Evolutionary reconstruction of the retromer complex and its function in Trypanosoma brucei

The Entamoeba histolytica Vps26 (EhVps26) retromeric protein is involved in phagocytosis: Bioinformatic and experimental approaches

The retromer is a cellular structure that recruits and recycles proteins inside the cell. In mammalian and yeast, the retromer components have been widely studied, but very little in parasites. In yeast, it is formed by a SNX-BAR membrane remodeling heterodimer and the cargo selecting complex (CSC), composed by three proteins. One of them, the Vps26 protein, possesses a flexible and intrinsically disordered region (IDR), that facilitates interactions with other proteins and contributes to the retromer binding to the endosomal membrane. In Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan parasite responsible for human amoebiasis, the retromer actively participates during the high mobility and phagocytosis of trophozoites, but the molecular details in these events, are almost unknown. Here, we studied the EhVps26 role in phagocytosis. Bioinformatic analyses of EhVps26 revealed a typical arrestin folding structure of the protein, and a long and charged IDR, as described in other systems. EhVps26 molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) allowed us to predict binding pockets for EhVps35, EhSNX3, and a PX domain-containing protein; these pockets were disorganized in a EhVps26 truncated version lacking the IDR. The AlphaFold2 software predicted the interaction of EhVps26 with EhVps35, EhVps29 and EhSNX3, in a model similar to the reported mammalian crystals. By confocal and transmission electron microscopy, EhVps26 was found in the trophozoites plasma membrane, cytosol, endosomes, and Golgi-like apparatus. During phagocytosis, it followed the erythrocytes pathway, probably participating in cargoes selection and recycling. Ehvps26 gene knocking down evidenced that the EhVps26 protein is necessary for efficient phagocytosis.

VARP binds SNX27 to promote endosomal supercomplex formation on membranes

Multiple essential membrane trafficking pathways converge at endosomes to maintain cellular homeostasis by sorting critical transmembrane cargo proteins to the plasma membrane or the trans-Golgi network (TGN). The Retromer heterotrimer (VPS26/VPS35/VPS29 subunits) binds multiple sorting nexin (SNX) proteins on endosomal membranes, but molecular mechanisms regarding formation and regulation of metazoan SNX/Retromer complexes have been elusive. Here, we combine biochemical and biophysical approaches with AlphaFold2 Multimer modeling to identify a direct interaction between the VARP N-terminus and SNX27 PDZ domain. VARP and SNX27 interact with high nanomolar affinity using the binding pocket established for PDZ binding motif (PDZbm) cargo. Specific point mutations in VARP abrogate the interaction in vitro. We further establish a full biochemical reconstitution system using purified mammalian proteins to directly and systematically test whether multiple endosomal coat complexes are recruited to membranes to generate tubules. We successfully use purified coat components to demonstrate which combinations of Retromer with SNX27, ESCPE-1 (SNX2/SNX6), or both complexes can remodel membranes containing physiological cargo motifs and phospholipid composition. SNX27, alone and with Retromer, induces tubule formation in the presence of PI(3)P and PDZ cargo motifs. ESCPE-1 deforms membranes enriched with Folch I and CI-MPR cargo motifs, but surprisingly does not recruit Retromer. Finally, we find VARP is required to reconstitute a proposed endosomal "supercomplex" containing SNX27, ESCPE-1, and Retromer on PI(3)P-enriched membranes. These data suggest VARP functions as a key regulator in metazoans to promote cargo sorting out of endosomes.

The retromer and retriever systems are conserved and differentially expanded in parabasalids

Early endosomes sort transmembrane cargo either for lysosomal degradation or retrieval to the plasma membrane or the Golgi complex. Endosomal retrieval in eukaryotes is governed by the anciently homologous retromer or retriever complexes. Each comprises a core tri-protein subcomplex, membrane-deformation proteins and interacting partner complexes, together retrieving a variety of known cargo proteins. Trichomonas vaginalis, a sexually transmitted human parasite, uses the endomembrane system for pathogenesis. It has massively and selectively expanded its endomembrane protein complement, the evolutionary path of which has been largely unexplored. Our molecular evolutionary study of retromer, retriever and associated machinery in parabasalids and its free-living sister lineage of Anaeramoeba demonstrates specific expansion of the retromer machinery, contrasting with the retriever components. We also observed partial loss of the Commander complex and sorting nexins in Parabasalia but complete retention in Anaeramoeba. Notably, we identified putative parabasalid sorting nexin analogs. Finally, we report the first retriever protein localization in a non-metazoan group along with retromer protein localization in T. vaginalis.

Characterization of the First Secreted Sorting Nexin Identified in the Leishmania Protists

Proteins of the sorting nexin (SNX) family present a modular structural architecture with a phox homology (PX) phosphoinositide (PI)-binding domain and additional PX structural domains, conferring to them a wide variety of vital eukaryotic cell's functions, from signal transduction to membrane deformation and cargo binding. Although SNXs are well studied in human and yeasts, they are poorly investigated in protists. Herein, is presented the characterization of the first SNX identified in Leishmania protozoan parasites encoded by the LdBPK_352470 gene. In silico secondary and tertiary structure prediction revealed a PX domain on the N-terminal half and a Bin/amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) domain on the C-terminal half of this protein, with these features classifying it in the SNX-BAR subfamily of SNXs. We named the LdBPK_352470.1 gene product LdSNXi, as it is the first SNX identified in Leishmania (L.) donovani. Its expression was confirmed in L. donovani promastigotes under different cell cycle phases, and it was shown to be secreted in the extracellular medium. Using an in vitro lipid binding assay, it was demonstrated that recombinant (r) LdSNXi (rGST-LdSNXi) tagged with glutathione-S-transferase (GST) binds to the PtdIns3P and PtdIns4P PIs. Using a specific a-LdSNXi antibody and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, the intracellular localization of endogenous LdSNXi was analyzed in L. donovani promastigotes and axenic amastigotes. Additionally, rLdSNXi tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein (rLdSNXi-EGFP) was heterologously expressed in transfected HeLa cells and its localization was examined. All observed localizations suggest functions compatible with the postulated SNX identity of LdSNXi. Sequence, structure, and evolutionary analysis revealed high homology between LdSNXi and the human SNX2, while the investigation of protein-protein interactions based on STRING (v.11.5) predicted putative molecular partners of LdSNXi in Leishmania.

Cell-specific secretory granule sorting mechanisms: the role of MAGEL2 and retromer in hypothalamic regulated secretion

Intracellular protein trafficking and sorting are extremely arduous in endocrine and neuroendocrine cells, which synthesize and secrete on-demand substantial quantities of proteins. To ensure that neuroendocrine secretion operates correctly, each step in the secretion pathways is tightly regulated and coordinated both spatially and temporally. At the trans-Golgi network (TGN), intrinsic structural features of proteins and several sorting mechanisms and distinct signals direct newly synthesized proteins into proper membrane vesicles that enter either constitutive or regulated secretion pathways. Furthermore, this anterograde transport is counterbalanced by retrograde transport, which not only maintains membrane homeostasis but also recycles various proteins that function in the sorting of secretory cargo, formation of transport intermediates, or retrieval of resident proteins of secretory organelles. The retromer complex recycles proteins from the endocytic pathway back to the plasma membrane or TGN and was recently identified as a critical player in regulated secretion in the hypothalamus. Furthermore, melanoma antigen protein L2 (MAGEL2) was discovered to act as a tissue-specific regulator of the retromer-dependent endosomal protein recycling pathway and, by doing so, ensures proper secretory granule formation and maturation. MAGEL2 is a mammalian-specific and maternally imprinted gene implicated in Prader-Willi and Schaaf-Yang neurodevelopmental syndromes. In this review, we will briefly discuss the current understanding of the regulated secretion pathway, encompassing anterograde and retrograde traffic. Although our understanding of the retrograde trafficking and sorting in regulated secretion is not yet complete, we will review recent insights into the molecular role of MAGEL2 in hypothalamic neuroendocrine secretion and how its dysregulation contributes to the symptoms of Prader-Willi and Schaaf-Yang patients. Given that the activation of many secreted proteins occurs after they enter secretory granules, modulation of the sorting efficiency in a tissue-specific manner may represent an evolutionary adaptation to environmental cues.

Diversity of retromer-mediated vesicular trafficking pathways in plants

The plant endomembrane system is organized and regulated by large gene families that encode proteins responsible for the spatiotemporal delivery and retrieval of cargo throughout the cell and to and from the plasma membrane. Many of these regulatory molecules form functional complexes like the SNAREs, exocyst, and retromer, which are required for the delivery, recycling, and degradation pathways of cellular components. The functions of these complexes are well conserved in eukaryotes, but the extreme expansion of the protein subunit families in plants suggests that plant cells require more regulatory specialization when compared with other eukaryotes. The retromer is associated with retrograde sorting and trafficking of protein cargo back towards the TGN and vacuole in plants, while in animals, there is new evidence that the VPS26C ortholog is associated with recycling or 'retrieving' proteins back to the PM from the endosomes. The human VPS26C was shown to rescue vps26c mutant phenotypes in Arabidopsis thaliana, suggesting that the retriever function could be conserved in plants. This switch from retromer to retriever function may be associated with core complexes that include the VPS26C subunit in plants, similar to what has been suggested in other eukaryotic systems. We review what is known about retromer function in light of recent findings on functional diversity and specialization of the retromer complex in plants.

Out of the ESCPE room: Emerging roles of endosomal SNX-BARs in receptor transport and host-pathogen interaction

Several functions of the human cell, such as sensing nutrients, cell movement and interaction with the surrounding environment, depend on a myriad of transmembrane proteins and their associated proteins and lipids (collectively termed "cargoes"). To successfully perform their tasks, cargo must be sorted and delivered to the right place, at the right time, and in the right amount. To achieve this, eukaryotic cells have evolved a highly organized sorting platform, the endosomal network. Here, a variety of specialized multiprotein complexes sort cargo into itineraries leading to either their degradation or their recycling to various organelles for further rounds of reuse. A key sorting complex is the Endosomal SNX-BAR Sorting Complex for Promoting Exit (ESCPE-1) that promotes the recycling of an array of cargos to the plasma membrane and/or the trans-Golgi network. ESCPE-1 recognizes a hydrophobic-based sorting motif in numerous cargoes and orchestrates their packaging into tubular carriers that pinch off from the endosome and travel to the target organelle. A wide range of pathogens mimic this sorting motif to hijack ESCPE-1 transport to promote their invasion and survival within infected cells. In other instances, ESCPE-1 exerts restrictive functions against pathogens by limiting their replication and infection. In this review, we discuss ESCPE-1 assembly and functions, with a particular focus on recent advances in the understanding of its role in membrane trafficking, cellular homeostasis and host-pathogen interaction.

Retrograde transport in plants: Circular economy in the endomembrane system

The study of endomembrane trafficking is crucial for understanding how cells and whole organisms function. Moreover, there is a special interest in investigating endomembrane trafficking in plants, given its role in transport and accumulation of seed storage proteins and in secretion of cell wall material, arguably the two most essential commodities obtained from crops. The mechanisms of anterograde transport in the biosynthetic and endocytic pathways of plants have been thoroughly discussed in recent reviews, but, comparatively, retrograde trafficking pathways have received less attention. Retrograde trafficking is essential to recover membranes, retrieve proteins that have escaped from their intended localization, maintain homeostasis in maturing compartments, and recycle trafficking machinery for its reuse in anterograde transport reactions. Here, we review the current understanding on retrograde trafficking pathways in the endomembrane system of plants, discussing their integration with anterograde transport routes, describing conserved and plant-specific retrieval mechanisms at play, highlighting contentious issues and identifying open questions for future research.

CCDC22 and CCDC93, two potential retriever-interacting proteins, are required for root and root hair growth in Arabidopsis

Endomembrane trafficking is essential for plant growth and often depends on a balance between secretory and endocytic pathways. VPS26C is a component of the retriever complex which has been shown to function in the recycling of integral plasma membrane proteins in human cell culture and is part of a core retriever complex in Arabidopsis that is required for root hair growth. In this work, we report a characterization of the Arabidopsis homologues of CCDC22 and CCDC93, two additional proteins required for retriever function in humans. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that CCDC22 (AT1G55830) and CCDC93 (AT4G32560) are single copy genes in plants that are present across the angiosperms, but like VPS26C, are absent from the grasses. Both CCDC22 and CCDC93 are required for root and root hair growth in Arabidopsis and localize primarily to the cytoplasm in root epidermal cells. Previous work has demonstrated a genetic interaction between VPS26C function and a VTI13-dependent trafficking pathway to the vacuole. To further test this model, we characterized the vti13 ccdc93 double mutant and show that like vps26c, ccdc93 is a suppressor of the vti13 root hair phenotype. Together this work identifies two new proteins essential for root and root hair growth in plants and demonstrate that the endosomal pathway(s) in which CCDC93 functions is genetically linked to a VTI13-dependent trafficking pathway to the vacuole.

Coatomer in the universe of cellular complexity

Eukaryotic cells possess considerable internal complexity, differentiating them from prokaryotes. Eukaryogenesis, an evolutionary transitional period culminating in the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA), marked the origin of the eukaryotic endomembrane system. LECA is reconstructed as possessing intracellular complexity akin to modern eukaryotes. Construction of endomembrane compartments involved three key gene families: coatomer, BAR-domain proteins, and ESCRT. Each has a distinct evolutionary origin, but of these coatomer and BAR proteins are eukaryote specific, while ESCRT has more ancient origins. We discuss the structural motifs defining these three membrane-coating complexes and suggest that compared with BAR and ESCRT, the coatomer architecture had a unique ability to be readily and considerably modified, unlocking functional diversity and enabling the development of the eukaryotic cell.

Genomic analysis reveals cryptic diversity in aphelids and sheds light on the emergence of Fungi

Over the past decade, molecular phylogenetics has reshaped our understanding of the fungal tree of life by unraveling a hitherto elusive diversity of the protistan relatives of Fungi. Aphelida constitutes one of these novel deep branches that precede the emergence of osmotrophic fungal lifestyle and hold particular significance as the pathogens of algae. Here, we obtain and analyze the genomes of aphelid species Amoeboaphelidium protococcarum and Amoeboaphelidium occidentale. Genomic data unmask the vast divergence between these species, hidden behind their morphological similarity, and reveal hybrid genomes with a complex evolutionary history in two strains of A. protococcarum. We confirm the proposed sister relationship between Aphelida and Fungi using phylogenomic analysis and chart the reduction of characteristic proteins involved in phagocytic activity in the evolution of Holomycota. Annotation of aphelid genomes demonstrates the retention of actin nucleation-promoting complexes associated with phagocytosis and amoeboid motility and also reveals a conspicuous expansion of receptor-like protein kinases, uncharacteristic of fungal lineages. We find that aphelids possess multiple carbohydrate-processing enzymes that are involved in fungal cell wall synthesis but do not display rich complements of algal cell-wall-processing enzymes, suggesting an independent origin of fungal plant-degrading capabilities. Aphelid genomes show that the emergence of Fungi from phagotrophic ancestors relied on a common cell wall synthetic machinery but required a different set of proteins for digestion and interaction with the environment.

ITRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis reveals that VPS35 promotes the expression of MCM2-7 genes in HeLa cells

Vacuolar protein sorting 35 (VPS35) is a major component of the retromer complex that regulates endosomal trafficking in eukaryotic cells. Recent studies have shown that VPS35 promotes tumor cell proliferation and affects the nuclear accumulation of its interacting partner. In this study, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-based mass spectrometry were used to measure the changes in nuclear protein abundance in VPS35-depleted HeLa cells. A total of 47 differentially expressed proteins were identified, including 27 downregulated and 20 upregulated proteins. Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that the downregulated proteins included several minichromosome maintenance (MCM) proteins described as cell proliferation markers, and these proteins were present in the MCM2-7 complex, which is essential for DNA replication. Moreover, we validated that loss of VPS35 reduced the mRNA and protein expression of MCM2-7 genes. Notably, re-expression of VPS35 in VPS35 knockout HeLa cells rescued the expression of these genes. Functionally, we showed that VPS35 contributes to cell proliferation and maintenance of genomic stability of HeLa cells. Therefore, these findings reveal that VPS35 is involved in the regulation of MCM2-7 gene expression and establish a link between VPS35 and cell proliferation.

SNX27-Retromer directly binds ESCPE-1 to transfer cargo proteins during endosomal recycling

Coat complexes coordinate cargo recognition through cargo adaptors with biogenesis of transport carriers during integral membrane protein trafficking. Here, we combine biochemical, structural, and cellular analyses to establish the mechanistic basis through which SNX27-Retromer, a major endosomal cargo adaptor, couples to the membrane remodeling endosomal SNX-BAR sorting complex for promoting exit 1 (ESCPE-1). In showing that the SNX27 FERM (4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin) domain directly binds acidic-Asp-Leu-Phe (aDLF) motifs in the SNX1/SNX2 subunits of ESCPE-1, we propose a handover model where SNX27-Retromer captured cargo proteins are transferred into ESCPE-1 transport carriers to promote endosome-to-plasma membrane recycling. By revealing that assembly of the SNX27:Retromer:ESCPE-1 coat evolved in a stepwise manner during early metazoan evolution, likely reflecting the increasing complexity of endosome-to-plasma membrane recycling from the ancestral opisthokont to modern animals, we provide further evidence of the functional diversification of yeast pentameric Retromer in the recycling of hundreds of integral membrane proteins in metazoans.

Vps501, a novel vacuolar SNX-BAR protein cooperates with the SEA complex to regulate TORC1 signaling

The sorting nexins (SNX), constitute a diverse family of molecules that play varied roles in membrane trafficking, cell signaling, membrane remodeling, organelle motility and autophagy. In particular, the SNX-BAR proteins, a SNX subfamily characterized by a C-terminal dimeric Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) lipid curvature domain and a conserved Phox-homology domain, are of great interest. In budding yeast, many SNX-BARs proteins have well-characterized endo-vacuolar trafficking roles. Phylogenetic analyses allowed us to identify an additional SNX-BAR protein, Vps501, with a novel endo-vacuolar role. We report that Vps501 uniquely localizes to the vacuolar membrane and has physical and genetic interactions with the SEA complex to regulate TORC1 inactivation. We found cells displayed a severe deficiency in starvation-induced/nonselective autophagy only when SEA complex subunits are ablated in combination with Vps501, indicating a cooperative role with the SEA complex during TORC1 signaling during autophagy induction. Additionally, we found the SEACIT complex becomes destabilized in vps501Δsea1Δ cells, which resulted in aberrant endosomal TORC1 activity and subsequent Atg13 hyperphosphorylation. We have also discovered that the vacuolar localization of Vps501 is dependent upon a direct interaction with Sea1 and a unique lipid binding specificity that is also required for its function. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Proteomic Analysis of Trichomonas vaginalis Phagolysosome, Lysosomal Targeting, and Unconventional Secretion of Cysteine Peptidases

The lysosome represents a central degradative compartment of eukaryote cells, yet little is known about the biogenesis and function of this organelle in parasitic protists. Whereas the mannose 6-phosphate (M6P)-dependent system is dominant for lysosomal targeting in metazoans, oligosaccharide-independent sorting has been reported in other eukaryotes. In this study, we investigated the phagolysosomal proteome of the human parasite Trichomonas vaginalis, its protein targeting and the involvement of lysosomes in hydrolase secretion. The organelles were purified using Percoll and OptiPrep gradient centrifugation and a novel purification protocol based on the phagocytosis of lactoferrin-covered magnetic nanoparticles. The analysis resulted in a lysosomal proteome of 462 proteins, which were sorted into 21 classes. Hydrolases represented the largest functional class and included proteases, lipases, phosphatases, and glycosidases. Identification of a large set of proteins involved in vesicular trafficking (80) and turnover of actin cytoskeleton rearrangement (29) indicate a dynamic phagolysosomal compartment. Several cysteine proteases such as TvCP2 were previously shown to be secreted. Our experiments showed that secretion of TvCP2 was strongly inhibited by chloroquine, which increases intralysosomal pH, thus indicating that TvCP2 secretion occurs through lysosomes rather than the classical secretory pathway. Unexpectedly, we identified divergent homologues of the M6P receptor TvMPR in the phagolysosomal proteome, although T. vaginalis lacks enzymes for M6P formation. To test whether oligosaccharides are involved in lysosomal targeting, we selected the lysosome-resident cysteine protease CLCP, which possesses two glycosylation sites. Mutation of any of the sites redirected CLCP to the secretory pathway. Similarly, the introduction of glycosylation sites to secreted β-amylase redirected this protein to lysosomes. Thus, unlike other parasitic protists, T. vaginalis seems to utilize glycosylation as a recognition marker for lysosomal hydrolases. Our findings provide the first insight into the complexity of T. vaginalis phagolysosomes, their biogenesis, and role in the unconventional secretion of cysteine peptidases.

An Update on Coat Protein Complexes for Vesicle Formation in Plant Post-Golgi Trafficking

Endomembrane trafficking is an evolutionarily conserved process for all eukaryotic organisms. It is a fundamental and essential process for the transportation of proteins, lipids, or cellular metabolites. The aforementioned cellular components are sorted across multiple membrane-bounded organelles. In plant cells, the endomembrane mainly consists of the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, trans-Golgi network or early endosome (TGN/EE), prevacuolar compartments or multivesicular bodies (PVCs/MVBs), and vacuole. Among them, Golgi apparatus and TGN represent two central sorting intermediates for cargo secretion and recycling from other compartments by anterograde or retrograde trafficking. Several protein sorting machineries have been identified to function in these pathways for cargo recognition and vesicle assembly. Exciting progress has been made in recent years to provide novel insights into the sorting complexes and also the underlying sorting mechanisms in plants. Here, we will highlight the recent findings for the adaptor protein (AP) complexes, retromer, and retriever complexes, and also their functions in the related coated vesicle formation in post-Golgi trafficking.

Phospholipase D and retromer promote recycling of TRPL ion channel via the endoplasmic reticulum

Plasma membrane protein trafficking is of fundamental importance for cell function and cell integrity of neurons and includes regulated protein recycling. In this work, we report a novel role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) for protein recycling as discovered in trafficking studies of the ion channel TRPL in photoreceptor cells of Drosophila. TRPL is located within the rhabdomeric membrane from where it is endocytosed upon light stimulation and stored in the cell body. Conventional immunohistochemistry as well as stimulated emission depletion super-resolution microscopy revealed TRPL storage at the ER after illumination, suggesting an unusual recycling route of TRPL. Our results also imply that both phospholipase D (PLD) and retromer complex are required for correct recycling of TRPL to the rhabdomeric membrane. Loss of PLD activity in PLD^3.1 mutants results in enhanced degradation of TRPL. In the retromer mutant vps35^MH20 , TRPL is trapped in a Rab5-positive compartment. Evidenced by epistatic analysis in the double mutant PLD^3.1 vps35^MH20 , PLD activity precedes retromer function. We propose a model in which PLD and retromer function play key roles in the transport of TRPL to an ER enriched compartment.

To the Surface and Back: Exo- and Endocytic Pathways in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei is one of only a few unicellular pathogens that thrives extracellularly in the vertebrate host. Consequently, the cell surface plays a critical role in both immune recognition and immune evasion. The variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coats the entire surface of the parasite and acts as a flexible shield to protect invariant proteins against immune recognition. Antigenic variation of the VSG coat is the major virulence mechanism of trypanosomes. In addition, incessant motility of the parasite contributes to its immune evasion, as the resulting fluid flow on the cell surface drags immunocomplexes toward the flagellar pocket, where they are internalized. The flagellar pocket is the sole site of endo- and exocytosis in this organism. After internalization, VSG is rapidly recycled back to the surface, whereas host antibodies are thought to be transported to the lysosome for degradation. For this essential step to work, effective machineries for both sorting and recycling of VSGs must have evolved in trypanosomes. Our understanding of the mechanisms behind VSG recycling and VSG secretion, is by far not complete. This review provides an overview of the trypanosome secretory and endosomal pathways. Longstanding questions are pinpointed that, with the advent of novel technologies, might be answered in the near future.

Connecting the dots: combined control of endocytic recycling and degradation

Endocytosis is an essential process where proteins and lipids are internalised from the plasma membrane in membrane-bound carriers, such as clathrin-coated vesicles. Once internalised into the cell these vesicles fuse with the endocytic network where their contents are sorted towards degradation in the lysosome or recycling to their origin. Initially, it was thought that cargo recycling is a passive process, but in recent years the identification and characterisation of specialised recycling complexes has established a hitherto unthought-of level of complexity that actively opposes degradation. This review will summarise recent developments regarding the composition and regulation of the recycling machineries and their relationship with the degradative pathways of the endosome.

Comparative proteomic analysis reveals molecular differences between incompatible and compatible interaction of Erysiphe pisi in garden pea

Comparative proteome analysis of Erysiphe pisi-infected pea genotypes; JI-2480 carrying er2 resistant gene and Arkel, the susceptible genotype by liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry (LCMS/MS QTOF) at 72 h post inoculation (hpi) revealed several differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) of both the host and the pathogen. The functional annotation of proteins through gene enrichment and KEGG pathway analyses revealed strong up-regulation of pathogenesis related protein NPR1, proteins related to defense, transportation and signal transduction, hypersensitive response, cell wall modifications, phenylpropanoid and metabolic pathways in J-72. Significant abundance of membrane-related polypeptides, kinase domains and small GTPase signal transduction-related proteins suggested their major role in plant defense. The abundance of cellular antioxidant protein, catalase and its isozyme along with calreticulin-1 and 2 in J-72 confirmed their intervention in maintaining a redox balance in powdery mildew defense. High abundance levels of Glycolysis-related proteins indicated it as a major pathway for energy source during fungal growth. The majority of pathogenicity and virulence genes were downregulated in J-72 compared to A-72, while four EKA (Effectors homologues to Avk1 and Avra10) like avirulence proteins were significantly upregulated in incompatible interaction suggesting their role in eliciting hypersensitive response in pea against E. pisi.

Sorting Out Sorting Nexins Functions in the Nervous System in Health and Disease

Endocytosis is a fundamental process that controls protein/lipid composition of the plasma membrane, thereby shaping cellular metabolism, sensing, adhesion, signaling, and nutrient uptake. Endocytosis is essential for the cell to adapt to its surrounding environment, and a tight regulation of the endocytic mechanisms is required to maintain cell function and survival. This is particularly significant in the central nervous system (CNS), where composition of neuronal cell surface is crucial for synaptic functioning. In fact, distinct pathologies of the CNS are tightly linked to abnormal endolysosomal function, and several genome wide association analysis (GWAS) and biochemical studies have identified intracellular trafficking regulators as genetic risk factors for such pathologies. The sorting nexins (SNXs) are a family of proteins involved in protein trafficking regulation and signaling. SNXs dysregulation occurs in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Down’s syndrome (DS), schizophrenia, ataxia and epilepsy, among others, establishing clear roles for this protein family in pathology. Interestingly, restoration of SNXs levels has been shown to trigger synaptic plasticity recovery in a DS mouse model. This review encompasses an historical and evolutionary overview of SNXs protein family, focusing on its organization, phyla conservation, and evolution throughout the development of the nervous system during speciation. We will also survey SNXs molecular interactions and highlight how defects on SNXs underlie distinct pathologies of the CNS. Ultimately, we discuss possible strategies of intervention, surveying how our knowledge about the fundamental processes regulated by SNXs can be applied to the identification of novel therapeutic avenues for SNXs-related disorders.

Toward Understanding the Molecular Role of SNX27/Retromer in Human Health and Disease

Aberrations in membrane trafficking pathways have profound effects in cellular dynamics of cellular sorting processes and can drive severe physiological outcomes. Sorting nexin 27 (SNX27) is a metazoan-specific sorting nexin protein from the PX-FERM domain family and is required for endosomal recycling of many important transmembrane receptors. Multiple studies have shown SNX27-mediated recycling requires association with retromer, one of the best-known regulators of endosomal trafficking. SNX27/retromer downregulation is strongly linked to Down's Syndrome (DS) via glutamate receptor dysfunction and to Alzheimer's Disease (AD) through increased intracellular production of amyloid peptides from amyloid precursor protein (APP) breakdown. SNX27 is further linked to addiction via its role in potassium channel trafficking, and its over-expression is linked to tumorigenesis, cancer progression, and metastasis. Thus, the correct sorting of multiple receptors by SNX27/retromer is vital for normal cellular function to prevent human diseases. The role of SNX27 in regulating cargo recycling from endosomes to the cell surface is firmly established, but how SNX27 assembles with retromer to generate tubulovesicular carriers remains elusive. Whether SNX27/retromer may be a putative therapeutic target to prevent neurodegenerative disease is now an emerging area of study. This review will provide an update on our molecular understanding of endosomal trafficking events mediated by the SNX27/retromer complex on endosomes.

Interferon Receptor Trafficking and Signaling: Journey to the Cross Roads

Like most plasma membrane proteins, type I interferon (IFN) receptor (IFNAR) traffics from the outer surface to the inner compartments of the cell. Long considered as a passive means to simply control subunits availability at the plasma membrane, an array of new evidence establishes IFNAR endocytosis as an active contributor to the regulation of signal transduction triggered by IFN binding to IFNAR. During its complex journey initiated at the plasma membrane, the internalized IFNAR complex, i.e. IFNAR1 and IFNAR2 subunits, will experience post-translational modifications and recruit specific effectors. These finely tuned interactions will determine not only IFNAR subunits destiny (lysosomal degradation vs. plasma membrane recycling) but also the control of IFN-induced signal transduction. Finally, the IFNAR system perfectly illustrates the paradigm of the crosstalk between membrane trafficking and intracellular signaling. Investigating the complexity of IFN receptor intracellular routes is therefore necessary to reveal new insight into the role of IFNAR membrane dynamics in type I IFNs signaling selectivity and biological activity.

The endosomal protein sorting nexin 4 is a synaptic protein

Sorting nexin 4 (SNX4) is an evolutionary conserved protein that mediates recycling from endosomes back to the plasma membrane in yeast and mammalian cells. SNX4 is expressed in the brain. Altered protein levels are associated with Alzheimer's disease, but the neuronal localization and function of SNX4 have not been addressed. Using a new antibody, endogenous neuronal SNX4 co-localized with both early and recycling endosome markers, similar to the reported localization of SNX4 in non-neuronal cells. Neuronal SNX4 accumulated specifically in synaptic areas, with a predominant localization to presynaptic terminals. Acute depletion of neuronal SNX4 using independent short hairpin RNAs did not affect the levels of the transferrin receptor, a canonical SNX4 cargo. Quantitative mass spectrometry revealed that upon SNX4 knockdown the class of proteins involved in neurotransmission was the most dysregulated. This included integral membrane proteins at both the presynaptic and postsynaptic side of the synapse that participate in diverse synaptic processes such as synapse assembly, neurotransmission and the synaptic vesicle cycle. These data suggest that SNX4 is implicated in a variety of synaptic processes.

Mechanism and evolution of the Zn-fingernail required for interaction of VARP with VPS29

VARP and TBC1D5 are accessory/regulatory proteins of retromer-mediated retrograde trafficking from endosomes. Using an NMR/X-ray approach, we determined the structure of the complex between retromer subunit VPS29 and a 12 residue, four-cysteine/Zn++ microdomain, which we term a Zn-fingernail, two of which are present in VARP. Mutations that abolish VPS29:VARP binding inhibit trafficking from endosomes to the cell surface. We show that VARP and TBC1D5 bind the same site on VPS29 and can compete for binding VPS29 in vivo. The relative disposition of VPS29s in hetero-hexameric, membrane-attached, retromer arches indicates that VARP will prefer binding to assembled retromer coats through simultaneous binding of two VPS29s. The TBC1D5:VPS29 interaction is over one billion years old but the Zn-fingernail appears only in VARP homologues in the lineage directly giving rise to animals at which point the retromer/VARP/TBC1D5 regulatory network became fully established.

Retromer subunit, VPS29, regulates synaptic transmission and is required for endolysosomal function in the aging brain

Retromer, including Vps35, Vps26, and Vps29, is a protein complex responsible for recycling proteins within the endolysosomal pathway. Although implicated in both Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, our understanding of retromer function in the adult brain remains limited, in part because Vps35 and Vps26 are essential for development. In Drosophila, we find that Vps29 is dispensable for embryogenesis but required for retromer function in aging adults, including for synaptic transmission, survival, and locomotion. Unexpectedly, in Vps29 mutants, Vps35 and Vps26 proteins are normally expressed and associated, but retromer is mislocalized from neuropil to soma with the Rab7 GTPase. Further, Vps29 phenotypes are suppressed by reducing Rab7 or overexpressing the GTPase activating protein, TBC1D5. With aging, retromer insufficiency triggers progressive endolysosomal dysfunction, with ultrastructural evidence of impaired substrate clearance and lysosomal stress. Our results reveal the role of Vps29 in retromer localization and function, highlighting requirements for brain homeostasis in aging.

The Oxymonad Genome Displays Canonical Eukaryotic Complexity in the Absence of a Mitochondrion

The discovery that the protist Monocercomonoides exilis completely lacks mitochondria demonstrates that these organelles are not absolutely essential to eukaryotic cells. However, the degree to which the metabolism and cellular systems of this organism have adapted to the loss of mitochondria is unknown. Here, we report an extensive analysis of the M. exilis genome to address this question. Unexpectedly, we find that M. exilis genome structure and content is similar in complexity to other eukaryotes and less "reduced" than genomes of some other protists from the Metamonada group to which it belongs. Furthermore, the predicted cytoskeletal systems, the organization of endomembrane systems, and biosynthetic pathways also display canonical eukaryotic complexity. The only apparent preadaptation that permitted the loss of mitochondria was the acquisition of the SUF system for Fe-S cluster assembly and the loss of glycine cleavage system. Changes in other systems, including in amino acid metabolism and oxidative stress response, were coincident with the loss of mitochondria but are likely adaptations to the microaerophilic and endobiotic niche rather than the mitochondrial loss per se. Apart from the lack of mitochondria and peroxisomes, we show that M. exilis is a fully elaborated eukaryotic cell that is a promising model system in which eukaryotic cell biology can be investigated in the absence of mitochondria.

To degrade or not to degrade: mechanisms and significance of endocytic recycling

Newly endocytosed integral cell surface proteins are typically either directed for degradation or subjected to recycling back to the plasma membrane. The sorting of integral cell surface proteins, including signalling receptors, nutrient transporters, ion channels, adhesion molecules and polarity markers, within the endolysosomal network for recycling is increasingly recognized as an essential feature in regulating the complexities of physiology at the cell, tissue and organism levels. Historically, endocytic recycling has been regarded as a relatively passive process, where the majority of internalized integral proteins are recycled via a nonspecific sequence-independent 'bulk membrane flow' pathway. Recent work has increasingly challenged this view. The discovery of sequence-specific sorting motifs and the identification of cargo adaptors and associated coat complexes have begun to uncover the highly orchestrated nature of endosomal cargo recycling, thereby providing new insight into the function and (patho)physiology of this process.

Multiple paralogues of α-SNAP in Giardia lamblia exhibit independent subcellular localization and redistribution during encystation and stress

BACKGROUND

The differently-diverged parasitic protist Giardia lamblia is known to have minimal machinery for vesicular transport. Yet, it has three paralogues of SNAP, a crucial component that together with NSF brings about disassembly of the cis-SNARE complex formed following vesicle fusion to target membranes. Given that most opisthokont hosts of this gut parasite express only one α-SNAP, this study was undertaken to determine whether these giardial SNAP proteins have undergone functional divergence.

RESULTS

All three SNAP paralogues are expressed in trophozoites, encysting trophozoites and cysts. Even though one of them clusters with γ-SNAP sequences in a phylogenetic tree, functional complementation analysis in yeast indicates that all the three proteins are functionally orthologous to α-SNAP. Localization studies showed a mostly non-overlapping distribution of these α-SNAPs in trophozoites, encysting cells and cysts. In addition, two of the paralogues exhibit substantial subcellular redistribution during encystation, which was also seen following exposure to oxidative stress. However, the expression of the three genes remained unchanged during this redistribution process. There is also a difference in the affinity of each of these α-SNAP paralogues for GlNSF.

CONCLUSIONS

None of the genes encoding the three α-SNAPs are pseudogenes and the encoded proteins are likely to discharge non-redundant functions in the different morphological states of G. lamblia. Based on the difference in the interaction of individual α-SNAPs with GlNSF and their non-overlapping pattern of subcellular redistribution during encystation and under stress conditions, it may be concluded that the three giardial α-SNAP paralogues have undergone functional divergence. Presence of one of the giardial α-SNAPs at the PDRs of flagella, where neither GlNSF nor any of the SNAREs localize, indicates that this α-SNAP discharges a SNARE-independent role in this gut pathogen.

Endosomal Retrieval of Cargo: Retromer Is Not Alone

Endosomes are major protein sorting stations in cells. Endosomally localised multi-protein complexes sort integral proteins, including signaling receptors, nutrient transporters, adhesion molecules, and lysosomal hydrolase receptors, for lysosomal degradation or conversely for retrieval and subsequent recycling to various membrane compartments. Correct endosomal sorting of these proteins is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis, with defects in endosomal sorting implicated in various human pathologies including neurodegenerative disorders. Retromer, an ancient multi-protein complex, is essential for the retrieval and recycling of hundreds of transmembrane proteins. While retromer is a major player in endosomal retrieval and recycling, several studies have recently identified retrieval mechanisms that are independent of retromer. Here, we review endosomal retrieval complexes, with a focus on recently discovered retromer-independent mechanisms.

Comparative Characterization of the Sindbis Virus Proteome from Mammalian and Invertebrate Hosts Identifies nsP2 as a Component of the Virion and Sorting Nexin 5 as a Significant Host Factor for Alphavirus Replication

Recent advances in mass spectrometry methods and instrumentation now allow for more accurate identification of proteins in low abundance. This technology was applied to Sindbis virus, the prototypical alphavirus, to investigate the viral proteome. To determine if host proteins are specifically packaged into alphavirus virions, Sindbis virus (SINV) was grown in multiple host cells representing vertebrate and mosquito hosts, and total protein content of purified virions was determined. This analysis identified host factors not previously associated with alphavirus entry, replication, or egress. One host protein, sorting nexin 5 (SNX5), was shown to be critical for the replication of three different alphaviruses, Sindbis, Mayaro, and Chikungunya viruses. The most significant finding was that in addition to the host proteins, SINV nonstructural protein 2 (nsP2) was detected within virions grown in all host cells examined. The protein and RNA-interacting capabilities of nsP2 coupled with its presence in the virion support a role for nsP2 during packaging and/or entry of progeny virus. This function has not been identified for this protein. Taken together, this strategy identified at least one host factor integrally involved in alphavirus replication. Identification of other host proteins provides insight into alphavirus-host interactions during viral replication in both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. This method of virus proteome analysis may also be useful for the identification of protein candidates for host-based therapeutics.

IMPORTANCE Pathogenic alphaviruses, such as Chikungunya and Mayaro viruses, continue to plague public health in developing and developed countries alike. Alphaviruses belong to a group of viruses vectored in nature by hematophagous (blood-feeding) insects and are termed arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses). This group of viruses contains many human pathogens, such as dengue fever, West Nile, and Yellow fever viruses. With few exceptions, there are no vaccines or prophylactics for these agents, leaving one-third of the world population at risk of infection. Identifying effective antivirals has been a long-term goal for combating these diseases not only because of the lack of vaccines but also because they are effective during an ongoing epidemic. Mass spectrometry-based analysis of the Sindbis virus proteome can be effective in identifying host genes involved in virus replication and novel functions for virus proteins. Identification of these factors is invaluable for the prophylaxis of this group of viruses.

Evolutionary origins and specialisation of membrane transport

From unicellular protists to the largest megafauna and flora, all eukaryotes depend upon the organelles and processes of the intracellular membrane trafficking system. Well-defined machinery selectively packages and delivers material between endomembrane organelles and imports and exports material from the cell surface. This process underlies intracellular compartmentalization and facilitates myriad processes that define eukaryotic biology. Membrane trafficking is a landmark in the origins of the eukaryotic cell and recent work has begun to unravel how the revolution in cellular structure occurred.

Retromer associates with the cytoplasmic amino-terminus of polycystin-2

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common monogenic human disease, with around 12.5 million people affected worldwide. ADPKD results from mutations in either PKD1 or PKD2, which encode the atypical G-protein coupled receptor polycystin-1 (PC1) and the transient receptor potential channel polycystin-2 (PC2), respectively. Although altered intracellular trafficking of PC1 and PC2 is an underlying feature of ADPKD, the mechanisms which govern vesicular transport of the polycystins through the biosynthetic and endosomal membrane networks remain to be fully elucidated. Here, we describe an interaction between PC2 and retromer, a master controller for the sorting of integral membrane proteins through the endo-lysosomal network. We show that association of PC2 with retromer occurs via a region in the PC2 cytoplasmic amino-terminal domain, independently of the retromer-binding Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome and scar homologue (WASH) complex. Based on observations that retromer preferentially interacts with a trafficking population of PC2, and that ciliary levels of PC1 are reduced upon mutation of key residues required for retromer association in PC2, our data are consistent with the identification of PC2 as a retromer cargo protein.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Vacuolar Protein Sorting 26C encodes an evolutionarily conserved large retromer subunit in eukaryotes that is important for root hair growth in Arabidopsis thaliana

The large retromer complex participates in diverse endosomal trafficking pathways and is essential for plant developmental programs, including cell polarity, programmed cell death and shoot gravitropism in Arabidopsis. Here we demonstrate that an evolutionarily conserved VPS26 protein (VPS26C; At1G48550) functions in a complex with VPS35A and VPS29 necessary for root hair growth in Arabidopsis. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation showed that VPS26C forms a complex with VPS35A in the presence of VPS29, and this is supported by genetic studies showing that vps29 and vps35a mutants exhibit altered root hair growth. Genetic analysis also demonstrated an interaction between a VPS26C trafficking pathway and one involving the SNARE VTI13. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that VPS26C, with the notable exception of grasses, has been maintained in the genomes of most major plant clades since its evolution at the base of eukaryotes. To test the model that VPS26C orthologs in animal and plant species share a conserved function, we generated transgenic lines expressing GFP fused with the VPS26C human ortholog (HsDSCR3) in a vps26c background. These studies illustrate that GFP-HsDSCR3 is able to complement the vps26c root hair phenotype in Arabidopsis, indicating a deep conservation of cellular function for this large retromer subunit across plant and animal kingdoms.

Retromer Dysfunction and Neurodegenerative Disease

In recent years, genomic, animal and cell biology studies have implicated deficiencies in retromer-mediated trafficking of proteins in an increasing number of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Parkinson's Disease (PD) and Frontotemporal Lobar Degener-ation (FTLD). The retromer complex, which is highly conserved across all eukaryotes, regulates the sorting of transmembrane proteins out of endo-somes to the cell surface or to the trans-Golgi network. Within retromer, cargo selection and binding are performed by a trimer of the Vps26, Vps29 and Vps35 proteins, named the "Cargo-Selective Complex (CSC)". Sorting of cargo into tubules for distribution to the trans-Golgi network or the cell sur-face is achieved through the dimeric sorting nexin (SNX) component of retromer and accessory proteins such as the WASH complex which medi-ates the formation of discrete endosomal tubules enabling the sorting of cargo into distinct pathways through production of filamentous actin patch-es. In the present article, we review the molecular structure and function of the retromer and summarize the evidence linking retromer dysfunction to neurodegenerative disease.

A sophisticated, differentiated Golgi in the ancestor of eukaryotes

BACKGROUND

The Golgi apparatus is a central meeting point for the endocytic and exocytic systems in eukaryotic cells, and the organelle's dysfunction results in human disease. Its characteristic morphology of multiple differentiated compartments organized into stacked flattened cisternae is one of the most recognizable features of modern eukaryotic cells, and yet how this is maintained is not well understood. The Golgi is also an ancient aspect of eukaryotes, but the extent and nature of its complexity in the ancestor of eukaryotes is unclear. Various proteins have roles in organizing the Golgi, chief among them being the golgins.

RESULTS

We address Golgi evolution by analyzing genome sequences from organisms which have lost stacked cisternae as a feature of their Golgi and those that have not. Using genomics and immunomicroscopy, we first identify Golgi in the anaerobic amoeba Mastigamoeba balamuthi. We then searched 87 genomes spanning eukaryotic diversity for presence of the most prominent proteins implicated in Golgi structure, focusing on golgins. We show some candidates as animal specific and others as ancestral to eukaryotes.

CONCLUSIONS

None of the proteins examined show a phyletic distribution that correlates with the morphology of stacked cisternae, suggesting the possibility of stacking as an emergent property. Strikingly, however, the combination of golgins conserved among diverse eukaryotes allows for the most detailed reconstruction of the organelle to date, showing a sophisticated Golgi with differentiated compartments and trafficking pathways in the common eukaryotic ancestor.

VPS35 depletion does not impair presynaptic structure and function

The endosomal system is proposed as a mediator of synaptic vesicle recycling, but the molecular recycling mechanism remains largely unknown. Retromer is a key protein complex which mediates endosomal recycling in eukaryotic cells, including neurons. Retromer is important for brain function and mutations in retromer genes are linked to neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we aimed to determine the role of retromer in presynaptic structure and function. We assessed the role of retromer by knocking down VPS35, the core subunit of retromer, in primary hippocampal mouse neurons. VPS35 depletion led to retromer dysfunction, measured as a decrease in GluA1 at the plasma membrane, and bypassed morphological defects previously described in chronic retromer depletion models. We found that retromer is localized at the mammalian presynaptic terminal. However, VPS35 depletion did not alter the presynaptic ultrastructure, synaptic vesicle release or retrieval. Hence, we conclude that retromer is present in the presynaptic terminal but it is not essential for the synaptic vesicle cycle. Nonetheless, the presynaptic localization of VPS35 suggests that retromer-dependent endosome sorting could take place for other presynaptic cargo.

trans-Golgi network-bound cargo traffic

Cargo following the retrograde trafficking are sorted at endosomes to be targeted the trans-Golgi network (TGN), a central receiving organelle. Though molecular requirements and their interaction networks have been somewhat established, the complete understanding of the intricate nature of their action mechanisms in every step of the retrograde traffic pathway remains unachieved. This review focuses on elucidating known functions of key regulators, including scission factors at the endosome and tethering/fusion mediators at the receiving dock, TGN, as well as a diverse range of cargo.

Retromer and VSR Recycling: A Red Herring?

Recently published data on retromer function in animal cells demands a rethink on the mechanism of recycling of vacuolar sorting receptors in plants.

Chlamydia trachomatis and its interaction with the cellular retromer

Chlamydia trachomatis is an important human pathogen. This obligate intracellular bacterium grows inside the eukaryotic cell in a membrane-bound compartment, the inclusion. Recent global approaches describe the interactions of C. trachomatis with its host cell and indicate the inclusion is an intracellular trafficking hub embedded into the cellular vesicular trafficking pathways recruiting subunits of the retromer protein complex of the host cell. Here we review these recent developments in deciphering Chlamydia-host cell interactions with emphasis on the role of the retromer complex.

Retriever is a multiprotein complex for retromer-independent endosomal cargo recycling

Following endocytosis into the endosomal network, integral membrane proteins undergo sorting for lysosomal degradation or are retrieved and recycled back to the cell surface. Here we describe the discovery of an ancient and conserved multiprotein complex that orchestrates cargo retrieval and recycling and, importantly, is biochemically and functionally distinct from the established retromer pathway. We have called this complex 'retriever'; it is a heterotrimer composed of DSCR3, C16orf62 and VPS29, and bears striking similarity to retromer. We establish that retriever associates with the cargo adaptor sorting nexin 17 (SNX17) and couples to CCC (CCDC93, CCDC22, COMMD) and WASH complexes to prevent lysosomal degradation and promote cell surface recycling of α5β1 integrin. Through quantitative proteomic analysis, we identify over 120 cell surface proteins, including numerous integrins, signalling receptors and solute transporters, that require SNX17-retriever to maintain their surface levels. Our identification of retriever establishes a major endosomal retrieval and recycling pathway.

Sorting nexin (MoVps17) is required for fungal development and plant infection by regulating endosome dynamics in the rice blast fungus

Vps17 is a sorting nexin (SNX) and a component of the retromer, a protein complex mediating retrograde vesicle transport between endosomes and the trans-Golgi network. However, its role in the development and pathogenicity of filamentous fungi such as the rice blast fungus (Magnaporthe oryzae) remains unclear. We investigate the functional relationship between the SNX and the cargo-selective complex (CSC) of the fungal retromer by genetic analysis, live cell imaging and immunological assay. Our data show that the MoVps17 null mutation causes defects in growth, development and pathogenicity in M. oryzae. MoVps17 is localized to endosomes depending on the activity of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), a key enzyme for fungal development and infection. Both PX and BAR domains of MoVps17 are essential for its endosomal localization and function. Furthermore, our yeast two-hybrid assays show that MoVps17 and MoVps5 can interact. Lastly, live cell imaging suggests that MoVps17 can regulate early endosome fusion and budding as well as endocytosis. Taken together, our results suggest that MoVps17 specifically functions as a retromer component with CSC and also plays a distinct role in the regulation of endosome dynamics during fungal development and plant infection.

An evolutionary balance: conservation vs innovation in ciliate membrane trafficking

As most of eukaryotic diversity lies in single-celled protists, they represent unique opportunities to ask questions about the balance of conservation and innovation in cell biological features. Among free-living protists the ciliates offer ease of culturing, a rich array of experimental approaches, and versatile molecular tools, particularly in Tetrahymena thermophila and Paramecium tetraurelia. These attributes have been exploited by researchers to analyze a wealth of cellular structures in these large and complex cells. This mini-review focuses on 3 aspects of ciliate membrane dynamics, all linked with endolysosomal trafficking. First is nutrition based on phagocytosis and maturation of food vacuoles. Secondly, we discuss regulated exocytosis from vesicles that have features of both dense core secretory granules but also lysosome-related organelles. The third topic is the targeting, breakdown and resorption of parental nuclei in mating partners. For all 3 phenomena, it is clear that elements of the canonical membrane-trafficking system have been retained and in some cases repurposed. In addition, there is evidence that recently evolved, lineage-specific proteins provide determinants in these pathways.

Specific Endocytosis Blockade of Trypanosoma cruzi Exposed to a Poly-LAcNAc Binding Lectin Suggests that Lectin-Sugar Interactions Participate to Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite transmitted by a triatomine insect, and causing human Chagas disease in South America. This parasite undergoes a complex life cycle alternating between non-proliferative and dividing forms. Owing to their high energy requirement, replicative epimastigotes of the insect midgut display high endocytic activity. This activity is mainly restricted to the cytostome, by which the cargo is taken up and sorted through the endosomal vesicular network to be delivered to reservosomes, the final lysosomal-like compartments. In African trypanosomes tomato lectin (TL) and ricin, respectively specific to poly-N-acetyllactosamine (poly-LacNAc) and β-D-galactose, allowed the identification of giant chains of poly-LacNAc in N-glycoproteins of the endocytic pathway. We show that in T. cruzi epimastigote forms also, glycoproteins of the endocytic pathway are characterized by the presence of N-linked glycans binding to both ricin and TL. Affinity chromatography using both TL and Griffonia simplicifolia lectin II (GSLII), specific to non-reducing terminal residue of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc), led to an enrichment of glycoproteins of the trypanosomal endocytic pathway. Incubation of live parasites with TL, which selectively bound to the cytostome/cytopharynx, specifically inhibited endocytosis of transferrin (Tf) but not dextran, a marker of fluid endocytosis. Taken together, our data suggest that N-glycan modification of endocytic components plays a crucial role in receptor-mediated endocytosis of T. cruzi.

Resolving the homology-function relationship through comparative genomics of membrane-trafficking machinery and parasite cell biology

With advances in DNA sequencing technology, it is increasingly common and tractable to informatically look for genes of interest in the genomic databases of parasitic organisms and infer cellular states. Assignment of a putative gene function based on homology to functionally characterized genes in other organisms, though powerful, relies on the implicit assumption of functional homology, i.e. that orthology indicates conserved function. Eukaryotes reveal a dazzling array of cellular features and structural organization, suggesting a concomitant diversity in their underlying molecular machinery. Significantly, examples of novel functions for pre-existing or new paralogues are not uncommon. Do these examples undermine the basic assumption of functional homology, especially in parasitic protists, which are often highly derived? Here we examine the extent to which functional homology exists between organisms spanning the eukaryotic lineage. By comparing membrane trafficking proteins between parasitic protists and traditional model organisms, where direct functional evidence is available, we find that function is indeed largely conserved between orthologues, albeit with significant adaptation arising from the unique biological features within each lineage.

Molecular medicine - To be or not to be

Molecular medicine is founded on the synergy between Chemistry, Physics, Biology and Medicine, with the ambitious goal of tackling diseases from a molecular perspective. This Review aims at retracing a personal outlook of the birth and development of molecular medicine, as well as at highlighting some of the most urgent challenges linked to aging and represented by incurable neurodegenerative diseases caused by protein misfolding. Furthermore, we emphasize the emerging role of the retromer dysfunctions and improper protein sorting in Alzheimer's disease and other important neurological disordered.