Sonic hedgehog is a survival factor for hypaxial muscles during mouse development

Muscle cell-derived cytokines in skeletal muscle regeneration

Regeneration of the mammalian adult skeletal muscle is a well-orchestrated process regulated by multiple proteins and signalling pathways. Cytokines constitute a major class of regulators of skeletal myogenesis. It is well established that infiltrating immune cells at the site of muscle injury secrete cytokines, which play critical roles in the myofibre repair and regeneration process. In the past 10-15 years, skeletal muscle itself has emerged as a prolific producer of cytokines. Much attention in the field has been focused on the endocrine effects of muscle-secreted cytokines (myokines) on metabolic regulation. However, ample evidence suggests that muscle-derived cytokines also regulate myogenic differentiation and muscle regeneration in an autocrine manner. In this review, we survey cytokines that meet two criteria: (a) evidence of expression by muscle cells; (b) evidence demonstrating a myogenic function. Dozens of cytokines representing several major classes make up this group, and together they regulate all steps of the myogenic process. How such a large array of cytokines coordinate their signalling to form a regulatory network is a fascinating, pressing question. Functional studies that can distinguish the source of the cytokines in vivo are also much needed in order to facilitate exploration of their full therapeutic potential.

Tissue cross talks governing limb muscle development and regeneration

For decades, limb development has been a paradigm of three-dimensional patterning. Moreover, as the limb muscles and the other tissues of the limb's musculoskeletal system arise from distinct developmental sources, it has been a prime example of integrative morphogenesis and cross-tissue communication. As the limbs grow, all components of the musculoskeletal system (muscles, tendons, connective tissue, nerves) coordinate their growth and differentiation, ultimately giving rise to a functional unit capable of executing elaborate movement. While the molecular mechanisms governing global three-dimensional patterning and formation of the skeletal structures of the limbs has been a matter of intense research, patterning of the soft tissues is less understood. Here, we review the development of limb muscles with an emphasis on their interaction with other tissue types and the instructive roles these tissues play. Furthermore, we discuss the role of adult correlates of these embryonic accessory tissues in muscle regeneration.

Molecular Characterization of the Hedgehog Signaling Pathway and Its Necessary Function on Larval Myogenesis in the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas

Hedgehog signaling pathway participates in a chain of necessary physiological activities and dysregulation of the hedgehog signaling has been implicated in birth defects and diseases. Although substantial studies have uncovered that the hedgehog pathway is both sufficient and necessary for patterning vertebrate muscle differentiation, limited knowledge is available about its role in molluscan myogenesis. Here, the present study firstly identified and characterized the key genes (CgHh, CgPtc, CgSmo, CgGli) in the hedgehog pathway of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas, and investigated the function of this pathway in embryonic myogenesis of C. gigas. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the functional domains of the key genes were highly conserved among species. Quantitative analysis indicated that CgHh, CgPtc, CgGli mRNA began to accumulate during the blastula to gastrulation stages and accumulated throughout trochophore and into the D-shaped stage. RNA localization patterns by whole-mount in situ hybridization revealed that the key genes own the strongest specific staining in gastrulation, trochophore, and D-shaped stage. Hedgehog pathway genes showed a high expression level in myogenesis stage including trochophore and D-shaped stages, suggesting that the hedgehog pathway would be involved in myogenesis of C. gigas. In adult oysters, the key genes were expressed at various tissues, indicating that hedgehog pathway governed a series of development events. To further examine the role of hedgehog signaling in C. gigas myogenesis, we used cyclopamine treatment in C. gigas larvae to inhibit the signaling pathway. The quantification of the expression of the key genes in hedgehog pathway showed that expressions of key genes were severely down-regulated in treated larvae compared with normal larvae. The velum retractors, ventral retractors, anterior adductor, and posterior adductor muscles of larvae treated with cyclopamine at 4-6 μM for 6-12 h were severely destroyed, suggesting that the hedgehog pathway took part in the myogenesis of C. gigas. These findings provide a foundation for uncovering the molecular mechanisms of hedgehog signaling in molluscan physiological activity and enable us to better understand the signaling pathway involving in molluscan physiological activity.

Location, Location, Location: Signals in Muscle Specification

Muscles control body movement and locomotion, posture and body position and soft tissue support. Mesoderm derived cells gives rise to 700 unique muscles in humans as a result of well-orchestrated signaling and transcriptional networks in specific time and space. Although the anatomical structure of skeletal muscles is similar, their functions and locations are specialized. This is the result of specific signaling as the embryo grows and cells migrate to form different structures and organs. As cells progress to their next state, they suppress current sequence specific transcription factors (SSTF) and construct new networks to establish new myogenic features. In this review, we provide an overview of signaling pathways and gene regulatory networks during formation of the craniofacial, cardiac, vascular, trunk, and limb skeletal muscles.

The myogenic regulatory factors, determinants of muscle development, cell identity and regeneration

The Myogenic Regulatory Factors (MRFs) Myf5, MyoD, myogenin and MRF4 are members of the basic helix-loop-helix family of transcription factors that control the determination and differentiation of skeletal muscle cells during embryogenesis and postnatal myogenesis. The dynamics of their temporal and spatial expression as well as their biochemical properties have allowed the identification of a precise and hierarchical relationship between the four MRFs. This relationship establishes the myogenic lineage as well as the maintenance of the terminal myogenic phenotype. The application of genome-wide technologies has provided important new information as to how the MRFs function to activate muscle gene expression. Application of combined functional genomics technologies along with single cell lineage tracing strategies will allow a deeper understanding of the mechanisms mediating myogenic determination, cell differentiation and muscle regeneration.

Sonic Hedgehog Signaling in Limb Development

The gene encoding the secreted protein Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is expressed in the polarizing region (or zone of polarizing activity), a small group of mesenchyme cells at the posterior margin of the vertebrate limb bud. Detailed analyses have revealed that Shh has the properties of the long sought after polarizing region morphogen that specifies positional values across the antero-posterior axis (e.g., thumb to little finger axis) of the limb. Shh has also been shown to control the width of the limb bud by stimulating mesenchyme cell proliferation and by regulating the antero-posterior length of the apical ectodermal ridge, the signaling region required for limb bud outgrowth and the laying down of structures along the proximo-distal axis (e.g., shoulder to digits axis) of the limb. It has been shown that Shh signaling can specify antero-posterior positional values in limb buds in both a concentration- (paracrine) and time-dependent (autocrine) fashion. Currently there are several models for how Shh specifies positional values over time in the limb buds of chick and mouse embryos and how this is integrated with growth. Extensive work has elucidated downstream transcriptional targets of Shh signaling. Nevertheless, it remains unclear how antero-posterior positional values are encoded and then interpreted to give the particular structure appropriate to that position, for example, the type of digit. A distant cis-regulatory enhancer controls limb-bud-specific expression of Shh and the discovery of increasing numbers of interacting transcription factors indicate complex spatiotemporal regulation. Altered Shh signaling is implicated in clinical conditions with congenital limb defects and in the evolution of the morphological diversity of vertebrate limbs.

Axial and limb muscle development: dialogue with the neighbourhood

Skeletal muscles are part of the musculoskeletal system which also includes nerves, tendons, connective tissue, bones and blood vessels. Here we review the development of axial and limb muscles in amniotes within the context of their surrounding tissues in vivo. We highlight the reciprocal dialogue mediated by signalling factors between cells of these adjacent tissues and developing muscles and also demonstrate its importance from the onset of muscle cell differentiation well into foetal development. Early embryonic tissues secrete factors which are important regulators of myogenesis. However, later muscle development relies on other tissue collaborators, such as developing nerves and connective tissue, which are in turn influenced by the developing muscles themselves. We conclude that skeletal muscle development in vivo is a compelling example of the importance of reciprocal interactions between developing tissues for the complete and coordinated development of a functional system.

Making muscle: Morphogenetic movements and molecular mechanisms of myogenesis in Xenopus laevis

Xenopus laevis offers unprecedented access to the intricacies of muscle development. The large, robust embryos make it ideal for manipulations at both the tissue and molecular level. In particular, this model system can be used to fate map early muscle progenitors, visualize cell behaviors associated with somitogenesis, and examine the role of signaling pathways that underlie induction, specification, and differentiation of muscle. Several characteristics that are unique to X. laevis include myogenic waves with distinct gene expression profiles and the late formation of dermomyotome and sclerotome. Furthermore, myogenesis in the metamorphosing frog is biphasic, facilitating regeneration studies. In this review, we describe the morphogenetic movements that shape the somites and discuss signaling and transcriptional regulation during muscle development and regeneration. With recent advances in gene editing tools, X. laevis remains a premier model organism for dissecting the complex mechanisms underlying the specification, cell behaviors, and formation of the musculature system.

Effects of ageing on expression of the muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin ligases and Akt-dependent regulation of Foxo transcription factors in skeletal muscle

Controversy exists as to whether the muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin ligases MAFbx and MuRF1 are transcriptionally upregulated in the process of sarcopenia. In the present study, we investigated the effects of ageing on mRNA/protein expression of muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin ligases and Akt/Foxo signalling in gastrocnemius muscles of female mice. Old mice exhibited a typical sarcopenic phenotype, characterized by loss of muscle mass and strength, decreased amount of myofibrillar proteins, incidence of aberrant muscle fibres, and genetic signature to sarcopenia. Activation levels of Akt were lower in adult and old mice than in young mice. Consequently, Akt-mediated phosphorylation levels of Foxo1 and Foxo3 proteins were decreased. Nuclear levels of Foxo1 and Foxo3 proteins showed an overall increasing trend in old mice. MAFbx mRNA expression was decreased in old mice relative to adult mice, whereas MuRF1 mRNA expression was less affected by ageing. At the protein level, MAFbx was less affected by ageing, whereas MuRF1 was increased in old mice relative to adult mice, with ubiquitin-protein conjugates being increased with ageing. In conclusion, we provided evidence for no mRNA upregulation of muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin ligases and disconnection between their expression and Akt/Foxo signalling in sarcopenic mice. Their different responsiveness to ageing may reflect different roles in sarcopenia.

AMP-activated protein kinase stimulates Warburg-like glycolysis and activation of satellite cells during muscle regeneration

Satellite cells are the major myogenic stem cells residing inside skeletal muscle and are indispensable for muscle regeneration. Satellite cells remain largely quiescent but are rapidly activated in response to muscle injury, and the derived myogenic cells then fuse to repair damaged muscle fibers or form new muscle fibers. However, mechanisms eliciting metabolic activation, an inseparable step for satellite cell activation following muscle injury, have not been defined. We found that a noncanonical Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) pathway is rapidly activated in response to muscle injury, which activates AMPK and induces a Warburg-like glycolysis in satellite cells. AMPKα1 is the dominant AMPKα isoform expressed in satellite cells, and AMPKα1 deficiency in satellite cells impairs their activation and myogenic differentiation during muscle regeneration. Drugs activating noncanonical Shh promote proliferation of satellite cells, which is abolished because of satellite cell-specific AMPKα1 knock-out. Taken together, AMPKα1 is a critical mediator linking noncanonical Shh pathway to Warburg-like glycolysis in satellite cells, which is required for satellite activation and muscle regeneration.

Mechanisms of myogenic specification and patterning

Mesodermal somites are initially composed of columnar cells arranged as a pseudostratified epithelium that undergoes sequential and spatially restricted changes to generate the sclerotome and dermomyotome, intermediate structures that develop into vertebrae, striated muscles of the body and limbs, dermis, smooth muscle, and endothelial cells. Regional cues were elucidated that impart differential traits upon the originally multipotent progenitors. How do somite cells and their intermediate progenitors interpret these extrinsic cues and translate them into various levels and/or modalities of intracellular signaling that lead to differential gene expression profiles remains a significant challenge. So is the understanding of how differential fate specification relates to complex cellular migrations prefiguring the formation of body muscles and vertebrae. Research in the past years has largely transited from a descriptive phase in which the lineages of distinct somite-derived progenitors and their cellular movements were traced to a more mechanistic understanding of the local function of genes and regulatory networks underlying lineage segregation and tissue organization. In this chapter, we focus on some major advances addressing the segregation of lineages from the dermomyotome, while discussing both cellular as well as molecular mechanisms, where possible.

Dynamic expression of molecules that control limb muscle development including Fhl1 in hind limbs of different gestational age

Muscle abnormality could be a key reason for congenital clubfoot (CCF) deformity, which manifests itself during fetal development. FHL1 down-regulated expression is involved in the formation of skeletal muscle abnormalities in CCF and FHL1 gene mutations contribute to the development of some kinds of myopathies. Therefore, detecting dynamic expression of Fhl1 and other molecules (Hgf, MyoD1, Myogenin, and Myh4) that control limb muscle development in hind limbs of different gestational age will provide a foundation for further research on the molecular mechanism involves in the myopathies or CCF. The dynamic gene expression levels of Fhl1, Hgf, MyoD1, Myogenin, and Myh4 in the lower limbs of E16, E17, E19, and E20 rat embryos were examined by real-time RT-PCR. Immunofluorescence was used to detect formation of specific muscle fibers (fast or slow fibers) in distal E17 hind limbs. The expression levels of Fhl1, Hgf, MyoD1, Myogenin, and Myh4 were varying in hind limbs of different gestational age. Real-time PCR results showed that all the genes that control skeletal muscle development except for Fhl1 exhibited a peak in E17 lower limbs. Immunofluorescence results showed obviously positive fast-myosin in the distal E17 lower limbs and meanwhile slow-myosin had no apparently signals. E17 was a critical time point for terminal skeletal muscle differentiation in the lower limbs of rat embryos.

Heterochrony in the regulation of the developing marsupial limb

BACKGROUND

At birth, marsupial neonates have precociously developed forelimbs. The development of the tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii) hindlimbs lags significantly behind that of the forelimbs. This differs from the grey short-tailed opossum, Monodelphis domestica, which has relatively similar fore- and hindlimbs at birth. This study examines the expression of the key patterning genes TBX4, TBX5, PITX1, FGF8, and SHH in developing limb buds in the tammar wallaby.

RESULTS

All genes examined were highly conserved with orthologues from opossum and mouse. TBX4 expression appeared earlier in development than in the mouse, but later than in the opossum. SHH expression is restricted to the zone of polarising activity, while TBX5 (forelimb) and PITX1 (hindlimb) showed diffuse mRNA expression. FGF8 is specifically localised to the apical ectodermal ridge, which is more prominent than in the opossum.

CONCLUSIONS

The most marked divergence in limb size in marsupials occurs in the kangaroos and wallabies. The faster development of the fore limb compared to that of the hind limb correlates with the early timing of the expression of the key patterning genes in these limbs.

Pax3 synergizes with Gli2 and Zic1 in transactivating the Myf5 epaxial somite enhancer

Both Glis, the downstream effectors of hedgehog signaling, and Zic transcription factors are required for Myf5 expression in the epaxial somite. Here we demonstrate a novel synergistic interaction between members of both families and Pax3, a paired-domain transcription factor that is essential for both myogenesis and neural crest development. We show that Pax3 synergizes with both Gli2 and Zic1 in transactivating the Myf5 epaxial somite (ES) enhancer in concert with the Myf5 promoter. This synergy is dependent on conserved functional domains of the proteins, as well as on a novel homeodomain motif in the Myf5 promoter and the essential Gli motif in the ES enhancer. Importantly, overexpression of Zic1 and Pax3 in the 10T1/2 mesodermal cell model results in enrichment of these factors at the endogenous Myf5 locus and induction of Myf5 expression. In our previous work, we showed that by enhancing nuclear translocation of Gli factors, Zics provide spatiotemporal patterning for Gli family members in the epaxial induction of Myf5 expression. Our current study indicates a complementary mechanism in which association with DNA-bound Pax3 strengthens the ability of both Zic1 and Gli2 to transactivate Myf5 in the epaxial somite.

Sonic hedgehog therapy in a mouse model of age-associated impairment of skeletal muscle regeneration

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a morphogen regulating muscle development during embryogenesis. We have shown that the Shh pathway is postnatally recapitulated after injury and during regeneration of the adult skeletal muscle and regulates angiogenesis and myogenesis after muscle injury. Here, we demonstrate that in 18-month-old mice, there is a significant impairment of the upregulation of the Shh pathway that physiologically occurs in the young skeletal muscle after injury. Such impairment is even more pronounced in 24-month-old mice. In old animals, intramuscular therapy with a plasmid encoding the human Shh gene increases the regenerative capacities of the injured muscle, in terms of Myf5-positive cells, regenerating myofibers, and fibrosis. At the molecular level, Shh treatment increases the upregulation of the prototypical growth factors, insulin-like growth factor-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor. These data demonstrate that Shh increases regeneration after injury in the muscle of 24-month-old mice and suggest that the manipulation of the Shh pathway may be useful for the treatment of muscular diseases associated with aging.

The transition from differentiation to growth during dermomyotome-derived myogenesis depends on temporally restricted hedgehog signaling

The development of a functional tissue requires coordination of the amplification of progenitors and their differentiation into specific cell types. The molecular basis for this coordination during myotome ontogeny is not well understood. Dermomytome progenitors that colonize the myotome first acquire myocyte identity and subsequently proliferate as Pax7-expressing progenitors before undergoing terminal differentiation. We show that the dynamics of sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling is crucial for this transition in both avian and mouse embryos. Initially, Shh ligand emanating from notochord/floor plate reaches the dermomyotome, where it both maintains the proliferation of dermomyotome cells and promotes myogenic differentiation of progenitors that colonized the myotome. Interfering with Shh signaling at this stage produces small myotomes and accumulation of Pax7-expressing progenitors. An in vivo reporter of Shh activity combined with mouse genetics revealed the existence of both activator and repressor Shh activities operating on distinct subsets of cells during the epaxial myotomal maturation. In contrast to observations in mice, in avians Shh promotes the differentiation of both epaxial and hypaxial myotome domains. Subsequently, myogenic progenitors become refractory to Shh; this is likely to occur at the level of, or upstream of, smoothened signaling. The end of responsiveness to Shh coincides with, and is thus likely to enable, the transition into the growth phase of the myotome.

Disturbance of SHH signalling pathway during early embryogenesis in the cadmium-induced omphalocele chick model

INTRODUCTION

Administration of cadmium (Cd) after 60 h (H) incubation induces ventral body wall defect (VBWD) similar to the omphalocele phenotype in the chick embryo. In this model, the earliest histological changes have been observed in somites commencing at 4-h post-treatment (4H). The molecular mechanism by which Cd acts in this critical period of embryogenesis still remains unclear. Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signalling plays an important role in vertebrate development, including somitogenesis and thus ventral body wall formation. Patched (PTCH), a cell membrane receptor for SHH, is expressed in somites and Patched knockout mice display somite dysfunction. Another transmembrane receptor, Smoothened (SMO), is also expressed in somites and transduces the SHH signal regulated by PTCH. We designed this study to test the hypothesis that SHH signalling is downregulated during the critical period of early embryogenesis in the Cd-induced omphalocele chick model.

METHODS

After 60 h of incubation, chicks were exposed to either chick saline or 50 μL of 50 μM cadmium acetate and divided into two groups: control and Cd (n = 24 for each group). Chicks were harvested 1, 4, and 8 h post-treatment. Real-time RT-PCR was performed to evaluate the relative mRNA expression level of SHH, PTCH and SMO. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy was then performed to evaluate protein expression/distribution of SHH, PTCH and SMO.

RESULTS

The relative mRNA expression levels of SHH, PTCH and SMO were significantly downregulated in the Cd group compared to controls at 4H post treatment, whereas, there were no significant differences at the other time points. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the intensity of SHH, PTCH and SMO was markedly diminished at 4 h in Cd-treated embryos compared to controls.

CONCLUSION

Disturbance of the SHH signalling pathway as evidenced by SHH, PTCH and SMO downregulation during the narrow window of early embryogenesis may result in somite maldevelopment, contributing to the omphalocele phenotype in the Cd chick model.

Hedgehog signaling regulates MyoD expression and activity

The inhibition of MyoD expression is important for obtaining muscle progenitors that can replenish the satellite cell niche during muscle repair. Progenitors could be derived from either embryonic stem cells or satellite cells. Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is important for MyoD expression during embryogenesis and adult muscle regeneration. To date, the mechanistic understanding of MyoD regulation by Hh signaling is unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the Hh effector, Gli2, regulates MyoD expression and associates with MyoD gene elements. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments in pluripotent P19 cells show that Gli2 activity is sufficient and required for efficient MyoD expression during skeletal myogenesis. Inhibition of Hh signaling reduces MyoD expression during satellite cell activation in vitro. In addition to regulating MyoD expression, Hh signaling regulates MyoD transcriptional activity, and MyoD activates Hh signaling in myogenic conversion assays. Finally, Gli2, MyoD, and MEF2C form a protein complex, which enhances MyoD activity on skeletal muscle-related promoters. We therefore link Hh signaling to the function and expression of MyoD protein during myogenesis in stem cells.

Sonic hedgehog acts cell-autonomously on muscle precursor cells to generate limb muscle diversity

How muscle diversity is generated in the vertebrate body is poorly understood. In the limb, dorsal and ventral muscle masses constitute the first myogenic diversification, as each gives rise to distinct muscles. Myogenesis initiates after muscle precursor cells (MPCs) have migrated from the somites to the limb bud and populated the prospective muscle masses. Here, we show that Sonic hedgehog (Shh) from the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) drives myogenesis specifically within the ventral muscle mass. Shh directly induces ventral MPCs to initiate Myf5 transcription and myogenesis through essential Gli-binding sites located in the Myf5 limb enhancer. In the absence of Shh signaling, myogenesis is delayed, MPCs fail to migrate distally, and ventral paw muscles fail to form. Thus, Shh production in the limb ZPA is essential for the spatiotemporal control of myogenesis and coordinates muscle and skeletal development by acting directly to regulate the formation of specific ventral muscles.

Autonomous and nonautonomous roles of Hedgehog signaling in regulating limb muscle formation

Muscle progenitor cells migrate from the lateral somites into the developing vertebrate limb, where they undergo patterning and differentiation in response to local signals. Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a secreted molecule made in the posterior limb bud that affects patterning and development of multiple tissues, including skeletal muscles. However, the cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous functions of Shh during limb muscle formation have remained unclear. We found that Shh affects the pattern of limb musculature non-cell-autonomously, acting through adjacent nonmuscle mesenchyme. However, Shh plays a cell-autonomous role in maintaining cell survival in the dermomyotome and initiating early activation of the myogenic program in the ventral limb. At later stages, Shh promotes slow muscle differentiation cell-autonomously. In addition, Shh signaling is required cell-autonomously to regulate directional muscle cell migration in the distal limb. We identify neuroepithelial cell transforming gene 1 (Net1) as a downstream target and effector of Shh signaling in that context.

Relative impact of form-induced stress vs. uniaxial alignment on multipotent stem cell myogenesis

Tissue engineering strategies based on multipotent stem cells (MSCs) hold significant promise for the repair or replacement of damaged smooth muscle tissue. To design scaffolds which specifically induce MSC smooth muscle lineage progression requires a deeper understanding of the relative influence of various microenvironmental signals on myogenesis. For instance, MSC myogenic differentiation has been shown to be promoted by increases in active RhoA and FAK, both of which can be induced via increased cell-substrate stress. Separate studies have demonstrated MSC myogenesis to be enhanced by uniaxial cell alignment. The goal of the present study was to compare the impact of increased peak cell-substrate stresses vs. increased uniaxial cell alignment on MSC myogenic differentiation. To this end, MSC fate decisions were compared within two distinct multicellular "forms". A "stripe" multicellular pattern was designed to induce uniaxial cell alignment. In contrast, a second multicellular pattern was designed with "loops" or curves, which altered cell directionality while simultaneously generating regional peak stresses significantly above that intrinsic to the "stripe" form. As anticipated, the higher peak stress levels of the "loop" pattern were associated with increased fractions of active RhoA and active FAK. In contrast, two markers of early smooth muscle lineage progression, myocardin and SM-α-actin, were significantly elevated in the "stripe" pattern relative to the "loop" pattern. These results indicate that scaffolds which promote uniaxial MSC alignment may be more inductive of myogenic differentiation than those associated with increased peak, cell-substrate stress but in which cell directionality varies.

Muscle development and obesity: Is there a relationship?

The formation of skeletal muscle from the epithelial somites involves a series of events triggered by temporally and spatially discrete signals resulting in the generation of muscle fibers which vary in their contractile and metabolic nature. The fiber type composition of muscles varies between individuals and it has now been found that there are differences in fiber type proportions between lean and obese animals and humans. Amongst the possible causes of obesity, it has been suggested that inappropriate prenatal environments may 'program' the fetus and may lead to increased risks for disease in adult life. The characteristics of muscle are both heritable and plastic, giving the tissue some ability to adapt to signals and stimuli both pre and postnatally. Given that muscle is a site of fatty acid oxidation and carbohydrate metabolism and that its development can be changed by prenatal events, it is interesting to examine the possible relationship between muscle development and the risk of obesity.

Embryonic signaling pathways and rhabdomyosarcoma: contributions to cancer development and opportunities for therapeutic targeting

Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common soft tissue sarcoma of childhood and adolescence, accounting for approximately 7% of childhood cancers. Current therapies include nonspecific cytotoxic chemotherapy regimens, radiation therapy, and surgery; however, these multimodality strategies are unsuccessful in the majority of patients with high-risk disease. It is generally believed that these tumors represent arrested or aberrant skeletal muscle development, and, accordingly, developmental signaling pathways critical to myogenesis such as Notch, WNT, and Hedgehog may represent new therapeutic targets. In this paper, we summarize the current preclinical studies linking these embryonic pathways to rhabdomyosarcoma tumorigenesis and provide support for the investigation of targeted therapies in this embryonic cancer.

Non conservation of function for the evolutionarily conserved prdm1 protein in the control of the slow twitch myogenic program in the mouse embryo

Muscles are composed of multinucleated muscle fibers with different contractile and physiological properties, which result from specific slow or fast gene expression programs in the differentiated muscle cells. In the zebra fish embryo, the slow program is under the control of Hedgehog signaling from the notochord and floor plate. This pathway activates the expression of the conserved transcriptional repressor, Prdm1 (Blimp1), which in turn represses the fast program and promotes the slow program in adaxial cells of the somite and their descendants. In the mouse embryo, myogenesis is also initiated in the myotomal compartment of the somite, but the slow muscle program is not confined to a specific subset of cells. We now show that Prdm1 is expressed in the first differentiated myocytes of the early myotome from embryonic day (E)9.5-E11.5. During this period, muscle formation depends on the myogenic regulatory factors, Myf5 and Mrf4. In their absence, Prdm1 is not activated, in apparent contrast to zebra fish where Prdm1 is expressed in the absence of Myf5 and MyoD that drive myogenesis in adaxial cells. However, as in zebra fish, Prdm1 expression in the mouse myotome does not occur in the absence of Hedgehog signaling. Analysis of the muscle phenotype of Prdm1 mutant embryos shows that myogenesis appears to proceed normally. Notably, there is no requirement for Prdm1 activation of the slow muscle program in the mouse myotome. Furthermore, the gene for the transcriptional repressor, Sox6, which is repressed by Prdm1 to permit slow muscle differentiation in zebra fish, is not expressed in the mouse myotome. We propose that the lack of functional conservation for mouse Prdm1, that can nevertheless partially rescue the adaxial cells of zebra fish Prdm1 mutants, reflects differences in the evolution of the role of key regulators such as Prdm1 or Sox6, in initiating the onset of the slow muscle program, between teleosts and mammals.

Cooperation between Shh and IGF-I in promoting myogenic proliferation and differentiation via the MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt pathways requires Smo activity

Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) has been shown to promote adult myoblast proliferation and differentiation and affect Akt phosphorylation via its effector Smoothened (Smo). Here, the relationship between Shh and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) was examined with regard to myogenic differentiation via signaling pathways which regulate this process. Each factor enhanced Akt and MAPK/ERK (p42/44) phosphorylation and myogenic factor expression levels in a dose-responsive manner, while combinations of Shh and IGF-I showed additive effects. Blockage of the IGF-I effects by neutralizing antibody partially reduced Shh's effects on signaling pathways, suggesting that IGF-I enhances, but is not essential for Shh effects. Addition of cyclopamine, a Smo inhibitor, reduced Shh- and IGF-I-induced Akt phosphorylation in a similar manner, implying that Shh affects gain of the IGF-I signaling pathway. This implication was also examined via a genetic approach. In cultures derived from Smo(mut) (MCre;Smo(flox/flox)) mice lacking Smo expression specifically in hindlimb muscles, IGF-I-induced Akt and p42/44 phosphorylation was significantly reduced compared to IGF-I's effect on Smo(cont) cells. Moreover, remarkable inhibition of the stimulatory effect of IGF-I on myogenic differentiation was observed in Smo(mut) cultures, implying that intact Smo is required for IGF-I effects in myoblasts. Immunoprecipitation assays revealed that tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins, including the regulatory unit of PI3K (p85), are recruited to Smo in response to Shh. Moreover, IGF-IR was found to associate with Smo in response to Shh and to IGF-I, suggesting that Shh and IGF-I are already integrated at the receptor level, a mechanism by which their signaling pathways interact in augmenting their effects on adult myoblasts.

Identification of two novel mutations in Shh long-range regulator associated with familial pre-axial polydactyly

Pre-axial polydactyly type II (PPDII, MIM #174500), Werner mesomelic syndrome (MIM %188770) and Haas polysyndactyly (MIM #186200) are a group of closely related conditions caused by mutations in a long-range Sonic hedgehog (SHH, MIM *600725) regulator called ZRS. To date, 19 point mutations, 10 duplications and 1 triplication of the ZRS associated with those pre-axial polydactylies have been reported in humans, mice, cats and chickens. Some of these have been shown to cause ectopic expression of Shh in the limb bud in mice, leading to a polydactylous phenotype, but the precise mechanism by which ZRS mutations generate this phenotype remains unknown. We present two PPDII families with fully penetrant point mutations in ultra-conserved predicted binding sites for transcription factors SOX9 and PAX3, two possible candidates for regulating SHH expression. Screening for point mutations or copy-number variation of the ZRS, high-resolution array-CGH, and screening of other conserved non-coding sequences (CNS) surrounding SHH in a third family are negative. This is the sixth PPDII pedigree with possible linkage to 7q36 that presents with no detectable ZRS mutation. We hypothesize that another nearby regulatory sequence, or an undetected position effect between ZRS and SHH, could be responsible for negative familial cases linked to 7q36.

Growth of limb muscle is dependent on skeletal-derived Indian hedgehog

During embryogenesis, muscle and bone develop in close temporal and spatial proximity. We show that Indian Hedgehog, a bone-derived signaling molecule, participates in growth of skeletal muscle. In Ihh(-/-) embryos, skeletal muscle development appears abnormal at embryonic day 14.5 and at later ages through embryonic day 20.5, dramatic losses of hindlimb muscle occur. To further examine the role of Ihh in myogenesis, we manipulated Ihh expression in the developing chick hindlimb. Reduction of Ihh in chicken embryo hindlimbs reduced skeletal muscle mass similar to that seen in Ihh(-/-) mouse embryos. The reduction in muscle mass appears to be a direct effect of Ihh since ectopic expression of Ihh by RCAS retroviral infection of chicken embryo hindlimbs restores muscle mass. These effects are independent of bone length, and occur when Shh is not expressed, suggesting Ihh acts directly on fetal myoblasts to regulate secondary myogenesis. Loss of muscle mass in Ihh null mouse embryos is accompanied by a dramatic increase in myoblast apoptosis by a loss of p21 protein. Our data suggest that Ihh promotes fetal myoblast survival during their differentiation into secondary myofibers by maintaining p21 protein levels.

Double in situ detection of sonic hedgehog mRNA and pMAPK protein in examining the cell proliferation signaling pathway in mouse embryo

Double in situ detection of RNA molecules and proteins in tissue sections is not trivial. A successful experiment heavily depends on the preparation of the tissue as well as the quality of the probes and antibodies. Detection of two or more molecular markers also requires reagents and experimental conditions that will preserve authenticity (accuracy) of the single staining patterns. Here, we describe in detail the protocols used to detect sonic hedgehog (Shh) mRNA by in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence staining for phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinase (pMAPK) in the same mouse embryonic tissue sections. In addition to protocols for manual immuno-staining, we provide data from automated machine-based staining protocols and highly recommend it to achieve strong signal and reproducible results.

Uncommitted precursor cells might contribute to increased incidence of embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma in heterozygous Patched1-mutant mice

Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma (ERMS) is a tumor of the skeletal muscle in children and is frequently initiated by heterozygous germline mutations in the Hedgehog (Hh) receptor Patched1 (Ptch), both in humans and mice. Using a conditional knock-out strategy in Ptch(flox/+) mice, we demonstrate that early embryonic stages are more susceptible to ERMS development than later stages and that cells normally not committed to undergo myogenesis at this stage represent the major source of ERMS. We found that deletion of a single copy of the Ptch allele at E9.5 using the ubiquitously active Rosa26CreERT2 resulted in a tumor incidence of 88% but reached only 44% and 12% when the Ptch allele was inactivated at E11.5 and E13.5, respectively. Induction of the Ptch mutation at E9.5 did also significantly shorten ERMS-free survival and increased tumor multiplicity compared with tumor induction at E11.5 and E13.5. Interestingly, we observed a more that 10-fold reduction of ERMS incidence when the Ptch mutation was specifically introduced in Myf5-expressing cells, which is the myogenic factor expressed in all muscle cells at E9.5. We conclude that Myf5-negative cells are more susceptible to ERMS development than Myf5-positive embryonic precursors. As the propensity to undergo tumorigenic transformation declined with age, concomitant with the increase of stably committed muscle cells, it seems likely that the Ptch mutation favors tumor formation in progenitor cells, which have not yet acquired a muscle cell fate.

A role for Zic1 and Zic2 in Myf5 regulation and somite myogenesis

Zic genes encode a conserved family of zinc finger proteins with essential functions in neural development and axial skeletal patterning in the vertebrate embryo. Zic proteins also function as Gli co-factors in Hedgehog signaling. Here, we report that Zic genes have a role in Myf5 regulation for epaxial somite myogenesis in the mouse embryo. In situ hybridization studies show that Zic1, 2, and 3 transcripts are expressed in Myf5-expressing epaxial myogenic progenitors in the dorsal medial dermomyotome of newly forming somites, and immunohistological studies show that Zic2 protein is co-localized with Myf5 and Pax3 in the dorsal medial lip of the dermomyotome, but is not expressed in the forming myotome. In functional reporter assays, Zic1 and Zic2, but not Zic3, potentiate the transactivation of Gli-dependent Myf5 epaxial somite-specific (ES) enhancer activity in 3T3 cells, and Zic1 activates endogenous Myf5 expression in 10T1/2 cells and in presomitic mesoderm explants. Zic2 also co-immunoprecipitates with Gli2, indicating that Zic2 forms complexes with Gli2 to promote Myf5 expression. Genetic studies show that, although Zic2 and Zic1 are activated normally in sonic hedgehog(-/-) mutant embryos, Myf5 expression in newly forming somites is deficient in both sonic hedgehog(-/-) and in Zic2(kd/kd) mutant mouse embryos, providing further evidence that these Zic genes are upstream regulators of Hedgehog-mediated Myf5 activation. Myf5 activation in newly forming somites is delayed in Zic2 mutant embryos until the time of Zic1 activation, and both Zic2 and Myf5 require noggin for their activation.

Hedgehog signaling patterns mesoderm in the sea urchin

The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is essential for patterning many structures in vertebrates including the nervous system, chordamesoderm, limb and endodermal organs. In the sea urchin, a basal deuterostome, Hh signaling is shown to participate in organizing the mesoderm. At gastrulation the Hh ligand is expressed by the endoderm downstream of the Brachyury and FoxA transcription factors in the endomesoderm gene regulatory network. The co-receptors Patched (Ptc) and Smoothened (Smo) are expressed by the neighboring skeletogenic and non-skeletogenic mesoderm. Perturbations of Hh, Ptc and Smo cause embryos to develop with skeletal defects and inappropriate non-skeletogenic mesoderm patterning, although initial specification of mesoderm occurs without detectable abnormalities. Perturbations of the pathway caused late defects in skeletogenesis and in the non-skeletogenic mesoderm, including altered numbers of pigment and blastocoelar cells, randomized left-right asymmetry of coelomic pouches, and disorganized circumesophageal muscle causing an inability to swallow. Together the data support the requirement of Hh signaling in patterning each of the mesoderm subtypes in the sea urchin embryo.

Mouse Shh is required for prechordal plate maintenance during brain and craniofacial morphogenesis

In humans, holoprosencephaly (HPE) is a common birth defect characterized by the absence of midline cells from brain, facial, and oral structures. To understand the pathoetiology of HPE, we investigated the involvement of mammalian prechordal plate (PrCP) cells in HPE pathogenesis and the requirement of the secreted protein sonic hedgehog (Shh) in PrCP development. We show using rat PrCP lesion experiments and DiI labeling that PrCP cells are essential for midline development of the forebrain, foregut endoderm, and ventral cranial mesoderm in mammals. We demonstrate that PrCP cells do not develop into ventral cranial mesoderm in Shh(-/-) embryos. Using Shh(-/-) and chimeric embryos we show that Shh signal is required for the maintenance of PrCP cells in a non-cell autonomous manner. In addition, the hedgehog (HH)-responding cells that normally appear during PrCP development to contribute to midline tissues, do not develop in the absence of Shh signaling. This suggests that Shh protein secreted from PrCP cells induces the differentiation of HH-responding cells into midline cells. In the present study, we show that the maintenance of a viable population of PrCP cells by Shh signal is an essential process in development of the midline of the brain and craniofacial structures. These findings provide new insight into the mechanism underlying HPE pathoetiology during dynamic brain and craniofacial morphogenesis.

A gradient of Shh establishes mutually repressing somitic cell fates induced by Nkx3.2 and Pax3

Wnt and Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signals are known to pattern the somite into dermomyotomal, myotomal and sclerotomal cell fates. By employing explants of presomitic mesoderm cultured with constant levels of Wnt3a conditioned medium and increasing levels of Shh, we found that differing levels of Shh signaling elicit differing responses from somitic cells: the lowest level of Shh signaling allows dermomyotomal gene expression, intermediate levels induce loss of dermomyotomal markers and activation of myogenic differentiation, and higher levels induce loss of myotomal markers and activation of sclerotomal gene expression. In addition, we have found that in the presence of high levels of Wnt signaling, instead of inducing sclerotomal markers, Shh signals act to maintain the expression of dermomyotomal and myotomal markers. One of the sclerotomal genes induced by high levels of Shh signaling is Nkx3.2. Forced expression of Nkx3.2 blocks somitic expression of the dermomyotomal marker Pax3 both in vitro and in vivo. Conversely, forced expression of Pax3 in somites can block Shh-mediated induction of sclerotomal gene expression and chondrocyte differentiation in vitro. Thus we propose that varying levels of Shh signaling act in a morphogen-like manner to elicit differing responses from somitic cells, and that Pax3 and Nkx3.2 set up mutually repressing cell fates that promote either dermomyotome/myotome or sclerotome differentiation, respectively.

The genetics of vertebrate myogenesis

The molecular, genetic and cellular bases for skeletal muscle growth and regeneration have been recently documented in a number of vertebrate species. These studies highlight the role of transient subcompartments of the early somite as a source of distinct waves of myogenic precursors. Individual myogenic progenitor populations undergo a complex series of cell rearrangements and specification events in different regions of the body, all of which are controlled by distinct gene regulatory networks. Collectively, these studies have opened a window into the morphogenetic and molecular bases of the different phases of vertebrate myogenesis, from embryo to adult.

Sonic hedgehog regulates angiogenesis and myogenesis during post-natal skeletal muscle regeneration

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a morphogen-regulating crucial epithelial-mesenchymal interactions during embryonic development, but its signalling pathway is considered generally silent in post-natal life. In this study, we demonstrate that Shh is de novo expressed after injury and during regeneration of the adult skeletal muscle. Shh expression is followed by significant up-regulation of its receptor and target gene Ptc1 in injured and regenerating muscles. The reactivation of the Shh signalling pathway has an important regulatory role on injury-induced angiogenesis, as inhibition of Shh function results in impaired up-regulation of prototypical angiogenic agents, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and stromal-derived factor (SDF)-1alpha, decreased muscle blood flow and reduced capillary density after injury. In addition, Shh reactivation plays a regulatory role on myogenesis, as its inhibition impairs the activation of the myogenic regulatory factors Myf-5 and MyoD, decreases the up-regulation of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and reduces the number of myogenic satellite cells at injured site. Finally, Shh inhibition results in muscle fibrosis, increased inflammatory reaction and compromised motor functional recovery after injury. These data demonstrate that the Shh pathway is functionally important for adult skeletal muscle regeneration and displays pleiotropic angiogenic and myogenic potentials in post-natal life. These findings might constitute the foundation for new therapeutic approaches for muscular diseases in humans.

A hedgehog homolog is involved in muscle formation and organization of Sepia officinalis (mollusca) mantle

Our study focuses on the possible involvement of the Hedgehog (Hh) pathway in the differentiation of striated muscle fibres in cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) mantle. We show here that both an hh-homolog signalling molecule and its receptor Patched (Ptc) are expressed in a specific population of myoblasts which differentiates into the radial fast fibres. To evaluate the functional significance of hh expression in developing cuttlefish, we inhibited the Hedgehog signalling pathway by means of cyclopamine treatment in cuttlefish embryos. In treated embryos, the gross anatomy was considerably compromised, displaying an extremely reduced mantle with a high degree of morphological abnormalities. TUNEL and BrdU assays showed that the absence of an hh signalling induces apoptosis and reduces the proliferation rate of muscle precursors. We therefore hypothesize a possible involvement of Hh and its receptor Ptc in the formation of striated muscle fibres in cuttlefish.

Sonic hedgehog promotes proliferation and differentiation of adult muscle cells: Involvement of MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt pathways

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) has been reported to act as a mitogen and survival factor for muscle satellite cells. However, its role in their differentiation remains ambiguous. Here, we provide evidence that Shh promotes the proliferation and differentiation of primary cultures of chicken adult myoblasts (also termed satellite cells) and mouse myogenic C2 cells. These effects are reversed by cyclopamine, a specific chemical inhibitor of the Shh pathway. In addition, we show that Shh and its downstream molecules are expressed in adult myoblast cultures and localize adjacent to Pax7 in muscle sections. These gene expressions are regulated during postnatal muscle growth in chicks. Most importantly, we report that Shh induces MAPK/ERK and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent Akt phosphorylation and that activation of both signaling pathways is essential for Shh's signaling in muscle cells. However, the effect of Shh on Akt phosphorylation is more robust than that on MAPK/ERK, and data suggest that Shh influences these pathways in a manner similar to IGF-I. By exploiting specific chemical inhibitors of the MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways, UO126 and Ly294002, respectively, we demonstrate that Shh-induced Akt phosphorylation, but not that of MAPK/ERK, is required for its promotive effects on muscle cell proliferation and differentiation. Taken together, we suggest that Shh acts in an autocrinic manner in adult myoblasts, and provide first evidence of a role for PI3K/Akt in Shh signaling during myoblast differentiation.

Digit morphogenesis: Is the tip different?

Digit formation is the last step in the skeletal patterning of developing limbs. This process involves important aspects such as determination of chondrogenic versus interdigital areas; growth of digital rays with periodic segmentation to form joints and thus phalanges, and finally tip formation. Traditionally it was believed that the properties of digital rays were fixed at earlier stages, but recently a surprising plasticity of digit primordia at the time of condensation has been demonstrated. This implies the presence of local interactions that are able to modulate the particular programs that make a given digit, but we don't fully understand how they operate. An involvement of signaling from the interdigital spaces and from the apical ectodermal ridge has been proposed. Another interesting question is the formation of the last limb structure, digit tips, which may involve a specific molecular and cellular program. Indeed, the expression of several developmentally important genes is restricted to digit tips at late stages of limb development. Understanding the molecular and cellular interactions that lead to digit morphogenesis has important implications not only in the context of embryonic development (for example, how early cues received by cells are translated into anatomy or what are the mechanisms that control the cease of activity of signaling regions) but also in terms of limb diversification during evolution.

Cellular heterogeneity during vertebrate skeletal muscle development

Although skeletal muscles appear superficially alike at different anatomical locations, in reality there is considerably more diversity than previously anticipated. Heterogeneity is not only restricted to completely developed fibers, but is clearly apparent during development at the molecular, cellular and anatomical level. Multiple waves of muscle precursors with different features appear before birth and contribute to muscular diversification. Recent cell lineage and gene expression studies have expanded our knowledge on how skeletal muscle is formed and how its heterogeneity is generated. This review will present a comprehensive view of relevant findings in this field.

Hedgehog signaling regulates the amount of hypaxial muscle development during Xenopus myogenesis

Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is proposed to have different roles on differentiation of hypaxial myoblasts of amniotes. Within the somitic environment, Hh signals restrict hypaxial development and promote epaxial muscle formation. On the other hand, in the limb bud, Hh signaling represses hypaxial myoblast differentiation. This poses the question of whether differences in response to Hh signaling are due to variations in local environment or are intrinsic differences between pre- and post-migratory hypaxial myoblasts. We have approached this question by examining the role of Hh signaling on myoblast development in Xenopus laevis, which, due to its unique mode of hypaxial muscle development, allows us to examine myoblast development in vivo in the absence of the limb environment. Cyclopamine and sonic hedgehog (shh) mRNA overexpression were used to inhibit or activate the Hh pathway, respectively. We find that hypaxial myoblasts respond similarly to Hh manipulations regardless of their location, and that this response is the same for epaxial myoblasts. Overexpression of shh mRNA causes a premature differentiation of the dermomyotome, subsequently inhibiting all further growth of the epaxial and hypaxial myotome. Cyclopamine treatment has the opposite effect, causing an increase in dermomyotome and a shift in myoblast fate from epaxial to hypaxial, eventually leading to an excess of hypaxial body wall muscle. Cyclopamine treatment before stage 20 can rescue the effects of shh overexpression, indicating that early Hh signaling plays an essential role in maintaining the balance between epaxial and hypaxial muscle mass. After stage 20, the premature differentiation of the dermomyotome caused by shh overexpression cannot be rescued by cyclopamine, and no further embryonic muscle growth occurs.

Hedgehog acts directly on the zebrafish dermomyotome to promote myogenic differentiation

Vertebrate myogenesis is regulated by signaling proteins secreted from surrounding tissues. One of the most important, Sonic hedgehog, has been proposed to regulate myogenic precursor cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation in a variety of vertebrates. In zebrafish, Hedgehog signaling is both necessary and sufficient for the development of embryonic slow muscle fibers-the earliest differentiating muscle fibers. Here we investigated the function of Hedgehog signaling in another zebrafish myogenic lineage, a dermomyotomal population of cells defined by somitic pax3/7 expression. We found that Hedgehog negatively regulates the number of myogenic precursors expressing pax3/7. Hh also positively regulates the growth of embryonic fast muscle. Unlike Hedgehog's function in regulating the elongation of fast muscle fibers, this regulation is not mediated by embryonic slow muscle fibers. Instead, it is a direct Hedgehog response, cell autonomous to myogenic precursors. The regulation of myogenic precursors and their differentiation into fast fibers have a different critical time period for Hh signaling, and different requirements for specific gli gene family members of Hh activated transcription factors from the earlier promotion of embryonic slow muscle fiber differentiation. We propose that Hedgehog signaling acts at multiple times on different lineages, through different downstream pathways, to promote myogenic differentiation.

The hedgehog regulated oncogenes Gli1 and Gli2 block myoblast differentiation by inhibiting MyoD-mediated transcriptional activation

The mechanism by which activation of the Hedgehog (Hh) pathway modulates differentiation and promotes oncogenesis in specific tissues is poorly understood. We therefore, analysed rhabdomyosarcomas from mice that were haploinsufficient for the Hh-binding protein, Hip1, or for the Hh receptor, Patched 1 (Ptch1). Transfection of the Hh-regulated transcription factor Gli1, which is expressed in a subset of mouse and human rhabdomyosarcomas, suppressed differentiation of myogenic rhabdomyosarcoma lines generated from Hip1+/- and Ptch1+/- mice. The closely related factor, Gli2, had similar effects. Gli1 and Gli2 inhibited myogenesis by repressing the capacity of MyoD to activate transcription. Deletion analysis of Gli1 indicated that multiple domains of Gli1 are required for efficient inhibition of MyoD. Gli1 reduced the ability of MyoD to heterodimerize with E12 and bind DNA, providing one mechanism whereby the Gli proteins modulate the activity of MyoD. This novel activity of Gli proteins provides new insights into how Hh signaling modulates terminal differentiation through inhibition of tissue-specific factors such as MyoD. This mechanism may contribute to the broad role of Hh signaling and the Gli proteins in differentiation decisions and cancer formation.

Asymmetric localization of numb in the chick somite and the influence of myogenic signals

Whereas Notch signaling is known to play an essential role in the formation of somites, its role during later stages of somite maturation is less well understood. Here, we examine the signals and transcription factors that control the expression of the Notch antagonist, Numb, during somite maturation in the chick embryo. Numb mRNA is present in the epithelial somite and is increased in expression in the forming myotome. Numb protein displays a very specific subcellular localization and dynamic expression during somite maturation. Numb protein is asymmetrically localized in a cortical crescent on the basal side of dividing cells in the dorsomedial lip of the dermomyotome and is subsequently uniformly distributed throughout differentiated myotomal cells. Treatment of somites with either the combination of Wnt-3a and Shh, or ectodermal signals plus noggin, both of which induce somitic myogenesis, did not significantly affect Numb transcript levels but did lead to a dramatic increase in the levels of Numb protein, which was uniformly distributed throughout the cytoplasm of the resultant myotubes. Forced expression of MyoD in somites similarly induced high levels of Numb protein throughout the cytoplasm, without affecting Numb mRNA levels. We also found that signals that promote somitic myogenesis or forced MyoD expression induced expression of the Notch ligand, Serrate-2. Our findings suggest that Notch signals are specifically repressed in the myotome and that asymmetric expression of Numb in dividing cells of the dorsomedial lip of the dermomyotome may modulate whether these cells continue to divide or differentiate into myotomal cells.

Ptc1 heterozygous knockout mice as a model of multi-organ tumorigenesis

Mutations in the Ptc1 gene are responsible for basal cell nevus (BCN) syndrome, and are commonly found in sporadic basal cell carcinomas (BCC) and in medulloblastoma (MB). Ptc1 hemizygosity in mice underlies this model's susceptibility to multi-organ tumorigenesis. Similar to BCN syndrome patients, the Ptc1 mouse model is characterized by tumor predisposition and radiation hypersensitivity. Ptc1(+/-) mice develop spontaneous rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and medulloblastoma (MB), as well as BCC following radiation exposure. The close phenotypic resemblance to the human disease makes these mice a unique preclinical model to test chemopreventive and therapeutic interventions.

The differentiation and morphogenesis of craniofacial muscles

Unraveling the complex tissue interactions necessary to generate the structural and functional diversity present among craniofacial muscles is challenging. These muscles initiate their development within a mesenchymal population bounded by the brain, pharyngeal endoderm, surface ectoderm, and neural crest cells. This set of spatial relations, and in particular the segmental properties of these adjacent tissues, are unique to the head. Additionally, the lack of early epithelialization in head mesoderm necessitates strategies for generating discrete myogenic foci that may differ from those operating in the trunk. Molecular data indeed indicate dissimilar methods of regulation, yet transplantation studies suggest that some head and trunk myogenic populations are interchangeable. The first goal of this review is to present key features of these diversities, identifying and comparing tissue and molecular interactions regulating myogenesis in the head and trunk. Our second focus is on the diverse morphogenetic movements exhibited by craniofacial muscles. Precursors of tongue muscles partly mimic migrations of appendicular myoblasts, whereas myoblasts destined to form extraocular muscles condense within paraxial mesoderm, then as large cohorts they cross the mesoderm:neural crest interface en route to periocular regions. Branchial muscle precursors exhibit yet another strategy, establishing contacts with neural crest populations before branchial arch formation and maintaining these relations through subsequent stages of morphogenesis. With many of the prerequisite stepping-stones in our knowledge of craniofacial myogenesis now in place, discovering the cellular and molecular interactions necessary to initiate and sustain the differentiation and morphogenesis of these neglected craniofacial muscles is now an attainable goal.

Muscle function and dysfunction in health and disease

Skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs developmentally originate from the cells of the dermomyotomal compartment of the somite. A wealth of knowledge has been accumulated with regard to understanding the molecular regulation of embryonic skeletal myogenesis. Myogenic induction is controlled through a complex series of spatiotemporal dependent signaling cascades. Secreted signaling molecules from surrounding structures not only initiate the myogenic program, but also influence proliferation and differentiation decisions. The proper coordination of these molecular events is thus critical for the formation of physiologically functional skeletal muscles. Hereditary congenital skeletal muscle defects arise due to genetics lesions in myogenic specific components. Understanding the mechanistic routes of congenital skeletal muscle disease therefore requires a comprehensive knowledge of the developmental system. Ultimately, the application of this knowledge will improve the diagnostic and therapeutic methodologies for such diseases. The aim of this review is to overview our current understanding of skeletal muscle development and associated human congenital diseases.

An inversion involving the mouse Shh locus results in brachydactyly through dysregulation of Shh expression

Short digits (Dsh) is a radiation-induced mouse mutant. Homozygous mice are characterized by multiple defects strongly resembling those resulting from Sonic hedgehog (Shh) inactivation. Heterozygous mice show a limb reduction phenotype with fusion and shortening of the proximal and middle phalanges in all digits, similar to human brachydactyly type A1, a condition caused by mutations in Indian hedgehog (IHH). We mapped Dsh to chromosome 5 in a region containing Shh and were able to demonstrate an inversion comprising 11.7 Mb. The distal breakpoint is 13.298 kb upstream of Shh, separating the coding sequence from several putative regulatory elements identified by interspecies comparison. The inversion results in almost complete downregulation of Shh expression during E9.5-E12.5, explaining the homozygous phenotype. At E13.5 and E14.5, however, Shh is upregulated in the phalangeal anlagen of Dsh/+ mice, at a time point and in a region where WT Shh is never expressed. The dysregulation of Shh expression causes the local upregulation of hedgehog target genes such as Gli1-3, patched, and Pthlh, as well as the downregulation of Ihh and Gdf5. This results in shortening of the digits through an arrest of chondrocyte differentiation and the disruption of joint development.