Y.), Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Aims Ponekkara PO, Cochin 682041, Kerala, India; Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation (E.T.R.), University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198; Department of Kidney Diseases (C.B.L.), Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; and Endocrine Unit (E.F.-R., T.J.G., H.J.) and Pediatric Nephrology Unit (H.J.), Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Harald Jüppner
- Department of Pediatric Genetics (S.N., D.Y.), Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Aims Ponekkara PO, Cochin 682041, Kerala, India; Munroe-Meyer Institute for Genetics and Rehabilitation (E.T.R.), University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198; Department of Kidney Diseases (C.B.L.), Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago and Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60611; and Endocrine Unit (E.F.-R., T.J.G., H.J.) and Pediatric Nephrology Unit (H.J.), Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
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Xu C, Wang Z, Cui R, He H, Lin X, Sheng Y, Zhang H. Co-expression of parathyroid hormone related protein and TGF-beta in breast cancer predicts poor survival outcome. BMC Cancer 2015; 15:925. [PMID: 26597083 PMCID: PMC4655491 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-015-1873-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Better methods to predict prognosis can play a supplementary role in administering individualized treatment for breast cancer patients. Altered expressions of PTHrP and TGF-β have been observed in various types of human cancers. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the association of PTHrP and TGF-β level with the clinicopathological features of the breast cancer patients. Methods Immunohistochemistry was used to examine PTHrP and TGF-β protein expression in 497 cases of early breast cancer, and Kaplan-Meier method and COX’s Proportional Hazard Model were applied to the prognostic value of PTHrP and TGF-β expression. Results Both over-expressed TGF-β and PTHrP were correlated with the tumor in larger size, higher proportion of axillary lymph node metastasis and later clinical stage. Additionally, the tumors with a high TGF-β level developed poor differentiation, and only TGF-β expression was associated with disease-free survival (DFS) of the breast cancer patients. Followed up for a median of 48 months, it was found that only the patients with negative TGF-β expression had longer DFS (P < 0.05, log-rank test). Nevertheless, those with higher PTHrP expression tended to show a higher rate of bone metastasis (67.6 % vs. 45.8 %, P = 0.019). In ER negative subgroup, those who developed PTHrP positive expression presented poor prognosis (P < 0.05, log-rank test). The patients with both positive TGF-β and PTHrP expression were significantly associated with the high risk of metastases. As indicated by Cox’s regression analysis, TGF-β expression and the high proportion of axillary lymph node metastasis served as significant independent predictors for breast cancer recurrence. Conclusions TGF-β and PTHrP were confirmed to be involved in regulating the malignant progression in breast cancer, and PTHrP expression, to be associated with bone metastasis as a potential prognostic marker in ER negative breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Xu
- Department of Breast Surgery, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200090, China.
| | - Zhengyuan Wang
- Department of Breast Surgery, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200090, China.
| | - Rongrong Cui
- Department of Breast Surgery, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200090, China.
| | - Hongyu He
- Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Xiaoyan Lin
- Department of Breast Surgery, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200090, China.
| | - Yuan Sheng
- Department of Thyroid and Breast Surgery, Changhai Hospital, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | - Hongwei Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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10
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Boras-Granic K, Dann P, VanHouten J, Karaplis A, Wysolmerski J. Deletion of the nuclear localization sequences and C-terminus of PTHrP impairs embryonic mammary development but also inhibits PTHrP production. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90418. [PMID: 24785493 PMCID: PMC4006745 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) can be secreted from cells and interact with its receptor, the Type 1 PTH/PTHrP Receptor (PTHR1) in an autocrine, paracrine or endocrine fashion. PTHrP can also remain inside cells and be transported into the nucleus, where its functions are unclear, although recent experiments suggest that it may broadly regulate cell survival and senescence. Disruption of either the PTHrP or PTHR1 gene results in many abnormalities including a failure of embryonic mammary gland development in mice and in humans. In order to examine the potential functions of nuclear PTHrP in the breast, we examined mammary gland development in PTHrP (1-84) knock-in mice, which express a mutant form of PTHrP that lacks the C-terminus and nuclear localization signals and which can be secreted but cannot enter the nucleus. Interestingly, we found that PTHrP (1-84) knock-in mice had defects in mammary mesenchyme differentiation and mammary duct outgrowth that were nearly identical to those previously described in PTHrP-/- and PTHR1-/- mice. However, the mammary buds in PTHrP (1-84) knock-in mice had severe reductions in mutant PTHrP mRNA levels, suggesting that the developmental defects were due to insufficient production of PTHrP by mammary epithelial cells and not loss of PTHrP nuclear function. Examination of the effects of nuclear PTHrP in the mammary gland in vivo will require the development of alternative animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kata Boras-Granic
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Pamela Dann
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Joshua VanHouten
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Andrew Karaplis
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - John Wysolmerski
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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11
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Macias H, Hinck L. Mammary gland development. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2014; 1:533-57. [PMID: 22844349 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 484] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The mammary gland develops through several distinct stages. The first transpires in the embryo as the ectoderm forms a mammary line that resolves into placodes. Regulated by epithelial–mesenchymal interactions, the placodes descend into the underlying mesenchyme and produce the rudimentary ductal structure of the gland present at birth. Subsequent stages of development—pubertal growth, pregnancy, lactation, and involution—occur postnatally under the regulation of hormones. Puberty initiates branching morphogenesis, which requires growth hormone (GH) and estrogen, as well as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), to create a ductal tree that fills the fat pad. Upon pregnancy, the combined actions of progesterone and prolactin generate alveoli, which secrete milk during lactation. Lack of demand for milk at weaning initiates the process of involution whereby the gland is remodeled back to its prepregnancy state. These processes require numerous signaling pathways that have distinct regulatory functions at different stages of gland development. Signaling pathways also regulate a specialized subpopulation of mammary stem cells that fuel the dramatic changes in the gland occurring with each pregnancy. Our knowledge of mammary gland development and mammary stem cell biology has significantly contributed to our understanding of breast cancer and has advanced the discovery of therapies to treat this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Macias
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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12
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Risom L, Christoffersen L, Daugaard-Jensen J, Hove HD, Andersen HS, Andresen BS, Kreiborg S, Duno M. Identification of six novel PTH1R mutations in families with a history of primary failure of tooth eruption. PLoS One 2013; 8:e74601. [PMID: 24058597 PMCID: PMC3776825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary Failure of tooth Eruption (PFE) is a non-syndromic disorder which can be caused by mutations in the parathyroid hormone receptor 1 gene (PTH1R). Traditionally, the disorder has been identified clinically based on post-emergent failure of eruption of permanent molars. However, patients with PTH1R mutations will not benefit from surgical and/or orthodontic treatment and it is therefore clinically important to establish whether a given failure of tooth eruption is caused by a PTH1R defect or not. We analyzed the PTH1R gene in six patients clinically diagnosed with PFE, all of which had undergone surgical and/or orthodontic interventions, and identified novel PTH1R mutations in all. Four of the six mutations were predicted to abolish correct mRNA maturation either through introduction of premature stop codons (c.947C>A and c.1082G>A), or by altering correct mRNA splicing (c.544-26_544-23del and c.989G>T). The latter was validated by transfection of minigenes. The six novel mutations expand the mutation spectrum for PFE from eight to 14 pathogenic mutations. Loss-of-function mutations in PTH1R are also associated with recessively inherited Blomstrand chondrodysplasia. We compiled all published PTH1R mutations and identified a mutational overlap between Blomstrand chondrodysplasia and PFE. The results suggest that a genetic approach to preclinical diagnosis will have important implication for surgical and orthodontic treatment of patients with failure of tooth eruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotte Risom
- Department of Clinical Genetics, University Hospital Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- * E-mail:
| | - Line Christoffersen
- Department of Clinical Genetics, University Hospital Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Hanne Dahlgaard Hove
- Department of Clinical Genetics, University Hospital Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | - Sven Kreiborg
- Department of Paediatric Dentistry and Clinical Genetics, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Morten Duno
- Department of Clinical Genetics, University Hospital Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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13
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Wang Y, Cox MK, Coricor G, MacDougall M, Serra R. Inactivation of Tgfbr2 in Osterix-Cre expressing dental mesenchyme disrupts molar root formation. Dev Biol 2013; 382:27-37. [PMID: 23933490 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
It has been difficult to examine the role of TGF-ß in post-natal tooth development due to perinatal lethality in many of the signaling deficient mouse models. To address the role of Tgfbr2 in postnatal tooth development, we generated a mouse in which Tgfbr2 was deleted in odontoblast- and bone-producing mesenchyme. Osx-Cre;Tgfbr2(fl/fl) mice were generated (Tgfbr2(cko)) and post-natal tooth development was compared in Tgfbr2(cko) and control littermates. X-ray and μCT analysis showed that in Tgfbr2(cko) mice radicular dentin matrix density was reduced in the molars. Molar shape was abnormal and molar eruption was delayed in the mutant mice. Most significantly, defects in root formation, including failure of the root to elongate, were observed by postnatal day 10. Immunostaining for Keratin-14 (K14) was used to delineate Hertwig's epithelial root sheath (HERS). The results showed a delay in elongation and disorganization of the HERS in Tgfbr2(cko) mice. In addition, the HERS was maintained and the break up into epithelial rests was attenuated suggesting that Tgfbr2 acts on dental mesenchyme to indirectly regulate the formation and maintenance of the HERS. Altered odontoblast organization and reduced Dspp expression indicated that odontoblast differentiation was disrupted in the mutant mice likely contributing to the defect in root formation. Nevertheless, expression of Nfic, a key mesenchymal regulator of root development, was similar in Tgfbr2(cko) mice and controls. The number of osteoclasts in the bone surrounding the tooth was reduced and osteoblast differentiation was disrupted likely contributing to both root and eruption defects. We conclude that Tgfbr2 in dental mesenchyme and bone is required for tooth development particularly root formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Megan K Cox
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - George Coricor
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Mary MacDougall
- Institute of Oral Health Research, School of Dentistry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Rosa Serra
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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14
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Oftedal OT, Dhouailly D. Evo-devo of the mammary gland. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2013; 18:105-20. [PMID: 23681303 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-013-9290-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We propose a new scenario for mammary evolution based on comparative review of early mammary development among mammals. Mammary development proceeds through homologous phases across taxa, but evolutionary modifications in early development produce different final morphologies. In monotremes, the mammary placode spreads out to form a plate-like mammary bulb from which more than 100 primary sprouts descend into mesenchyme. At their distal ends, secondary sprouts develop, including pilosebaceous anlagen, resulting in a mature structure in which mammary lobules and sebaceous glands empty into the infundibula of hair follicles; these structural triads (mammolobular-pilo-sebaceous units or MPSUs) represent an ancestral condition. In marsupials a flask-like mammary bulb elongates as a sprout, but then hollows out; its secondary sprouts include hair and sebaceous anlagen (MPSUs), but the hairs are shed during nipple formation. In some eutherians (cat, horse, human) MPSUs form at the distal ends of primary sprouts; pilosebaceous components either regress or develop into mature structures. We propose that a preexisting structural triad (the apocrine-pilo-sebaceous unit) was incorporated into the evolving mammary structure, and coupled to additional developmental processes that form the mammary line, placode, bulb and primary sprout. In this scenario only mammary ductal trees and secretory tissue derive from ancestral apocrine-like glands. The mammary gland appears to have coopted signaling pathways and genes for secretory products from even earlier integumentary structures, such as odontode (tooth-like) or odontode-derived structures. We speculate that modifications in signal use (such as PTHrP and BMP4) may contribute to taxonomic differences in MPSU development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olav T Oftedal
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD 21037, USA.
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15
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Hiremath M, Wysolmerski J. Parathyroid hormone-related protein specifies the mammary mesenchyme and regulates embryonic mammary development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2013; 18:171-7. [PMID: 23640717 PMCID: PMC3696739 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-013-9283-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Parathyroid Hormone related Protein (PTHrP) is a critical regulator of mammary gland morphogenesis in the mouse embryo. Loss of PTHrP, or its receptor, PTHR1, results in arrested mammary buds at day 15 of embryonic development (E15). In contrast, overexpression of PTHrP converts the ventral epidermis into hairless nipple skin. PTHrP signaling appears to be critical for mammary mesenchyme specification, which in turn maintains mammary epithelial identity, directs bud outgrowth, disrupts the male mammary rudiment and specifies the formation of the nipple. In the embryonic mammary bud, PTHrP exerts its effects on morphogenesis, in part, through epithelial-stromal crosstalk mediated by Wnt and BMP signaling. Recently, PTHLH has been identified as a strong candidate for a novel breast cancer susceptibility locus, although PTHrP's role in breast cancer has not been clearly defined. The effects of PTHrP on the growth of the embryonic mammary rudiment and its invasion into the dermis may, in turn, have connections to the role of PTHrP in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minoti Hiremath
- S-128 Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University, 1910 University Drive, Boise, ID 83725
| | - John Wysolmerski
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, S120 TAC, 300 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520
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16
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Chan H, McCauley L. Parathyroid hormone applications in the craniofacial skeleton. J Dent Res 2013; 92:18-25. [PMID: 23071071 PMCID: PMC3521450 DOI: 10.1177/0022034512464779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is known for its ability to 'build' bone, with research in this area centered on its use as an osteoporosis therapeutic. Recent interest has developed regarding its potential for regenerative applications such as fracture healing and osseous defects of the oral cavity. Many years of investigation using murine gene-targeted models substantiate a role for signaling at the PTH/PTH-related protein (PTHrP) receptor (PPR) in intramembranous bone formation in the craniofacial region as well as in tooth development. Pre-clinical studies clearly support a positive role of intermittent PTH administration in craniofacial bones and in fracture healing and implant integration. A few human clinical studies have shown favorable responses with teriparatide (the biologically active fragment of PTH) administration. Favorable outcomes have emerged with teriparatide administration in patients with osteonecrosis of the jaw (ONJ). New delivery strategies are in development to optimize targeted application of PTH and to help maximize local approaches. The promising host-modulating potential of PTH requires more information to further its effectiveness for craniofacial regeneration and osseous wound-healing, including a better delineation of cellular targets, temporal effects of PTH action, and improved approaches for local/targeted delivery of PTH.
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Affiliation(s)
- H.L. Chan
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - L.K. McCauley
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan, Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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17
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Abstract
PTHrP was identified as a cause of hypercalcemia in cancer patients 25 yr ago. In the intervening years, we have learned that PTHrP and PTH are encoded by related genes that are part of a larger "PTH gene family." This evolutionary relationship permits them to bind to the same type 1 PTH/PTHrP receptor, which explains why humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy resembles hyperparathyroidism. This review will outline basic facts about PTHrP biology and its normal physiological functions, with an emphasis on new findings of the past 5-10 yr. The medical and research communities first became aware of PTHrP because of its involvement in a common paraneoplastic syndrome. Now, research into the basic biology of PTHrP has suggested previously unrecognized connections to a variety of disease states such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and breast cancer and has highlighted how PTHrP itself might be used in therapy for osteoporosis and diabetes. Therefore, the story of this remarkable protein is a paradigm for translational research, having gone from bedside to bench and now back to bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Wysolmerski
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, TAC S131, Box 208020, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8020, USA.
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18
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Gu Z, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Jin S, Chen Q, Goltzman D, Karaplis A, Miao D. Absence of PTHrP nuclear localization and carboxyl terminus sequences leads to abnormal brain development and function. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41542. [PMID: 22844494 PMCID: PMC3402381 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We assessed whether the nuclear localization sequences (NLS) and C terminus of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) play critical roles in brain development and function. We used histology, immunohistochemistry, histomorphometry, Western blots and electrophysiological recordings to compare the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells, neuronal hippocampal synaptic transmission, and brain phenotypes including shape and structures, in Pthrp knock-in mice, which express PTHrP (1–84), a truncated form of the protein that is missing the NLS and the C-terminal region of the protein, and their wild-type littermates. Results showed that Pthrp knock-in mice display abnormal brain shape and structures; decreased neural cell proliferative capacity and increased apoptosis associated with up-regulation of cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors p16, p21, p27 and p53 and down-regulation of the Bmi-1 oncogene; delayed neural cell differentiation; and impaired hippocampal synaptic transmission and plasticity. These findings provide in vivo experimental evidence that the NLS and C-terminus of PTHrP are essential not only for the regulation of neural cell proliferation and differentiation, but also for the maintenance of normal neuronal synaptic transmission and plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, The Research Center for Bone and Stem Cells, Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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19
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McCauley LK, Martin TJ. Twenty-five years of PTHrP progress: from cancer hormone to multifunctional cytokine. J Bone Miner Res 2012; 27:1231-9. [PMID: 22549910 PMCID: PMC4871126 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.1617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2012] [Revised: 03/04/2012] [Accepted: 03/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Twenty-five years ago a "new" protein was identified from cancers that caused hypercalcemia. It was credited for its ability to mimic parathyroid hormone (PTH), and hence was termed parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP). Today it is recognized for its widespread distribution, its endocrine, paracrine, and intracrine modes of action driving numerous physiologic and pathologic conditions, and its central role in organogenesis. The multiple biological activities within a complex molecule with paracrine modulation of adjacent target cells present boundless possibilities. The protein structure of PTHrP has been traced, dissected, and deleted comprehensively and conditionally, yet numerous questions lurk in its past that will carry into the future. Issues of the variable segments of the protein, including the enigmatic nuclear localization sequence, are only recently being clarified. Aspects of PTHrP production and action in the menacing condition of cancer are emerging as dichotomies that may represent intended temporal actions of PTHrP. Relative to PTH, the hormone regulating calcium homeostasis, PTHrP "controls the show" locally at the PTH/PTHrP receptor throughout the body. Great strides have been made in our understanding of PTHrP actions, yet years of exciting investigation and discovery are imminent. © 2012 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie K McCauley
- Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Michigan, School of Dentistry, 1011 N. University Ave., Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA.
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20
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Parathyroid hormone-related protein is not required for normal ductal or alveolar development in the post-natal mammary gland. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27278. [PMID: 22087279 PMCID: PMC3210770 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 10/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
PTHrP is necessary for the formation of the embryonic mammary gland and, in its absence, the embryonic mammary bud fails to form the neonatal duct system. In addition, PTHrP is produced by the breast during lactation and contributes to the regulation of maternal calcium homeostasis during milk production. In this study, we examined the role of PTHrP during post-natal mammary development. Using a PTHrP-lacZ transgenic mouse, we surveyed the expression of PTHrP in the developing post-natal mouse mammary gland. We found that PTHrP expression is restricted to the basal cells of the gland during pubertal development and becomes expressed in milk secreting alveolar cells during pregnancy and lactation. Based on the previous findings that overexpression of PTHrP in cap and myoepithelial cells inhibited ductal elongation during puberty, we predicted that ablation of native PTHrP expression in the post-natal gland would result in accelerated ductal development. To address this hypothesis, we generated two conditional models of PTHrP-deficiency specifically targeted to the postnatal mammary gland. We used the MMTV-Cre transgene to ablate the floxed PTHrP gene in both luminal and myoepithelial cells and a tetracycline-regulated K14-tTA;tetO-Cre transgene to target PTHrP expression in just myoepithelial and cap cells. In both models of PTHrP ablation, we found that mammary development proceeds normally despite the absence of PTHrP. We conclude that PTHrP signaling is not required for normal ductal or alveolar development.
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Cowin P, Wysolmerski J. Molecular mechanisms guiding embryonic mammary gland development. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2010; 2:a003251. [PMID: 20484386 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a003251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The mammary gland is an epidermal appendage that begins to form during embryogenesis, but whose development is only completed during pregnancy. Each mammary gland begins as a budlike invagination of the surface ectoderm, which then gives rise to a simple duct system by birth. Subsequent development occurs during sexual maturation and during pregnancy and lactation. In this review, we outline the distinct stages of embryonic mammary development and discuss the molecular pathways involved in the regulation of morphogenesis at each stage. We also discuss the potential relevance of embryonic breast development to the pathophysiology of breast cancer and highlight questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Cowin
- Departments of Cell Biology and Dermatology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
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22
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Hens J, Dann P, Hiremath M, Pan TC, Chodosh L, Wysolmerski J. Analysis of gene expression in PTHrP-/- mammary buds supports a role for BMP signaling and MMP2 in the initiation of ductal morphogenesis. Dev Dyn 2010; 238:2713-24. [PMID: 19795511 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) acts on the mammary mesenchyme and is required for proper embryonic mammary development. In order to understand PTHrP's effects on mesenchymal cells, we profiled gene expression in WT and PTHrP(-/-) mammary buds, and in WT and K14-PTHrP ventral skin at E15.5. By cross-referencing the differences in gene expression between these groups, we identified 35 genes potentially regulated by PTHrP in the mammary mesenchyme, including 6 genes known to be involved in BMP signaling. One of these genes was MMP2. We demonstrated that PTHrP and BMP4 regulate MMP2 gene expression and MMP2 activity in mesenchymal cells. Using mammary bud cultures, we demonstrated that MMP2 acts downstream of PTHrP to stimulate ductal outgrowth. Future studies on the functional role of other genes on this list should expand our knowledge of how PTHrP signaling triggers the onset of ductal outgrowth from the embryonic mammary buds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Hens
- Department of Biology, St. Bonaventure University, St. Bonaventure, New York, USA
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Toribio RE, Brown HA, Novince CM, Marlow B, Hernon K, Lanigan LG, Hildreth BE, Werbeck JL, Shu ST, Lorch G, Carlton M, Foley J, Boyaka P, McCauley LK, Rosol TJ. The midregion, nuclear localization sequence, and C terminus of PTHrP regulate skeletal development, hematopoiesis, and survival in mice. FASEB J 2010; 24:1947-57. [PMID: 20145205 DOI: 10.1096/fj.09-147033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The functions of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) on morphogenesis, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and calcium homeostasis have been attributed to its N terminus. Evidence suggests that many of these effects are not mediated by the N terminus but by the midregion, a nuclear localization sequence (NLS), and C terminus of the protein. A knock-in mouse lacking the midregion, NLS, and C terminus of PTHrP (Pthrp(Delta/Delta)) was developed. Pthrp(Delta/Delta) mice had craniofacial dysplasia, chondrodysplasia, and kyphosis, with most mice dying by d 5 of age. In bone, there were fewer chondrocytes and osteoblasts per area, bone mass was decreased, and the marrow was less cellular, with erythroid hypoplasia. Cellular proliferation was impaired, and apoptosis was increased. Runx2, Ocn, Sox9, Crtl1, beta-catenin, Runx1, ephrin B2, cyclin D1, and Gata1 were underexpressed while P16/Ink4a, P21, GSK-3beta, Il-6, Ffg3, and Ihh were overexpressed. Mammary gland development was aberrant, and energy metabolism was deregulated. These results establish that the midregion, NLS, and C terminus of PTHrP are crucial for the commitment of osteogenic and hematopoietic precursors to their lineages, and for survival, and many of the effects of PTHrP on development are not mediated by its N terminus. The down-regulation of Runx1, Runx2, and Sox9 indicates that PTHrP is a modulator of transcriptional activation during stem cell commitment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramiro E Toribio
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, The Ohio State University, 601 Vernon Tharp St., Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Severe growth retardation and early lethality in mice lacking the nuclear localization sequence and C-terminus of PTH-related protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:20309-14. [PMID: 19091948 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0805690105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) plays a central role in the regulation of serum calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, while parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) has important developmental roles. Both peptides signal through the same G protein-coupled receptor, the PTH/PTHrP or PTH type 1 receptor (PTH1R). PTHrP, normally a secreted protein, also contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS) that in vitro imparts functionality to the protein at the level of the nucleus. We investigated this functionality in vivo by introducing a premature termination codon in Pthrp in ES cells and generating mice that express PTHrP (1-84), a truncated form of the protein that is missing the NLS and the C-terminal region of the protein but can still signal through its cell surface receptor. Mice homozygous for the knock-in mutation (Pthrp KI) displayed retarded growth, early senescence, and malnutrition leading postnatally to their rapid demise. Decreased cellular proliferative capacity and increased apoptosis in multiple tissues including bone and bone marrow cells were associated with altered expression and subcellular distribution of the senescence-associated tumor suppressor proteins p16(INK4a) and p21 and the oncogenes Cyclin D, pRb, and Bmi-1. These findings provide in vivo experimental proof that substantiates the biologic relevance of the NLS and C-terminal portion of PTHrP, a polypeptide ligand that signals mainly via a cell surface G protein-coupled receptor.
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PTHR1 loss-of-function mutations in familial, nonsyndromic primary failure of tooth eruption. Am J Hum Genet 2008; 83:781-6. [PMID: 19061984 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2008] [Revised: 11/08/2008] [Accepted: 11/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Tooth eruption is a complex developmental process requiring coordinated navigation through alveolar bone and oral epithelium. Primary failure of tooth eruption (PFE) is associated with several syndromes primarily affecting skeletal development, but it is also known as a nonsyndromic autosomal-dominant condition. Teeth in the posterior quadrants of the upper and lower jaw are preferentially affected and usually result in an open bite extending from anterior to posterior. In this study, we show that familial, nonsyndromic PFE is caused by heterozygous mutations in the gene encoding the G protein-coupled receptor for parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-like hormone (PTHR1). Three distinct mutations, namely c.1050-3C > G, c.543+1G > A, and c.463G > T, were identified in 15 affected individuals from four multiplex pedigrees. All mutations truncate the mature protein and therefore should lead to a functionless receptor, strongly suggesting that haplo-insufficiency of PTHR1 is the underlying cause of nonsyndromic PFE. Although complete inactivation of PTHR1 is known to underlie the autosomal-recessive Blomstrand osteochondrodysplasia (BOCD), a lethal form of short-limbed dwarfism, our data now imply that dominantly acting PTHR1 mutations that lead to haplo-insufficiency of the receptor result in a nonsyndromic phenotype affecting tooth development with high penetrance and variable expressivity.
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Foster BL, Tompkins KA, Rutherford RB, Zhang H, Chu EY, Fong H, Somerman MJ. Phosphate: known and potential roles during development and regeneration of teeth and supporting structures. BIRTH DEFECTS RESEARCH. PART C, EMBRYO TODAY : REVIEWS 2008; 84:281-314. [PMID: 19067423 PMCID: PMC4526155 DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.20136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Inorganic phosphate (P(i)) is abundant in cells and tissues as an important component of nucleic acids and phospholipids, a source of high-energy bonds in nucleoside triphosphates, a substrate for kinases and phosphatases, and a regulator of intracellular signaling. The majority of the body's P(i) exists in the mineralized matrix of bones and teeth. Systemic P(i) metabolism is regulated by a cast of hormones, phosphatonins, and other factors via the bone-kidney-intestine axis. Mineralization in bones and teeth is in turn affected by homeostasis of P(i) and inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi), with further regulation of the P(i)/PP(i) ratio by cellular enzymes and transporters. Much has been learned by analyzing the molecular basis for changes in mineralized tissue development in mutant and knock-out mice with altered P(i) metabolism. This review focuses on factors regulating systemic and local P(i) homeostasis and their known and putative effects on the hard tissues of the oral cavity. By understanding the role of P(i) metabolism in the development and maintenance of the oral mineralized tissues, it will be possible to develop improved regenerative approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian L Foster
- Department of Periodontics, University of Washington School of Dentistry, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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27
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Gilmore JL, Scott JA, Bouizar Z, Robling A, Pitfield SE, Riese DJ, Foley J. Amphiregulin-EGFR signaling regulates PTHrP gene expression in breast cancer cells. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2007; 110:493-505. [PMID: 17882547 PMCID: PMC2730887 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-007-9748-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2007] [Accepted: 09/05/2007] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) is an autocrine/paracrine factor produced by breast cancer cells that is speculated to play a major role in permitting breast cancer cells to grow into the bone microenvironment by stimulating the bone resorption axis. It has been previously shown that EGFR signaling induces the production of PTHrP in several primary and transformed epithelial cell types. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between EGFR and PTHrP gene expression in human breast cancer cells. Of a panel of 7 breast epithelial and cancer cell lines, the osteolytic, EGFR- positive lines (MDA-MB-231 and NS2T2A1) exhibited higher levels of PTHrP transcript expression. Amphiregulin mRNA levels in all lines were approximately 2 orders of magnitude higher than those of TGFalpha or HB-EGF. In the EGFR bearing lines, the receptor was phosphorylated at tyrosine 992 under basal conditions, and the addition of 100 nM amphiregulin did not lead to the phosphorylation of other tyrosine residues typically phosphorylated by the prototypical ligand EGF. Treatment of the EGFR positive lines with the EGFR inhibitor PD153035 and amphiregulin-neutralizing antibodies reduced PTHrP mRNA levels by 50-70%. Stable EGFR expression in the MCF7 line failed to increase basal PTHrP mRNA levels; however, treatment of this cell line with exogenous EGF or amphiregulin increased PTHrP transcription 3-fold. Transient transfection analysis suggests that the MAPK pathway and ETS transcription factors mediate EGFR coupling to PTHrP gene expression. Taken together, it appears that autocrine stimulation of EGFR signaling by amphiregulin is coupled to PTHrP gene expression via EGFR Tyr992 and MAPK, and that this pathway may contribute to PTHrP expression by breast tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Gilmore
- Medical Sciences Program, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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28
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Robinson GW. Identification of signaling pathways in early mammary gland development by mouse genetics. Breast Cancer Res 2004; 6:105-8. [PMID: 15084230 PMCID: PMC400673 DOI: 10.1186/bcr776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2004] [Accepted: 02/18/2004] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland develops as an appendage of the ectoderm. The prenatal stage of mammary development is hormone independent and is regulated by sequential and reciprocal signaling between the epithelium and the mesenchyme. A number of recent studies using human and mouse genetics, in particular targeted gene deletion and transgenic expression, have identified some of the signals that control specific steps in development. This process involves cell specification and proliferation, reciprocal tissue interactions and cell migration. Since some of these events are recapitulated during tumorigenesis, an understanding of these signaling pathways may contribute to the development of targeted therapies and novel drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gertraud W Robinson
- Laboratory of Genetics and Physiology, National Institute of Diabetes, and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
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VanHouten JN, Dann P, Stewart AF, Watson CJ, Pollak M, Karaplis AC, Wysolmerski JJ. Mammary-specific deletion of parathyroid hormone-related protein preserves bone mass during lactation. J Clin Invest 2003; 112:1429-36. [PMID: 14597768 PMCID: PMC228471 DOI: 10.1172/jci19504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Large amounts of calcium are transferred to offspring by milk. This demand results in negative calcium balance in lactating mothers and is associated with rapid bone loss. The mechanisms of bone loss during lactation are only partly understood. Several studies have suggested that parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) might be secreted into the circulation by the lactating mammary gland and regulate bone turnover during lactation. Because mammary development fails in the absence of PTHrP, conventional PTHrP knockout mice cannot be used to address this possibility. To examine this hypothesis, we therefore used mice carrying a beta-lactoglobulin promoter-driven Cre transgene, one null PTHrP allele, and one floxed PTHrP allele. Expression of Cre specifically in mammary epithelial cells during late pregnancy and lactation resulted in efficient deletion of the PTHrP gene; mammary gland PTHrP mRNA and milk PTHrP protein were almost completely absent. Removal of PTHrP from the lactating mammary glands resulted in reductions in levels of circulating PTHrP and 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D and urinary cAMP. In addition, bone turnover was reduced and bone loss during lactation was attenuated. We conclude that during lactation mammary epithelial cells are a source of circulating PTHrP that promotes bone loss by increasing rates of bone resorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua N VanHouten
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8020, USA
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Cormier S, Delezoide AL, Benoist-Lasselin C, Legeai-Mallet L, Bonaventure J, Silve C. Parathyroid hormone receptor type 1/Indian hedgehog expression is preserved in the growth plate of human fetuses affected with fibroblast growth factor receptor type 3 activating mutations. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2002; 161:1325-35. [PMID: 12368206 PMCID: PMC1867304 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)64409-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The fibroblast growth factor receptor type 3 (FGFR3) and Indian hedgehog (IHH)/parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related peptide receptor type 1 (PTHR1) systems are both essential regulators of endochondral ossification. Based on mouse models, activation of the FGFR3 system is suggested to regulate the IHH/PTHR1 pathway. To challenge this possible interaction in humans, we analyzed the femoral growth plates from fetuses carrying activating FGFR3 mutations (9 achondroplasia, 21 and 8 thanatophoric dysplasia types 1 and 2, respectively) and 14 age-matched controls by histological techniques and in situ hybridization using riboprobes for human IHH, PTHR1, type 10 and type 1 collagen transcripts. We show that bone-perichondrial ring enlargement and growth plate increased vascularization in FGFR3-mutated fetuses correlate with the phenotypic severity of the disease. PTHR1 and IHH expression in growth plates, bone-perichondrial rings and vascular canals is not affected by FGFR3 mutations, irrespective of the mutant genotype and age, and is in keeping with cell phenotypes. These results indicate that in humans, FGFR3 signaling does not down-regulate the main players of the IHH/PTHR1 pathway. Furthermore, we show that cells within the bone-perichondrial ring in controls and patients express IHH, PTHR1, and type 10 and type 1 collagen transcripts, suggesting that bone-perichondrial ring formation involves cells of both chondrocytic and osteoblastic phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Cormier
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U426, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Robert Debré, Paris, France
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Hovey RC, Trott JF, Vonderhaar BK. Establishing a framework for the functional mammary gland: from endocrinology to morphology. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2002; 7:17-38. [PMID: 12160083 DOI: 10.1023/a:1015766322258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
From its embryonic origins, the mammary gland in females undergoes a course of ductal development that supports the establishment of alveolar structures during pregnancy prior to the onset of lactogenesis. This development includes multiple stages of proliferation and morphogenesis that are largely directed by concurrent alterations in key hormones and growth factors across various reproductive states. Ductal elongation is directed by estrogen, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-I, and epidermal growth factor, whereas ductal branching and alveolar budding is influenced by additional factors such as progesterone, prolactin, and thyroid hormone. The response by the ductal epithelium to various hormones and growth factors is influenced by epithelial-stromal interactions that differ between species, possibly directing species-specific morphogenesis. Evolving technologies continue to provide the opportunity to further delineate the regulation of ductal development. Defining the hormonal control of ductal development should facilitate a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying mammary gland tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell C Hovey
- Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology Section, Basic Research Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1402, USA
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32
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Abstract
SUMMARY All G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) share a common molecular architecture (with seven putative transmembrane segments) and a common signaling mechanism, in that they interact with G proteins (heterotrimeric GTPases) to regulate the synthesis of intracellular second messengers such as cyclic AMP, inositol phosphates, diacylglycerol and calcium ions. Historically, GPCRs have been classified into six families, which were thought to be unrelated; three of these are found in vertebrates. Recent work has identified several new GCPR families and suggested the possibility of a common evolutionary origin for all of them. Family B (the secretin-receptor family or 'family 2') of the GPCRs is a small but structurally and functionally diverse group of proteins that includes receptors for polypeptide hormones, molecules thought to mediate intercellular interactions at the plasma membrane and a group of Drosophila proteins that regulate stress responses and longevity. Family-B GPCRs have been found in all animal species investigated, including mammals, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster, but not in plants, fungi or prokaryotes. In this article, I describe the structures and functions of family-B GPCRs and propose a simplified nomenclature for these proteins.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Evolution, Molecular
- Heterotrimeric GTP-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Humans
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Mutation
- Phylogeny
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Receptors, Cell Surface/chemistry
- Receptors, Cell Surface/classification
- Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics
- Receptors, Cell Surface/physiology
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled
- Receptors, Gastrointestinal Hormone/chemistry
- Receptors, Gastrointestinal Hormone/classification
- Receptors, Gastrointestinal Hormone/genetics
- Sequence Alignment
- Terminology as Topic
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Harmar
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Edinburgh, 1 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK.
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