Scientific bases for precompetition tapering strategies

Effects of Time Point of Pre-Competitions Peaking on Performance in Major-Competitions

Objectives: To study the effects of the time points of pre-competition peaking (TPCP, the time point when an athlete's peaking shows up before a major-competition) on the athletes' performances in the major-competition (M-Performance). Design: Mixed design. Methods: We used cluster analysis to classify 892 elite track and field athletes who participated in the 2017 and 2019 IAAF World Championships in Athletics, based on their TPCP and other related factors. Furthermore, we used a fixed-effects model and a mixed-effects model to analyze the relationship between the TPCP and M-Performance. Results: The TPCP of elite track and field athletes were divided into four categories: late, slightly late, slightly early, and early. In speed/power events, athletes in the slightly late category had better M-Performance. In endurance events, athletes in the slightly early category had better M-Performance. In speed/power events, delaying the TPCP did not improve the athletes' M-Performance. In endurance events, advancing the TPCP effectively improved the athletes' M-Performance. Conclusions: To improve M-Performance, athletes in speed/power events should be peaking 2-8 weeks before a major-competition, and athletes in endurance events should be peaking 8-14 weeks before a major-competition. Future research should aim to identify individual factors affecting TPCP, such as the time for the body's adaptation to training and the residual training effect.

Position-specific workload of professional rugby union players during tactical periodization training

The positional workload characteristics in rugby union on three acquisition days (i.e. strength, endurance, and speed days) of tactical periodization are still relatively unknown. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to shed light on the positional external workload variables (10 Hz Global Positioning System and accelerometer microtechnology) and internal workload indicators (the session rating of perceived exertion) of players in a professional rugby union team by utilizing and comparing two tactical periodization models. Twenty-six male players (15 forwards and 11 backs) were recruited from a French second-division rugby club. Data were obtained over 10 weeks of in-season home games: a total of 780 observations were analyzed. Student's t-test observed different external workload profiles between positions among acquisition days. Mean external workload values, except PlayerLoadslow, were significantly higher (p≤0.01; effect size: 0.41-1.93) for backs than forwards for all acquisition days. Moreover, forwards perceived a higher internal workload than backs on the strength day of both models. The findings demonstrate that applying these two tactical periodization models could result in effective rugby union training. Validating external and internal workload characteristics on tactical periodization acquisition days enables extensive analysis of training load monitoring data; these data can be utilized to discover the unique characteristics of each position and design position-specific acquisition days to improve performance.

The Training and Tapering Practices of Highland Games Heavy Event Athletes

ABSTRACT

Winwood, PW, Keogh, JW, Travis, SK, Grieve, I, and Pritchard, HJ. The training and tapering practices of Highland Games heavy event athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(3): e116-e124, 2024-This study provides the first empirical evidence of how Highland Games heavy event athletes train and taper for Highland Games competitions. Athletes (n = 169) (mean ± SD: age 40.8 ± 10.7 years, height 181.2 ± 9.5 cm, weight 107.2 ± 23.0 kg, 18.8 ± 10.3 years of general resistance training, and 8.1 ± 6.9 years of competitive Highland Games experience) completed a self-reported 4-page online survey on training and tapering practices. Analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national, and international) was conducted. Seventy-eight percent (n = 132) of athletes reported that they used a taper. Athletes stated that their taper length was 5.2 ± 3.5 days, with the step (36%) and linear tapers (33%) being the most performed. Athletes reported that their highest training volume and intensity were 5.5 and 3.8 weeks out (respectively) from competition, and all training ceased 2.4 ± 1.4 days before competition. Training volume decreased during the taper by 34%. Athletes typically stated that, tapering was performed to achieve recovery, peak performance, and injury prevention; training intensity, frequency, and duration stayed the same or decreased; game-specific training increased with reductions in traditional exercises; the caber toss, weight for height, and heavy weight throw were performed further out from competition than other events; muscular power and strength were the most common types of training performed; static stretching, foam rolling, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of life/work circumstances, lack of sleep/rest, or training too heavy/hard. These results may aid Highland Games athletes to optimize training and tapering variables leading to improved performances.

Two Days Versus Four Days of Training Cessation Following a Step-Taper in Powerlifters

ABSTRACT

Burke, BI, Carroll, KM, Travis, SK, Stone, ME, and Stone, MH. Two days versus four days of training cessation following a step-taper in powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): e625-e632, 2023-Tapering and training cessation are methods of training load management aimed at optimizing athlete preparedness leading into competition. Such practices are often used by strength sport athletes such as powerlifters (i.e., athletes who compete in the back squat [BS], bench press [BP], and deadlift [DL]). The purpose of this study was to compare the differences in maximal strength, subjective recovery and stress state, and body composition alterations in strength athletes undergoing a 1-week step-taper followed by either a 2-day (2D) or 4-day (4D) period of training cessation. Twelve powerlifters (22.3 ± 2.1 yrs; 92.1 ± 20.4 kg; 174.8 ± 7.5 cm) completed a 6-week training protocol aimed at peaking 1 repetition maximum (1RM) strength on BS, BP, and DL. Body composition, subjective recovery and stress state, and 1RM on BS, BP, and DL were assessed before an overreach week (T1) and after the periods of training cessation (T2) for each group. Alpha criterion was set at p ≤ 0.05. There were significant increases in BP ( p = 0.032, g = 0.10), powerlifting total ( p = 0.014, g = 0.11), and DOTS score ( p = 0.006, g = 0.12) after 2D of cessation. However, after 4D of cessation, significant increases were only observed in DL ( p = 0.019, g = 0.11) along with significant decreases in BP ( p = 0.003, g = -0.13). There were no statistically significant changes in any other variable for either group indicating that BS, psychometric, and body composition data were maintained between T1 and T2. The results of this study support the use of 1-week step-tapers, followed by a short period of training cessation (2-4D) to maintain or improve maximal strength performance.

Effects of maslinic acid supplementation on exercise-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in water polo athletes: A randomized, double-blind, crossover, and placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Olive fruit is rich in bioactive pentacyclic triterpenoids, primarily maslinic acid (MA). Previous studies have demonstrated that MA exhibits anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects; however, it is unclear whether MA intake during training inhibits perceptual fatigue and muscle soreness in athletes. This study analyzed the effects of MA supplementation during athletic training on perceptual fatigue and muscle soreness.

METHODS

This randomized, double-blind, cross-over, and placebo-controlled trial involved 12 young, healthy male water polo athletes. After daily training for seven days, they ingested either olive fruit extract, containing 60 mg/day MA, or a placebo. We measured perceptual fatigue and muscle soreness during the intervention using a visual analog scale and inflammatory and oxidative stress-related proteins.

RESULTS

Perceptual fatigue and muscle soreness and the area under the curve during the training period were significantly lower (main effect of MA; P < 0.05) following MA supplementation than those for the placebo. MA supplementation during training lowered perceptual fatigue and muscle soreness by decreasing inflammatory factors in water polo athletes. Additionally, we examined the detailed mechanism of MA, added the participant's serum to the culture medium at a 10% concentration to determine inflammation- and oxidative stress-related intracellular signals. Skeletal muscle cells (C2C12) cultured with MA-conditioned serum before and after intervention also suppressed expression of inflammation and oxidative stress-related proteins.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that MA intake not only reduces perceptual fatigue and muscle soreness but also decreases inflammation and oxidative stress in the blood and skeletal muscle.

Are Supplements Consumed by Middle-Distance Runners Evidence-Based? A Comparative Study between Level of Competition and Sex

BACKGROUND

Middle-distance running events have special physiological requirements from a training and competition point of view. Therefore, many athletes choose to take sport supplements (SS) for different reasons. To date, few studies have been carried out that review supplementation patterns in middle-distance running. The aim of the present study is to analyze the consumption of SS in these runners with respect to their level of competition, sex and level of scientific evidence.

METHODS

In this descriptive cross-sectional study, data was collected from 106 middle-distance runners using a validated questionnaire.

RESULTS

Of the total sample, 85.85% responded that they consumed SS; no statistical difference was found regarding the level of competition or sex of the athletes. With respect to the level of competition, differences were observed in the total consumption of SS (p = 0.012), as well as in that of medical supplements (p = 0.005). Differences were observed between sexes in the consumption of medical supplements (p = 0.002) and group C supplements (p = 0.029).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher-level athletes consume SS that have greater scientific evidence. On the other hand, although the most commonly consumed SS have evidence for the performance or health of middle-distance runners, runners should improve both their sources of information and their places of purchase.

Validity and Accuracy of Impulse-Response Models for Modeling and Predicting Training Effects on Performance of Swimmers

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to compare the suitability of models for practical applications in training planning.

METHODS

We tested six impulse-response models, including Banister's model (Model Ba), a variable dose-response model (Model Bu), and indirect-response models differing in the way they account or not for the effect of previous training on the ability to respond effectively to a given session. Data from 11 swimmers were collected during 61 wk across two competitive seasons. Daily training load was calculated from the number of pool-kilometers and dry land workout equivalents, weighted according to intensity. Performance was determined from 50-m trials done during training sessions twice a week. Models were ranked on the base of Aikaike's information criterion along with measures of goodness of fit.

RESULTS

Models Ba and Bu gave the greatest Akaike weights, 0.339 ± 0.254 and 0.360 ± 0.296, respectively. Their estimates were used to determine the evolution of performance over time after a training session and the optimal characteristics of taper. The data of the first 20 wk were used to train these two models and predict performance for the after 8 wk (validation data set 1) and for the following season (validation data set 2). The mean absolute percentage error between real and predicted performance using Model Ba was 2.02% ± 0.65% and 2.69% ± 1.23% for validation data sets 1 and 2, respectively, and 2.17% ± 0.65% and 2.56% ± 0.79% with Model Bu.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed that although the two top-ranked models gave relevant approximations of the relationship between training and performance, their ability to predict future performance from past data was not satisfactory for individual training planning.

The Tapering Practices of Competitive Weightlifters

ABSTRACT

Winwood, PW, Keogh, JW, Travis, SK, and Pritchard, HJ. The tapering practices of competitive weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): 829-839, 2023-This study explored the tapering strategies of weightlifting athletes. Weightlifting athletes ( n = 146) (mean ± SD ; age: 29.2 ± 8.7 years, height: 172.5 ± 10.1 cm, body mass: 84.0 ± 17.2 kg, 4.7 ± 3.4 years of weightlifting training experience, and 3.9 ± 3.3 years of competitive weightlifting experience) completed a self-reported 4-page, 39-item internet survey on tapering practices. Subgroup analysis by sex (male and female) and competitive standard (local or regional, national and international level) was conducted. Ninety-nine percent ( n = 144) of weightlifting athletes reported they used a taper. Athletes stated that their typical taper length was 8.0 ± 4.4 days, with the linear (36%) and step tapers (33%) being the most performed. Training volume decreased during the taper by 43.1 ± 14.6%, and athletes ceased all training 1.5 ± 0.6 days out from competition. Muscular strength, light technique work, and aerobic conditioning were the most common types of training performed in the taper. Athletes typically stated that tapering was performed to achieve rest and recovery, physical preparation for peak performance and mental preparation; training intensity and training duration decreased whereas training frequency remained the same or decreased; traditional exercises were performed further out from competition than weightlifting exercises; assistance exercises and some strength work were reduced; nutritional changes, foam rolling, static stretching, and massage were strategies used in the taper; and poor tapering occurred because of training too heavy, too hard, or too light and life-work circumstances. These results may aid athletes and coaches in strength sports to optimize tapering variables leading to improved performances.

The Psychology of Athletic Tapering in Sport: A Scoping Review

Taper is a common training strategy used to reduce fatigue and enhance athletic performance. However, currently, no review has summarised what psychological research has been conducted examining taper, what this research shows and what future research needs to be undertaken to extend the field. Consequently, a scoping review was conducted with three aims: (a) to determine the characteristics of psychological research examining taper, (b) to summarise psychological research collected during taper with adult athletes and coaches, and (c) to identify gaps in psychological research examining taper. Forty-eight articles were identified following an exhaustive search strategy and charted following scoping review guidelines. Results showed most research was quantitative, used a longitudinal design, was conducted in swimming, triathlon, cycling or across multiple sports, and used a university-, regional- or national-level male athlete sample. Eight themes were developed to summarise the research: Mood, Perception of Effort, Perceived Fatigue and Wellness, Recovery-Stress, Taper as a Stressor, Stress Tolerance, Psychological Preparation and Cognitive Functioning. Additionally, four research recommendations were identified: (a) conducting exploratory research that examines the impact taper has on athletes' and coaches' competition preparation and stress experience, (b) asking more advanced psychological questions and conducting multi-disciplinary research, (c) including a more diverse participant sample in studies and (d) examining the impact of psychological interventions during taper. Overall, this scoping review has highlighted the limited research examining the psychology of taper and the need for focused research that asks more complex questions across diverse populations.

Effects of Training and Taper on Neuromuscular Fatigue Profile on 100-m Swimming Performance

This study aimed to investigate the effects of 6-week specific preparatory period and 2-week taper period on neuromuscular fatigue profile in 100-m front crawl swimming performance. Seventeen competitive-level young-adult swimmers performed a 100-m swimming performance at baseline and after 6-week specific preparatory followed by 2-week taper periods. Neuromuscular fatigue profile was assessed through percutaneous electrical stimuli on the femoral nerve during a maximal voluntary contraction performed before and immediately after each 100-m maximal effort. Performance improved (p=0.001) 2.24 and 3.06% after specific and taper, respectively. Potentiated peak force at post-effort condition decreased (p<0.001) 16.26% at baseline, 11.70% at specific, and 12.86% at taper period. Maximal voluntary contraction force also decreased (p<0.001) at post-effort condition by about 6.77 and 9.33% at baseline and specific period, respectively. Both variables did not present significant differences between times. No condition or time effects were observed to superimposed peak force and voluntary activation, both related to central fatigue. In conclusion, neuromuscular fatigue during 100-m swimming performance was exclusively developed by peripheral mechanisms regardless of the training period, and 2-week taper was able to prevent decreases in maximal voluntary contraction induced by 100-m maximal effort.

Effects of tapering on performance in endurance athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To assess the responses to taper in endurance athletes using meta-analysis.

METHODS

Systematic searches were conducted in China National Knowledge Infrastructure, PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, and EMBASE databases. Standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) of outcome measures were calculated as effect sizes.

RESULTS

14 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Significant improvements were found between pre- and post-tapering in time-trial (TT) performance (SMD = -0.45; P < 0.05) and time to exhaustion (TTE) performance (SMD = 1.28; P < 0.05). However, There were no improvements in maximal oxygen consumption ([Formula: see text]) and economy of movement (EM) (P > 0.05) between pre- and post-tapering. Further subgroup analysis showed that tapering combined with pre-taper overload training had a more significant effect on TT performance than conventional tapering (P < 0.05). A tapering strategy that reduced training volume by 41-60%, maintained training intensity and frequency, lasted ≤7 days, 8-14 days, or 15-21 days, used a progressive or step taper could significantly improve TT performance (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The tapering applied in conjunction with pre-taper overload training seems to be more conducive to maximize performance gains. Current evidence suggests that a ≤21-day taper, in which training volume is progressively reduced by 41-60% without changing training intensity or frequency, is an effective tapering strategy.

Effects of Game Weekly Frequency on Subjective Training Load, Wellness, and Injury Rate in Male Elite Soccer Players

To compare the effects of playing one or two games per week on subjective perceived exertion (RPE) and (RPE-based) training load, monotony index, sleep, stress, fatigue, and muscle soreness (Hooper index), total mood disturbance, and injury rate in elite soccer players. Fourteen males from a first-division soccer club (age: 24.42 ± 4.80 years) competed in two games per week for six weeks and one game per week for twelve weeks (a total of 24 games). Paired t-tests and non-parametric Wilcoxon signed ranks evaluated the significance of the differences (p < 0.05). The main findings were that RPE was significantly larger when playing two games per week compared with one game. However, subject total and mean training load, mood disturbance, monotony, and subjective perception of sleep, stress, fatigue, muscle soreness monitoring (Hooper index), and the number of injuries were not different. The findings suggested that competing in two matches per week does not negatively influence injury rate and players’ perceptions of training load or wellness, even though players perceive two games per week as more physically demanding compared with one game per week.

A Study on the Injury Rate of Spanish Competitive Athletes as a Consequence of the COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown

The COVID-19 lockdown may have had collateral effects on the conditions of athletes, with possible increases in injury risks upon the return to sports. Due to the existence of multiple factors of injury risks based on the lockdown and the return to sports, the aim of this study was to analyze the injury rates after the lockdown in competitive athletes. A non-experimental quantitative design based on a survey was carried out, and 94 athletes (42 males and 52 females; 23.57 ± 6.20 years) participated. Statistical analyses were carried out using non-parametric tests. Injury rates did not increase significantly after the lockdown, and there were no statistical differences between performance levels, types of sports, the design of a specific training program by sports professionals during the lockdown, the moment of injury, and the mechanism of injury. It is important to develop injury prevention protocols to prepare athletes after such a long period of detraining.

"You can't shoot another bullet until you've reloaded the gun": Coaches' perceptions, practices and experiences of deloading in strength and physique sports

Deloading refers to a purposeful reduction in training demand with the intention of enhancing preparedness for successive training cycles. Whilst deloading is a common training practice in strength and physique sports, little is known about how the necessary reduction in training demand should be accomplished. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine current deloading practices in competitive strength and physique sports. Eighteen strength and physique coaches from a range of sports (weightlifting, powerlifting, and bodybuilding) participated in semi-structured interviews to discuss their experiences of deloading. The mean duration of coaching experience at ≥ national standard was 10.9 (SD = 3.9) years. Qualitative content analysis identified Three categories: definitions, rationale, and application. Participants conceptualised deloading as a periodic, intentional cycle of reduced training demand designed to facilitate fatigue management, improve recovery, and assist in overall training progression and readiness. There was no single method of deloading; instead, a reduction in training volume (achieved through a reduction in repetitions per set and number of sets per training session) and intensity of effort (increased proximity to failure and/or reduction in relative load) were the most adapted training variables, along with alterations in exercise selection and configuration. Deloading was typically prescribed for a duration of 5 to 7 days and programmed every 4 to 6 weeks, although periodicity was highly variable. Additional findings highlight the underrepresentation of deloading in the published literature, including a lack of a clear operational definition.

The Training Characteristics of World-Class Distance Runners: An Integration of Scientific Literature and Results-Proven Practice

In this review we integrate the scientific literature and results-proven practice and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite long-distance performance. Herein, we describe how fundamental training characteristics and well-known training principles are applied. World-leading track runners (i.e., 5000 and 10,000 m) and marathon specialists participate in 9 ± 3 and 6 ± 2 (mean ± SD) annual competitions, respectively. The weekly running distance in the mid-preparation period is in the range 160–220 km for marathoners and 130–190 km for track runners. These differences are mainly explained by more running kilometers on each session for marathon runners. Both groups perform 11–14 sessions per week, and ≥ 80% of the total running volume is performed at low intensity throughout the training year. The training intensity distribution vary across mesocycles and differ between marathon and track runners, but common for both groups is that volume of race-pace running increases as the main competition approaches. The tapering process starts 7–10 days prior to the main competition. While the African runners live and train at high altitude (2000–2500 m above sea level) most of the year, most lowland athletes apply relatively long altitude camps during the preparation period. Overall, this review offers unique insights into the training characteristics of world-class distance runners by integrating scientific literature and results-proven practice, providing a point of departure for future studies related to the training and development in the Olympic long-distance events.

Acute changes in free and extracellular vesicle-associated circulating miRNAs and myokine profile in professional sky-runners during the Gran Sasso d’Italia vertical run

The modification of gene expression profile, a first step in adaptation to exercise, leads to changes in the level of molecules associated with skeletal muscle activity and energy metabolism—such as myokines—as well as those involved in their transcriptional regulation, like microRNA. This study aimed to investigate the influence of strenuous exercise on circulating microRNAs and their possible association with myokine response. Pre-competition and post-competition plasma samples were collected from 14 male athletes participating in a vertical run (+1,000 m gain, 3,600 m length). Circulating total (t-miRNA) and extracellular vesicle-associated (EV-miRNA) miRNAs were extracted from the pooled plasma. Nanoparticle tracking analysis was performed to investigate pre- and post-competition EV concentration and size distribution. A panel of 179 miRNAs was assayed by qPCR and analyzed by Exiqon GenEx v6 normalized on the global mean. t-miRNA and EV-miRNAs whose level was ≥5-fold up- or down-regulated were validated for each single subject. Target prediction on MirWalk v3.0, Gene-Ontology, and pathway enrichment analysis on Panther v17.0 were performed to define the potential biological role of the identified miRNAs. A panel of 14 myokines was assayed in each sample by a multiplex immunoassay. In whole plasma, five miRNAs were upregulated and two were downregulated; in the EV fraction, five miRNAs were upregulated and three were downregulated. Nanoparticle tracking analysis revealed a similar EV size distribution in pre- and post-competition samples and a decreased concentration in post-competition samples related to pre-competition samples. Gene-Ontology and pathway enrichment analysis revealed that the identified t-miRNAs and EV-miRNAs were potentially involved in metabolism regulation in response to exercise. Correlation between fold-change of the post-competition relative to pre-competition plasma level of both t-miRNAs and EV-miRNAs and myokines further confirmed these results. This study provides an example of a systemic response to acute endurance exercise, in which circulating miRNAs play a pivotal role.

Characterizing the Tapering Practices of United States and Canadian Raw Powerlifters

ABSTRACT

Travis, SK, Pritchard, HJ, Mujika, I, Gentles, JA, Stone, MH, and Bazyler, CD. Characterizing the tapering practices of United States and Canadian raw powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 35(12S): S26-S35, 2021-The purpose of this study was to characterize the tapering practices used by North American powerlifters. A total of 364 powerlifters completed a 41-item survey encompassing demographics, general training, general tapering, and specific tapering practices. Nonparametric statistics were used to assess sex (male and female), competition level (regional/provincial, national, and international), and competition lift (squat, bench press, and deadlift). The highest training volume most frequently took place 5-8 weeks before competition, whereas the highest training intensity was completed 2 weeks before competition. A step taper was primarily used over 7-10 days while decreasing the training volume by 41-50% with varied intensity. The final heavy (>85% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) back squat and deadlift sessions were completed 7-10 days before competition, whereas the final heavy bench press session was completed <7 days before competition. Final heavy lifts were completed at 90.0-92.5% 1RM but reduced to 75-80% 1RM for back squat and bench press and 70-75% for deadlift during the final training session of each lift. Set and repetition schemes during the taper varied between lifts with most frequent reports of 3 × 2, 3 × 3, and 3 × 1 for back squat, bench press, and deadlift, respectively. Training cessation durations before competition varied between deadlift (5.8 ± 2.5 days), back squat (4.1 ± 1.9 days), and bench press (3.9 ± 1.8 days). Complete training cessation was implemented 2.8 ± 1.1 days before competition and varied between sex and competition level. These findings provide novel insights into the tapering practices of North American powerlifters and can be used to inform powerlifting coaches and athlete's tapering decisions.

The Effect of the COVID-19 Lockdown on the Position-Specific Match Running Performance of Professional Football Players; Preliminary Observational Study

The COVID-19 pandemic interrupted professional football in the 2019/2020 season, and football experts anticipate that the consequences of lockdown measures will negatively affect the physical performance of players once competition restarts. This study aimed to evaluate position-specific match running performance (MRP) to determine the effect of COVID-19 lockdowns on the physical performance of professional football players. Players’ MRPs (n = 124) were observed in matches before and after the COVID-19 lockdown in the 2019/2020 season of the highest level of national competition in Croatia and were classified according to player position: central defenders (CD; n = 42), fullbacks (FB; n = 20), midfielders (MF; n = 46), and forwards (FW; n = 16). The MRPs were measured using Global Positioning System, and included the total distance covered, low-intensity running (≤14.3 km/h), running (14.4–19.7 km/h), high-intensity running (≥19.8 km/h), total accelerations (>0.5 m/s²), high-intensity accelerations (>3 m/s²), total decelerations (less than –0.5 m/s²), and high-intensity decelerations (less than –3 m/s²). The results indicated that, in matches after the COVID-19 lockdown, (i) CDs and FBs featured lower running and high-intensity running (t-value: from 2.05 to 3.51; all p < 0.05; moderate to large effect sizes), (ii) MFs covered a greater distance in low-intensity running and achieved a lower number of total accelerations, and total and high-intensity decelerations (t-value: from –3.54 to 2.46; all p < 0.05, moderate to large effect sizes), and (iii) FWs featured lower high-intensity running (t-value = 2.66, p = 0.02, large effect size). These findings demonstrate that the physical performances of football players from the Croatian first division significantly decreased in matches after the COVID-19 lockdown. A combination of inadequate adaptation to football-specific match demands and a crowded schedule after the competition was restarted most likely resulted in such an effect.

Training-intensity Distribution on Middle- and Long-distance Runners: A Systematic Review

Training-intensity distribution (TID) is considered the key factor to optimize performance in endurance sports. This systematic review aimed to: I) characterize the TID typically used by middle-and long-distance runners; II) compare the effect of different types of TID on endurance performance and its physiological determinants; III) determine the extent to which different TID quantification methods can calculate same TID outcomes from a given training program. The keywords and search strategy identified 20 articles in the research databases. These articles demonstrated differences in the quantification of the different training-intensity zones among quantification methods (i. e. session-rating of perceived exertion, heart rate, blood lactate, race pace, and running speed). The studies that used greater volumes of low-intensity training such as those characterized by pyramidal and polarized TID approaches, reported greater improvements in endurance performance than those which used a threshold TID. Thus, it seems that the combination of high-volume at low-intensity (≥ 70% of overall training volume) and low-volume at threshold and high-intensity interval training (≤ 30%) is necessary to optimize endurance training adaptations in middle-and long-distance runners. Moreover, monitoring training via multiple mechanisms that systematically encompasses objective and subjective TID quantification methods can help coaches/researches to make better decisions.

Training During the COVID-19 Lockdown: Knowledge, Beliefs, and Practices of 12,526 Athletes from 142 Countries and Six Continents

Objective

Our objective was to explore the training-related knowledge, beliefs, and practices of athletes and the influence of lockdowns in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).

Methods

Athletes (n = 12,526, comprising 13% world class, 21% international, 36% national, 24% state, and 6% recreational) completed an online survey that was available from 17 May to 5 July 2020 and explored their training behaviors (training knowledge, beliefs/attitudes, and practices), including specific questions on their training intensity, frequency, and session duration before and during lockdown (March–June 2020).

Results

Overall, 85% of athletes wanted to “maintain training,” and 79% disagreed with the statement that it is “okay to not train during lockdown,” with a greater prevalence for both in higher-level athletes. In total, 60% of athletes considered “coaching by correspondence (remote coaching)” to be sufficient (highest amongst world-class athletes). During lockdown, < 40% were able to maintain sport-specific training (e.g., long endurance [39%], interval training [35%], weightlifting [33%], plyometric exercise [30%]) at pre-lockdown levels (higher among world-class, international, and national athletes), with most (83%) training for “general fitness and health maintenance” during lockdown. Athletes trained alone (80%) and focused on bodyweight (65%) and cardiovascular (59%) exercise/training during lockdown. Compared with before lockdown, most athletes reported reduced training frequency (from between five and seven sessions per week to four or fewer), shorter training sessions (from ≥ 60 to < 60 min), and lower sport-specific intensity (~ 38% reduction), irrespective of athlete classification.

Conclusions

COVID-19-related lockdowns saw marked reductions in athletic training specificity, intensity, frequency, and duration, with notable within-sample differences (by athlete classification). Higher classification athletes had the strongest desire to “maintain” training and the greatest opposition to “not training” during lockdowns. These higher classification athletes retained training specificity to a greater degree than others, probably because of preferential access to limited training resources. More higher classification athletes considered “coaching by correspondence” as sufficient than did lower classification athletes. These lockdown-mediated changes in training were not conducive to maintenance or progression of athletes’ physical capacities and were also likely detrimental to athletes’ mental health. These data can be used by policy makers, athletes, and their multidisciplinary teams to modulate their practice, with a degree of individualization, in the current and continued pandemic-related scenario. Furthermore, the data may drive training-related educational resources for athletes and their multidisciplinary teams. Such upskilling would provide athletes with evidence to inform their training modifications in response to germane situations (e.g., COVID related, injury, and illness).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01573-z.

Skeletal Muscle Adaptations and Performance Outcomes Following a Step and Exponential Taper in Strength Athletes

Before major athletic events, a taper is often prescribed to facilitate recovery and enhance performance. However, it is unknown which taper model is most effective for peaking maximal strength and positively augmenting skeletal muscle. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare performance outcomes and skeletal muscle adaptations following a step vs. an exponential taper in strength athletes. Sixteen powerlifters (24.0 ± 4.0 years, 174.4 ± 8.2 cm, 89.8 ± 21.4 kg) participated in a 6-week training program aimed at peaking maximal strength on back squat [initial 1-repetition-maximum (1RM): 174.7 ± 33.4 kg], bench press (118.5 ± 29.9 kg), and deadlift (189.9 ± 41.2 kg). Powerlifters were matched based on relative maximal strength, and randomly assigned to either (a) 1-week overreach and 1-week step taper or (b) 1-week overreach and 3-week exponential taper. Athletes were tested pre- and post-training on measures of body composition, jumping performance, isometric squat, and 1RM. Whole muscle size was assessed at the proximal, middle, and distal vastus lateralis using ultrasonography and microbiopsies at the middle vastus lateralis site. Muscle samples (n = 15) were analyzed for fiber size, fiber type [myosin-heavy chain (MHC)-I, -IIA, -IIX, hybrid-I/IIA] using whole muscle immunohistochemistry and single fiber dot blots, gene expression, and microRNA abundance. There were significant main time effects for 1RM squat (p < 0.001), bench press (p < 0.001), and deadlift, (p = 0.024), powerlifting total (p < 0.001), Wilks Score (p < 0.001), squat jump peak-power scaled to body mass (p = 0.001), body mass (p = 0.005), fat mass (p = 0.002), and fat mass index (p = 0.002). There were significant main time effects for medial whole muscle cross-sectional area (mCSA) (p = 0.006) and averaged sites (p < 0.001). There was also a significant interaction for MHC-IIA fiber cross-sectional area (fCSA) (p = 0.014) with post hoc comparisons revealing increases following the step-taper only (p = 0.002). There were significant main time effects for single-fiber MHC-I% (p = 0.015) and MHC-IIA% (p = 0.033), as well as for MyoD (p = 0.002), MyoG (p = 0.037), and miR-499a (p = 0.033). Overall, increases in whole mCSA, fCSA, MHC-IIA fCSA, and MHC transitions appeared to favor the step taper group. An overreach followed by a step taper appears to produce a myocellular environment that enhances skeletal muscle adaptations, whereas an exponential taper may favor neuromuscular performance.

Longer Disciplined Tapers Improve Marathon Performance for Recreational Runners

For marathoners the taper refers to a period of reduced training load in the weeks before race-day. It helps runners to recover from the stresses of weeks of high-volume, high-intensity training to enhance race-day performance. The aim of this study was to analyse the taper strategies of recreational runners to determine whether particular forms of taper were more or less favorable to race-day performance.

Methods: We analyzed the training activities of more than 158,000 recreational marathon runners to define tapers based on a decrease in training volume (weekly distance). We identified different types of taper based on a combination of duration (1–4 weeks of decreasing training) and discipline (strict tapers progressively decrease training in the weeks before the marathon, relaxed tapers do not) and we grouped runners based on their taper type to determine the popularity of different types of taper and their associated performance characteristics.

Results: Kruskal-Wallis tests (H(7)≥ 521.11, p < 0.001), followed by posthoc Dunns tests with a Bonferroni correction, confirmed that strict tapers were associated with better marathon performance than relaxed tapers (p < 0.001) and that longer tapers of up to 3 weeks were associated with better performance than shorter tapers (p < 0.001). Results indicated that strict 3-week tapers were associated with superior marathon finish-time benefits (a median finish-time saving of 5 min 32.4 s or 2.6%) compared with a minimal taper (p < 0.001). We further found that female runners were associated with greater finish-time benefits than men, for a given taper type ( ≤ 3-weeks in duration), based on Mann Whitney U tests of significance with p < 0.001.

Conclusion: The findings of this study for recreational runners are consistent with related studies on highly-trained athletes, where disciplined tapers were associated with comparable performance benefits. The findings also highlight how most recreational runners (64%) adopt less disciplined (2-week and 3-week) tapers and suggest that shifting to a more disciplined taper strategy could improve performance relative to the benefits of a less disciplined taper.

Relative Training Load and Match Outcome: Are Professional Soccer Players Actually Undertrained during the In-Season?

Previous studies examined training/match ratios (TMr) to determine the training load relative to the match load, but the influence of the relative training load (RTL) on success in soccer is still unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the possible influence of RTL on final match outcome in soccer (win, draw, and loss). Running performances (RP) of soccer players (n = 21) in the Croatian highest national soccer competition were analyzed during the season 2020–2021. Data were measured by the global positioning system in 14 official matches and 67 training sessions. RTL was assessed by TMr, which were calculated as the ratio of RP during training and match in the same week, evaluating the following measures: TDr (total distance ratio), LIDr (low-intensity distance ratio), RDr (running distance ratio), HIDr (high-intensity distance ratio), ACCr (total accelerations ratio), DECr (total decelerations ratio), HI-ACCr (high-intensity accelerations ratio), HI-DECr (high-intensity decelerations ratio). All TMr were examined separately for each training session within in-season microcycles (categorized as days before the match day, i.e., MD minus). Spearman correlations were used to identify association between match outcome and TMr. The results indicated negative associations between match outcome and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-1 and MD-2). In contrast, positive associations were evidenced between match outcome, and HIDr on MD-3 and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-5 (p < 0.05; all moderate correlations). These findings demonstrate that final match outcome in soccer was associated with greater RTL of (i) high-intensity running three days before the match, (ii) total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations five days before the match, and (iii) lower RTL of total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations one and two days before the match.

Is there Evidence for the Suggestion that Fatigue Accumulates Following Resistance Exercise?

It has been suggested that improper post-exercise recovery or improper sequence of training may result in an 'accumulation' of fatigue. Despite this suggestion, there is a lack of clarity regarding which physiological mechanisms may be proposed to contribute to fatigue accumulation. The present paper explores the time course of the changes in various fatigue-related measures in order to understand how they may accumulate or lessen over time following an exercise bout or in the context of an exercise program. Regarding peripheral fatigue, the depletion of energy substrates and accumulation of metabolic byproducts has been demonstrated to occur following an acute bout of resistance training; however, peripheral accumulation and depletion appear unlikely candidates to accumulate over time. A number of mechanisms may contribute to the development of central fatigue, postulating the need for prolonged periods of recovery; however, a time course is difficult to determine and is dependent on which measurement is examined. In addition, it has not been demonstrated that central fatigue measures accumulate over time. A potential candidate that may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue is muscle damage, which shares similar characteristics (i.e., prolonged strength loss). Due to the delayed appearance of muscle damage, it may be interpreted as accumulated fatigue. Overall, evidence for the presence of fatigue accumulation with resistance training is equivocal, making it difficult to draw the conclusion that fatigue accumulates. Considerable work remains as to whether fatigue can accumulate over time. Future studies are warranted to elucidate potential mechanisms underlying the concept of fatigue accumulation.

Periodization and Programming for Individual 400 m Medley Swimmers

Knowledge in the scientific domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM swimmer. This framework was based on the available coaching and scientific literature and the practical experience and expertise of the collaborating authors. The season has been divided in two or three macrocycles, further divided in three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), in alignment with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol·L-1), lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol·L-1) and VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol·L-1). Strength training should focus on maximum strength, power and speed endurance during the season. Altitude training camps can be placed strategically within the training season to promote physiological adaptation and improvements in performance. A well-constructed technical framework will permit development of training strategies for the 400 m IM swimmer to improve both training and competitive performance.

Crossing the Golden Training Divide: The Science and Practice of Training World-Class 800- and 1500-m Runners

Despite an increasing amount of research devoted to middle-distance training (herein the 800 and 1500 m events), information regarding the training methodologies of world-class runners is limited. Therefore, the objective of this review was to integrate scientific and best practice literature and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite middle-distance performance. Herein, we describe how well-known training principles and fundamental training characteristics are applied by world-leading middle-distance coaches and athletes to meet the physiological and neuromuscular demands of 800 and 1500 m. Large diversities in physiological profiles and training emerge among middle-distance runners, justifying a categorization into types across a continuum (400–800 m types, 800 m specialists, 800–1500 m types, 1500 m specialists and 1500–5000 m types). Larger running volumes (120–170 vs. 50–120 km·week⁻¹ during the preparation period) and higher aerobic/anaerobic training distribution (90/10 vs. 60/40% of the annual running sessions below vs. at or above anaerobic threshold) distinguish 1500- and 800-m runners. Lactate tolerance and lactate production training are regularly included interval sessions by middle-distance runners, particularly among 800-m athletes. In addition, 800-m runners perform more strength, power and plyometric training than 1500-m runners. Although the literature is biased towards men and “long-distance thinking,” this review provides a point of departure for scientists and practitioners to further explore and quantify the training and development of elite 800- and 1500-m running performance and serves as a position statement for outlining current state-of-the-art middle-distance training recommendations.

A Physically Active Status Affects the Circulating Profile of Cancer-Associated miRNAs

Circulating miRNAs are ideal diagnostics and prognostics biomarkers in cancer since altered levels of specific miRNAs have been associated to development/progression of several cancers. Physical activity is a recognized preventive strategy against several cancers, but it may also modify the baseline levels of cancer-associated miRNAs and, hence, may act as a confounding pre-analytical variable. This study aimed at understanding whether physical activity-dependent changes in cancer-associated circulating miRNAs profile could act as a confounding variable. A panel comprising 179 miRNAs was assayed in plasma from 20 highly trained and 10 sedentary men. RT-qPCR data were analyzed with the 2^−2ΔΔCT methods and normalized on hsa-miR-320d, as determined by bioinformatics analysis. miRNAs associated with the diagnosis of the most prevalent cancers were considered. Only those miRNAs, relevantly associated with cancers, found ≥2-fold up- or downregulated in highly trained subjects compared to sedentary were disclosed. The results reveal that chronic physical activity determined modifications altering the baseline level of several cancer-associated miRNAs and, hence, their diagnostic and prognostic potential. In conclusion, based on our results, a physically active status emerges as an important pre-analytical variable able to alter the basal level of circulating miRNAs, and these alterations might be considered as potentially misleading the analytical output.

Maintaining Physical Performance: The Minimal Dose of Exercise Needed to Preserve Endurance and Strength Over Time

ABSTRACT

Maintaining physical performance: the minimal dose of exercise needed to preserve endurance and strength over time, Spiering, BA, Mujika, I, Sharp, MA, and Foulis, SA. J Strength Cond Res 35(5): 1449-1458, 2021-Nearly every physically active person encounters periods in which the time available for exercise is limited (e.g., personal, family, or business conflicts). During such periods, the goal of physical training may be to simply maintain (rather than improve) physical performance. Similarly, certain special populations may desire to maintain performance for prolonged periods, namely athletes (during the competitive season and off-season) and military personnel (during deployment). The primary purpose of this brief, narrative review is to identify the minimal dose of exercise (i.e., frequency, volume, and intensity) needed to maintain physical performance over time. In general populations, endurance performance can be maintained for up to 15 weeks when training frequency is reduced to as little as 2 sessions per week or when exercise volume is reduced by 33-66% (as low as 13-26 minutes per session), as long as exercise intensity (exercising heart rate) is maintained. Strength and muscle size (at least in younger populations) can be maintained for up to 32 weeks with as little as 1 session of strength training per week and 1 set per exercise, as long as exercise intensity (relative load) is maintained; whereas, in older populations, maintaining muscle size may require up to 2 sessions per week and 2-3 sets per exercise, while maintaining exercise intensity. Insufficient data exists to make specific recommendations for athletes or military personnel. Our primary conclusion is that exercise intensity seems to be the key variable for maintaining physical performance over time, despite relatively large reductions in exercise frequency and volume.

Relationship Between Heart Rate Variability and Acute:Chronic Load Ratio Throughout a Season in NCAA D1 Men's Soccer Players

ABSTRACT

Sekiguchi, Y, Huggins, RA, Curtis, RM, Benjamin, CL, Adams, WM, Looney, DP, West, CA, and Casa, DJ. Relationship between heart rate variability and acute:chronic load ratio throughout a season in NCAA D1 men's soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 1103-1109, 2021-The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to examine the relationship between heart rate variability (HRV) and acute:chronic workload ratio (ACWR)-based training load (TL) metrics and (b) to examine relationships across various A:C ratio-based TL metrics. Heart rate variability in 23 male college soccer players (mean ± SD; age, 21 ± 1 years; body mass, 80.3 ± 5.8 kg; height, 181.9 ± 6.5 cm; %body fat, 11.9 ± 2.0%; and V̇o2max, 51.9 ± 5.0 ml·kg-1·min-1) was measured at 5 time points: week(W)1, W3, W7, W12, and W14 during the 2015 NCAA men's soccer season. Heart rate variability was calculated from beat to beat intervals using a heart rate monitor. Players donned a global position satellite-enabled device that measured the following TL metrics: session time (ST), Player Load (PL), PL·min-1, and total distance (TD). Acute:chronic workload ratio was calculated for each TL metric: ACWR-based ST (ACWRST), ACWR-based PL (ACWRPL), ACWR-based PL·min-1 (ACWRPLM), and ACWR-based TD (ACWRTD): ACWR = week average TLs/mo average (30 ± 1 days) TLs. Relationships between HRV and ACWR-based each TL metric were evaluated using mixed effects models. Tukey pairwise comparisons were used to examine differences between types of ACWR-based TL metrics. An increase in ACWRST significantly reduced HRV throughout a season (-7.4 ± 3.6 m·s-1; p = 0.04). There were significant differences between ACWRPLM and ACWRST, ACWRPL and ACWRTD at W1, ACWRPLM and ACWRST at W3 (p < 0.05). In conclusion, ACWRST, ACWRPL, and ACWRTD were significantly different from ACWRPLM. ACWRST was found to significantly predict HRV; higher ACWRST was significantly associated with lower HRV. Therefore, tracking of the ACWR using ST may help to optimize athlete's physiological state throughout a season.

Optimal Pretaper Phase on Physical Match Performance in Professional Soccer

PURPOSE

To investigate the optimal pretaper duration on match running performance in a professional soccer team.

METHODS

The training load was monitored during daily training sessions and matches during 2 seasons according to different periodization strategies. Matches' running distances were collected using match analysis system. The data were analyzed in 3 types of mesocycle blocks of 5 (M5), 4 (M4), and 3 weeks (M3), concludes all of them by 1 taper week.

RESULTS

Significant decreases in the training load during the taper weeks compared to standard weeks were observed in 3 types of mesocycle blocks (d ≥ 5; P < .01). An increase in overall match running performance was observed in matches played after the taper weeks compared to matches played after the standard weeks during M4 for all speed ranges (d ≥ 1.3; P < .05). The increase was only observed in low-intensity running (d = 1.3; P < .04) and total distance, low-intensity running, and intense running (d ≥ 1.3; P < .05) in M5 and M3, respectively. Match running performance following the taper weeks between the 3 different mesocycle durations was significantly higher in M4 for the number of high-speed running, sprinting, and high-intensity running (P < .05). The greatest enhancement of match running performance was observed at M4 when the training load was decreased by approximately 18% during the tapering period.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that a period of 3 standard weeks of training followed by 1 taper week is the optimal taper strategy when compared to different pretaper durations.

Tapering and Repeated High-Intensity Effort Ability in Young Elite Rugby Union Players: Influence of Pretaper Fatigue Level

PURPOSE

To assess the effects of a short-term taper on the ability to perform repeated high-intensity efforts, depending on players' fatigue level following an intensive training block.

METHOD

After a 3-day off-season camp, 13 players followed the same 3-week preseason training block followed by a 7-day exponential taper. Performance was assessed by a repeated high-intensity effort test before and after the taper. Total sprint time, percentage of decrement, and the number of sprints equal to or higher than 90% of the best sprint were retained for analysis. Players were a posteriori classified in normal training or acute fatigue groups based on their readiness to perform prior to the taper, assessed through the magnitude of difference in psychological (Profile of Mood State Questionnaire), cardiovascular (submaximal constant-duration cycling), and neuromuscular (countermovement jump) tests between the preintensive and postintensive training blocks.

RESULTS

Training load declined by 55% (9%) during the taper (P = .001, g = -2.54). The overall group showed a small improvement in total sprint time (-3.40% [3.90%], P = .04, g = -0.39) following the taper. Relative changes tended to be higher in the acute fatigue compared with the normal training group (-5.07% [4.52%] vs -1.45% [1.88%], respectively; P = .08; d = 1.01). No taper-induced improvement was observed in percentage of decrement or number of sprints equal to or higher than 90% of the best sprint.

CONCLUSION

A 7-day taper consisting of 55% training load reduction improved repeated high-intensity effort performance in young elite rugby union players. Pretaper level of fatigue seems to be a key determinant in the taper supercompensation process, as acutely fatigued players at the end of the intensive training block tended to benefit more from the taper.

Analyzing Activity and Injury: Lessons Learned from the Acute:Chronic Workload Ratio

Injuries occur when an athlete performs a greater amount of activity than what their body can withstand. To maximize the positive effects of training while avoiding injuries, athletes and coaches need to determine safe activity levels. The International Olympic Committee has recommended using the acute:chronic workload ratio (ACWR) to monitor injury risk and has provided thresholds to minimize risk when designing training programs. However, there are several limitations to the ACWR and how it has been analyzed which impact the validity of current recommendations and should discourage its use. This review aims to discuss previously published and novel challenges with the ACWR, and strategies to improve current analytical methods. In the first part of this review, we discuss challenges inherent to the ACWR. We explain why using a ratio to represent changes in activity may not always be appropriate. We also show that using exponentially weighted moving averages to calculate the ACWR results in an initial load problem, and discuss their inapplicability to sports where athletes taper their activity. In the second part, we discuss challenges with how the ACWR has been implemented. We cover problems with discretization, sparse data, bias in injured athletes, unmeasured and time-varying confounding, and application to subsequent injuries. In the third part, conditional on well-conceived study design, we discuss alternative causal-inference based analytical strategies that may avoid major flaws in studies on changes in activity and injury occurrence.

"Road to Rio": A Case Study of Workload Periodization Strategy in Rugby-7s During an Olympic Season

The objective of this manuscript was to examine the periodization strategy of an international Rugby-7s team during an Olympic season. Training load data were collected in 14 elite male players over a 48-week period during the 2015–2016 Olympic season. The season consisted of 3 macrocycles including: preseason (12-weak duration), in-season (25-weak) fragmented into four 4–7 weeks mesocycles (In-1–4) and the final preparation for the Rio 2016 Olympic Games (Olympic preparation, 11-weak). External training load (TL) such as the total distance (TD), the high-intensity distance (HID) and the number of accelerations performed, was monitored in training and competition over the entire duration of the season using a global positioning system (GPS) devices. The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was multiplied by the session duration (min) to provide an internal TL (session-RPE) value for all training sessions and competitions. The Olympic preparation may enable planning of higher external TL compared to the preseason (TD, 21 ± 13%, moderate; total accelerations, 27 ± 4%, moderate) whereas no difference was observed for internal TL values between these two periods. High-intensity distance (HID) and internal TL (session-RPE) were lower (−11.0 ± 7.8%, small and −38 ± 3%, moderate, respectively) during the in-season compared to preseason. Internal TL, TD as well as HID were lower in the third in-season mesocycle (In-3) compared with the first in-season mesocycle (In-1) (−25 ± 12%, moderate; −32 ± 4%, moderate; −49 ± 8%, moderate, respectively). The staff managed the workload considering the in-season as the main part of the “Road to Rio.” The strategy to reduce the workload at the middle of the season and to induce weeks of regeneration at the end of the in-season was highlighted by the training availability of 100% of the squad at the beginning of the Olympic preparation. The workload periodization strategy of an Olympic season differs from the strategy previously described during a non-Olympic season.

Step vs. Two-Phase Gradual Volume Reduction Tapering Protocols in Strength Training: Effects on Neuromuscular Performance and Serum Hormone Concentrations

ABSTRACT

Seppänen, S and Häkkinen, K. Step vs. two-phase gradual volume reduction tapering protocols in strength training: Effects on neuromuscular performance and serum hormone concentrations. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-This study assessed effects of 2 reduced volume tapering protocols on neuromuscular performance and serum hormone concentrations in 14 recreationally strength-trained men (21-30 years). After an 8-week strength training period subjects were divided to the step (54% volume reduction immediately) and 2-phase gradual (38% reduction for the first week and 70% for the second week) tapering groups for 2 weeks. One repetition maximum (1RM) squat, maximal isometric bilateral leg press force (leg press MVIC), electromyography (EMG) of vastus lateralis (VL) and vastus medialis, cross-sectional area of VL, serum testosterone, cortisol, and sex hormone-binding globuline (SHBG) concentrations were measured before and repeatedly during training and tapering periods. Both tapering protocols led to significant increases (p < 0.01) in squat 1RM. However, the increase in the step group (3.4 ± 2.1%) was higher (p < 0.05) than in the gradual group (1.7 ± 0.9%). The maximal integrated EMG of VL increased (p < 0.05) during tapering in the step group. Serum testosterone concentration increased (p < 0.05) and T/SHBG ratio reached the highest level after 1-week tapering in the step group. In the gradual group, T/SHBG ratio was (p < 0.05) higher after the taper than after the training period. Individual changes in T/SHBG ratio in the total group correlated positively (p < 0.05) with individual changes in leg press MVIC during the taper. These results suggest that reducing training volume can be an effective way to peak maximal strength. However, a higher volume reduction rate at the beginning of taper seems to lead to more favorable changes in maximal strength accompanied by positive changes in the neuromuscular system and serum hormone concentrations when taper follows an overreaching period.

Rate of Force Development, Muscle Architecture, and Performance in Elite Weightlifters

PURPOSE

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between weightlifting performance and the rate of force development (RFD), muscle architecture, and body composition in elite Olympic weightlifters.

METHODS

Six male Olympic weightlifters (age 23.3 [3.4] y, body mass 88.7 [10.2] kg, body height 1.76 [0.07] m, snatch 146.7 [15.4] kg, clean and jerk 179.4 [22.1] kg), all members of the national team, participated in the study. Athletes completed a 16-week periodized training program aiming to maximize their performance at the national competition event. Measurements, including maximal strength (1-repetition maximum) in snatch, clean and jerk, back and front squat, isometric leg press RFD and peak force, countermovement jump, vastus lateralis muscle architecture, and body composition, were performed before and after the training period.

RESULTS

Weightlifting performance increased significantly after training (P < .05). Leg press RFD increased only in time windows of 0 to 200 and 0 to 250 milliseconds after training (8.9% [8.5%] and 9.4% [7.7%], respectively, P < .05) while peak force remained unaltered (P < .05). Front squat strength increased significantly (P < .05), while countermovement jump power increased 2.3% (2.1%) (P < .05). No changes were observed for muscle architecture and lean body mass (P > .05). Significant correlations were observed between performance in snatch and clean and jerk with isometric leg press RFD, at all time windows, as well as with lean body mass and squat 1-repetition maximum.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that regular examination of RFD, lean body mass, and lower extremities' 1-repetition maximum may be useful performance predictors in elite Olympic weightlifters.

Effects of Two Different Tapering Protocols on Fitness and Physical Match Performance in Elite Junior Soccer Players

Krespi, M, Sporiš, G, and Trajković, N. Effects of two different tapering protocols on fitness and physical match performance in elite junior soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 34(6): 1731-1740, 2020-The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 2 different tapering protocols on fitness and physical match performance in elite junior soccer players. One-hundred fifty-eight elite junior soccer players (mean age: 17.1 ± 0.79 years; mean height: 177.9 ± 6.64 cm; mean body mass: 71.3 ± 7.96 kg; and mean body mass index: 22.5 ± 1.66 kg·m) were randomly assigned to 2 groups: an exponential (n = 79) and a linear tapering (n = 79) group. Training sessions were conducted 3 times per week for 8 weeks. After 4 weeks of training and 4 weeks of tapering, participants were assessed in terms of body composition, physical fitness, and distance covered within a match. Both groups showed similar changes for body composition. The exponential group showed better improvement than the linear group in the 5- and 30-m sprints, countermovement jump, and V[Combining Dot Above]O2max (p < 0.05). The exponential tapering group had larger changes (p < 0.05) than the linear group in medium running (8-13 km·h) (6%; effect size = 0.26 compared with 5.5%; effect size = 0.22) and sprinting (>18 km·h) (26%; effect size = 0.72 compared to 21.7%; effect size = 0.60). The results show that exponential tapering produced better effects on speed, power, and endurance abilities than the linear protocol. Our results confirmed the reports of others that suggest that volume is the optimal variable to manipulate while maintaining both the intensity and the frequency of sessions.

Concurrent Heat and Intermittent Hypoxic Training: No Additional Performance Benefit Over Temperate Training

PURPOSE

To examine whether concurrent heat and intermittent hypoxic training can improve endurance performance and physiological responses relative to independent heat or temperate interval training.

METHODS

Well-trained male cyclists (N = 29) completed 3 weeks of moderate- to high-intensity interval training (4 × 60 min·wk-1) in 1 of 3 conditions: (1) heat (HOT: 32°C, 50% relative humidity, 20.8% fraction of inspired oxygen, (2) heat + hypoxia (H+H: 32°C, 50% relative humidity, 16.2% fraction of inspired oxygen), or (3) temperate environment (CONT: 22°C, 50% relative humidity, 20.8% fraction of inspired oxygen). Performance 20-km time trials (TTs) were conducted in both temperate (TTtemperate) and assigned condition (TTenvironment) before (base), immediately after (mid), and after a 3-week taper (end). Measures of hemoglobin mass, plasma volume, and blood volume were also assessed.

RESULTS

There was improved 20-km TT performance to a similar extent across all groups in both TTtemperate (mean ±90% confidence interval HOT, -2.8% ±1.8%; H+H, -2.0% ±1.5%; CONT, -2.0% ±1.8%) and TTenvironment (HOT, -3.3% ±1.7%; H+H, -3.1% ±1.6%; CONT, -3.2% ±1.1%). Plasma volume (HOT, 3.8% ±4.7%; H+H, 3.3% ±4.7%) and blood volume (HOT, 3.0% ±4.1%; H+H, 4.6% ±3.9%) were both increased at mid in HOT and H+H over CONT. Increased hemoglobin mass was observed in H+H only (3.0% ±1.8%).

CONCLUSION

Three weeks of interval training in heat, concurrent heat and hypoxia, or temperate environments improve 20-km TT performance to the same extent. Despite indications of physiological adaptations, the addition of independent heat or concurrent heat and hypoxia provided no greater performance benefits in a temperate environment than temperate training alone.

Tapering and Peaking Maximal Strength for Powerlifting Performance: A Review

Prior to major competitions, athletes often use a peaking protocol such as tapering or training cessation to improve performance. The majority of the current literature has focused on endurance-based sports such as swimming, cycling, and running to better understand how and when to taper or use training cessation to achieve the desired performance outcome. However, evidence regarding peaking protocols for strength and power athletes is lacking. Current limitations for peaking maximal strength is that many studies do not provide sufficient details for practitioners to use. Thus, when working with athletes such as powerlifters, weightlifters, throwers, and strongman competitors, practitioners must use trial and error to determine the best means for peaking rather than using an evidence-based protocol. More specifically, determining how to peak maximal strength using data derived from strength and power athletes has not been established. While powerlifting training (i.e., back squat, bench press, deadlift) is used by strength and power athletes up until the final days prior to a competition, understanding how to peak maximal strength relative to powerlifting performance is still unclear. Thus, the purpose of this study was to review the literature on tapering and training cessation practices relative to peaking powerlifting performance.

Prior workload has moderate effects on high-intensity match performance in elite-level professional football players when controlling for situational and contextual variables

This investigation examined the effect of prior workload on high-intensity football match performance. Player load variables were recorded using a global positioning system and converted into composite variables: rolling season accumulated load (AL), exponentially weighted moving average acute, chronic and acute:chronic workload ratio (A:C). Match-play high-intensity performance-per-minute: accelerations (ACC), sprints, high-speed running (HSR) and high metabolic load (HMLd) distances; and situational and contextual variables were recorded for all games. Partial least squares modelling, and backward stepwise selection determined the most parsimonious model for each performance variable. Quadratic relationships of small to moderate effect sizes were identified for sprint AL and sprint performance, HSR AL and HSR performance, acute HMLd and HMLd performance, acute sprint load and ACC performance and A:C sprint load and ACC performance. Match performance was typically greatest between the mean and +1SD. High chronic HMLd, and combined acceleration and deceleration (ACC+DEC) load exerted small beneficial effects on HMLd and HSR performance, whereas high acute load exerted trivial to moderate negative effects. High sprint A:C exerted a small beneficial effect on sprint performance and playing position exerted small effects on HSR and HMLd performance. Prior workload has trivial to moderate effects on high-intensity match performance in professional players.

Resistance Priming to Enhance Neuromuscular Performance in Sport: Evidence, Potential Mechanisms and Directions for Future Research

Recent scientific evidence supports the use of a low-volume strength-power 'resistance priming' session prior to sporting competition in an effort to enhance neuromuscular performance. Though research evidence relating to this strategy is presently limited, it has been shown to be effective in improving various measures of neuromuscular performance within 48 h. Post-activation potentiation strategies have previously been shown to enhance strength-power performance within 20 min of completing maximal or near-maximal resistance exercise. Comparably, a delayed potentiation effect has been demonstrated following 'resistance priming' at various times between 1 and 48 h in upper- and lower-body performance measures. This may have significant implications for a range of athletes when preparing for competition. Various exercise protocols have been shown to improve upper- and lower-body neuromuscular performance measures in this period. In particular, high-intensity resistance exercise through high loading (≥ 85% 1 repetition maximum) or ballistic exercise at lower loads appears to be an effective stimulus for this strategy. Although current research has identified the benefits of resistance priming to some physical qualities, many questions remain over the application of this type of session, as well as the effects that it may have on a range of specific sporting activities. The aims of this brief review are to assess the current literature examining the acute effects (1-48 h) of resistance exercise on neuromuscular performance and discuss potential mechanisms of action as well as provide directions for future research.

Short-Term Repeated Wingate Training in Hypoxia and Normoxia in Sprinters

Repeated Wingate efforts (RW) represent an effective training strategy for improving exercise capacity. Living low-training high altitude/hypoxic training methods, that upregulate muscle adaptations, are increasingly popular. However, the benefits of RW training in hypoxia compared to normoxia on performance and accompanying physiological adaptations remain largely undetermined. Our intention was to test the hypothesis that RW training in hypoxia provides additional performance benefits and more favorable physiological responses than equivalent training in normoxia. Twelve male runners (university sprinters) completed six RW training sessions (3 × 30-s Wingate “all-out” efforts with 4.5-min recovery) in either hypoxia (FiO₂: 0.145, n = 6) or normoxia (FiO₂: 0.209, n = 6) over 2 weeks. Before and after the intervention, participants underwent a RW performance test (3 × 30-s Wingate “all-out” efforts with 4.5-min recovery). Peak power output, mean power output, and total work for the three exercise bouts were determined. A capillary blood sample was taken for analyzing blood lactate concentration (BLa) 3 min after each of the three efforts. Peak power output (+ 11.3 ± 23.0%, p = 0.001), mean power output (+ 6.6 ± 6.8%, p = 0.001), and total work (+ 6.3 ± 5.4% p = 0.016) significantly increased from pre- to post-training, independently of condition. The time × group × interval interaction was significant (p = 0.05) for BLa. Compared to Pre-tests, BLa values during post-test were higher (+ 8.7 ± 10.3%) after about 2 in the normoxic group, although statistical significance was not reached (p = 0.08). Contrastingly, BLa values were lower (albeit not significantly) during post- compared to pre-tests after bout 2 (−9.3 ± 8.6%; p = 0.08) and bout 3 (−9.1 ± 10.7%; p = 0.09) in the hypoxic group. In conclusion, six RW training sessions over 2 weeks significantly improved RW performance, while training in hypoxia had no additional benefit over normoxia. However, accompanying BLa responses tended to be lower in the hypoxic group, while an opposite pattern was observed in the normoxic group. This indicates that different glycolytic and/or oxidative pathway adaptations were probably at play.

Effects of tapering on neuromuscular and metabolic fitness in team sports: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose: To assess the effects of a taper strategy on neuromuscular and metabolic fitness in team sport athletes, through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Method: To be included in this meta-analysis, studies had to involve competitive team sport athletes and a tapering intervention providing details about the procedures used to decrease the training load, as well as competition or field-based criterion performance and all necessary data to calculate effect sizes. Four databases were searched according to these criteria, which led to the identification of 895 potential studies and the subsequent inclusion of 14 articles. Independent variables were training intensity, volume and frequency, as well as the pattern of taper and its duration. The dependent variable was performance obtained in various neuromuscular and metabolic tests. Results: There was limited evidence of a moderate taper-induced improvement in repeated sprint ability (Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) (95%IC;I²) = 0.41 (0.26-0.55;0%)) and moderate evidence of a moderate increase in maximal power (SMD (95%IC;I²) = 0.44 (0.32-0.56;15%)), change of direction speed (SMD (95%IC;I²) = 0.38 (0.15-0.60;28%)) and maximal oxygen uptake (SMD (95%IC;I²) = 0.76 (0.43-1.09;37%)). Conclusion: Tapering is an effective training strategy to improve maximal power, maximal oxygen uptake, repeated sprint ability and change of direction speed in team sports. However, the literature lacks studies using various tapering strategies to compare their effectiveness and make evidence-based recommendations. Future original studies should focus on this major issue.

Changes in Renal Parameters during a Training Camp among Handball Players in the Sub-Saharan Environment

The aim of the study was to describe the changes in kidney parameters induced by 10 days of tapering (TP) during a training camp (TC), where the players were preparing for a group competition, in 15 female handball team members of a Division 1 Amateur of Benin, in the sub-Saharan environment. Measures were taken in all the players before and after the intensive training (IT) and tapering (TP) phases in an intervention study. The estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) with the CKD-EPI 4-level race formula, the fractional excretions of sodium (FeNa) and potassium (FeK), the urine potassium-to-sodium ratio (Na/K urine), and the hemoglobin rate [Hb] were determined for all participants. At the end of IT, eGFR and FeNa increased, respectively, by 22.39% (P < 0.01) and 143.85% (P < 0.01), but the variation of FeK is not significant (P > 0.05). The number of abnormally low eGFR values (<90 mL/min/1.73 m²) was reduced from 11 to 5 (P < 0.05). At the end of TP, the eGFR and urine Na-to-K ratio remained on average constant (P > 0.05) but FeNa decreased by 96.32% (P < 0.001) and FeK increased by 144.41% (P < 0.001). The [Hb] rate increased by 9.80% (P < 0.001), and players had inadequate hydration practice. The results suggested that in addition to its already known effects, TP preserves the positive effects of IT on glomerular function in athletes preparing for a competition that presents a major challenge.

Health complaints and heat stress prevention strategies during taper as predictors of peaked athletic performance at the 2015 World Athletics Championship in hot conditions

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether self-reported health complaints and choice of heat stress prevention strategies during the taper predicted peaking at an athletics championship in hot conditions.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

METHODS

Data on health and heat stress prevention were collected before the 2015 World Athletics Championship in Beijing, China. Peaking was defined using the athlete's pre-competition ranking and final competition rank. Baseline and endpoint data were fitted into multiple logic regression models.

RESULTS

Two hundred forty-five (29%) of 841 eligible athletes participated. Both sprint/power (Odds ratio (OR) 0.33 (95% Confidence interval (CI) 0.11 to 0.94), P=0.038) and endurance/combined events (OR 0.38 (95% CI 0.14 to 1.00), P=0.049) athletes having sustained concern-causing health complaints during the taper were less likely to peak. Endurance/combined events athletes who chose pre-cooling to mitigate heat stress were less likely to peak (OR 0.35 (95% CI 0.15 to 0.80), P=0.013), while sprint/power athletes reporting a sudden-onset injury complaint during the taper displayed increased peaking (OR 4.47 (95% CI 1.28 to 15.59), P=0.019).

CONCLUSIONS

Health complaints that caused the athlete concern during the taper were predictive of failure to peak at a major athletics competition. Sprint/power athletes who experienced an acute injury symptom during the taper appeared to benefit from rest. Pre-cooling strategies seem to require further validation during real-world endurance/combined events. It appears that athletics athletes' self-reported health should be monitored during the taper, concerns addressed, and heat stress prevention strategies individually tested before championships in hot conditions.

The Training and Development of Elite Sprint Performance: an Integration of Scientific and Best Practice Literature

Despite a voluminous body of research devoted to sprint training, our understanding of the training process leading to a world-class sprint performance is limited. The objective of this review is to integrate scientific and best practice literature regarding the training and development of elite sprint performance. Sprint performance is heavily dependent upon genetic traits, and the annual within-athlete performance differences are lower than the typical variation, the smallest worthwhile change, and the influence of external conditions such as wind, monitoring methodologies, etc. Still, key underlying determinants (e.g., power, technique, and sprint-specific endurance) are trainable. In this review, we describe how well-known training principles (progression, specificity, variation/periodization, and individualization) and varying training methods (e.g., sprinting/running, technical training, strength/power, plyometric training) are used in a sprint training context. Indeed, there is a considerable gap between science and best practice in how training principles and methods are applied. While the vast majority of sprint-related studies are performed on young team sport athletes and focus on brief sprints with maximal intensity and short recoveries, elite sprinters perform sprinting/running over a broad range of distances and with varying intensity and recovery periods. Within best practice, there is a stronger link between choice of training component (i.e., modality, duration, intensity, recovery, session rate) and the intended purpose of the training session compared with the “one-size-fits-all” approach in scientific literature. This review provides a point of departure for scientists and practitioners regarding the training and development of elite sprint performance and can serve as a position statement for outlining state-of-the-art sprint training recommendations and for generation of new hypotheses to be tested in future research.

Post-exercise Hot Water Immersion Elicits Heat Acclimation Adaptations That Are Retained for at Least Two Weeks

Heat acclimation by post-exercise hot water immersion (HWI) on six consecutive days reduces thermal strain and improves exercise performance during heat stress. However, the retention of adaptations by this method remains unknown. Typically, adaptations to short-term, exercise-heat-acclimation (<7 heat exposures) decay rapidly and are lost within 2 weeks. Short-term protocols should therefore be completed within 2 weeks of relocating to the heat; potentially compromising pre-competition/deployment training. To establish whether adaptations from post-exercise HWI are retained for up to 2 weeks, participants completed a 40-min treadmill run at 65% _max in the heat (33°C, 40% RH) before (PRE) and 24 h after (POST) the HWI intervention (n = 13) and then at 1 week (WK 1) and 2 weeks (WK 2) after the HWI intervention (n = 9). Heat acclimation involved a 40-min treadmill run (65% _max) on six consecutive days in temperate conditions (20°C), followed by ≤40 min HWI (40°C). Post-exercise HWI induced heat acclimation adaptations that were retained for at least 2 weeks, evidenced by reductions from PRE to WK 2 in: resting rectal core temperature (T _re, -0.36 ± 0.25°C), T _re at sweating onset (-0.26 ± 0.24°C), and end-exercise T _re (-0.36 ± 0.37°C). Furthermore, mean skin temperature (T _sk) (-0.77 ± 0.70°C), heart rate (-14 ± 10 beats⋅min^-1), rating of perceived exertion (-1 ± 2), and thermal sensation (-1 ± 1) were reduced from PRE to WK 2 (P < 0.05). However, PRE to POST changes in total hemoglobin mass, blood volume, plasma volume, the drive for sweating onset, sweating sensitivity and whole body sweating rate did not reach significance (P > 0.05). As such, the reduction in thermal strain during exercise-heat stress appears likely due to the reduction in resting T _re evident at POST, WK 1, and WK 2. In summary, 6 days of post-exercise HWI is an effective, practical and accessible heat acclimation strategy that induces adaptations, which are retained for at least 2 weeks. Therefore, post-exercise HWI can be completed during an athlete's pre-taper phase and does not suffer from the same practical limitations as short-term, exercise-heat-acclimation.

Post-exercise Hot Water Immersion Elicits Heat Acclimation Adaptations That Are Retained for at Least Two Weeks

Heat acclimation by post-exercise hot water immersion (HWI) on six consecutive days reduces thermal strain and improves exercise performance during heat stress. However, the retention of adaptations by this method remains unknown. Typically, adaptations to short-term, exercise-heat-acclimation (<7 heat exposures) decay rapidly and are lost within 2 weeks. Short-term protocols should therefore be completed within 2 weeks of relocating to the heat; potentially compromising pre-competition/deployment training. To establish whether adaptations from post-exercise HWI are retained for up to 2 weeks, participants completed a 40-min treadmill run at 65% _max in the heat (33°C, 40% RH) before (PRE) and 24 h after (POST) the HWI intervention (n = 13) and then at 1 week (WK 1) and 2 weeks (WK 2) after the HWI intervention (n = 9). Heat acclimation involved a 40-min treadmill run (65% _max) on six consecutive days in temperate conditions (20°C), followed by ≤40 min HWI (40°C). Post-exercise HWI induced heat acclimation adaptations that were retained for at least 2 weeks, evidenced by reductions from PRE to WK 2 in: resting rectal core temperature (T _re, -0.36 ± 0.25°C), T _re at sweating onset (-0.26 ± 0.24°C), and end-exercise T _re (-0.36 ± 0.37°C). Furthermore, mean skin temperature (T _sk) (-0.77 ± 0.70°C), heart rate (-14 ± 10 beats⋅min^-1), rating of perceived exertion (-1 ± 2), and thermal sensation (-1 ± 1) were reduced from PRE to WK 2 (P < 0.05). However, PRE to POST changes in total hemoglobin mass, blood volume, plasma volume, the drive for sweating onset, sweating sensitivity and whole body sweating rate did not reach significance (P > 0.05). As such, the reduction in thermal strain during exercise-heat stress appears likely due to the reduction in resting T _re evident at POST, WK 1, and WK 2. In summary, 6 days of post-exercise HWI is an effective, practical and accessible heat acclimation strategy that induces adaptations, which are retained for at least 2 weeks. Therefore, post-exercise HWI can be completed during an athlete's pre-taper phase and does not suffer from the same practical limitations as short-term, exercise-heat-acclimation.