"We're the heroes!": fathers' perspectives on their role in protecting their preteenage children from sexual risk

"Speak from a place of love": The family dynamics surrounding Black father-daughter sexual health communication

INTRODUCTION

Parent-child sexual health communication reduces sexual risk behaviors among youth, which in turn lowers the transmission rate of HIV and sexually transmitted infections. Despite being a known protective factor, gender differences persist with mothers being more likely to discuss sexual health with their children than fathers. Although individual characteristics, interpersonal familial factors and societal norms (e.g., communication self-efficacy, parent-child closeness, and cultural and gender norms) are associated with Black parents' likelihood to communicate about sex with their children, the current study seeks to explore which of these factors found among Black mother-child or father-son dyads extend to Black father-daughter dyads and how this phenomenon (i.e., Black father-daughter sexual health communication) relates to family structure.

METHODS

Seven father-daughter dyads (N = 7) and an additional five daughters (n = 5) in the United States completed individual in-depth semi-structured interviews. Daughters (Mage = 20.3) and fathers (Mage = 56.7) were biologically related, majority heterosexual, close, and lived together. Data were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Analysis revealed three themes centering around the role of authoritative parenting, the tactics and skills facilitating sexual health communication, and family structure.

CONCLUSIONS

Black father-daughter sexual health communication is facilitated by close father-daughter relationships, non-authoritative parenting styles, and open, supportive, and non-judgmental communication. Fathers can be better supported in knowing how and when best to communicate sexual health messages, and to mitigate the possibly negative impacts on communication of divorce or having multiple children.

Whose Job Is It Anyway? Parents' Perspectives of Responsibilities for Educating Their Children About Sex

Introduction

Parents who do not feel responsible for parent-child sexual communication (PCSC) may be missing out on opportunities to engage in PCSC that has protective effects on children's sexual well-being. Using the theory of planned behavior and feminist theory, we explore how parents' PCSC attitudes and demographics are associated with perceptions of who is responsible for PCSC.

Methods

Using data collected in December 2019 through January 2020 from parents of 6-11-year-olds, we ran chi-square tests, ANOVAs, and logistic regressions to determine how parent PCSC attitudes and other parental factors are associated with parent perceptions of who is responsible for PCSC.

Results

The majority of parents saw themselves and/or a co-parent as primarily responsible for PCSC about facts and values. Bivariately, parents with higher scores of perceived positive PCSC outcomes, subjective norms, and self-efficacy were more likely to believe that they were solely responsible or shared an equal responsibility for PCSC. Multivariately, mothers and genderqueer parents, parents with the same gender as their child, and parents whose co-parent was less involved in parenting were more likely to report being solely responsible for PCSC.

Conclusions

Most parents saw themselves or a partner as most responsible for PCSC; parent and child gender were the strongest determinants of parents' perceptions of PCSC responsibility.

Policy Implications

These results suggest that it may be more effective for parent education to challenge and deconstruct traditional gender roles versus focusing on self-efficacy, norms, and perceived outcomes if we want to increase parents' perceived PCSC responsibility, especially within different-gender parent-child dyads.

Dad taught me nothing about relationships and sexuality: how contemporary Australian fathers became sex ed dads

This mixed methods study explored Australian fathers' views about relationships and sexuality education (RSE) and their role within it. In the article we examine contemporary fathers' engagement with discussing relationships and sexuality with their children, compared to their recollections of their own fathers' involvement. We draw on survey data from 612 diverse Australian fathers of children aged 3-12 years and interview data from 10 fathers. We find that, according to participants' self-reports, fathers' involvement in RSE has increased from one generation to the next. We identify five domains that have influenced this change: shifting norms regarding the role of fathers, gender and sexuality; a rejection of their own fathers' approach; concerns for daughters; the women in their lives; and a sense of responsibility. We argue that schools and other RSE providers should engage with these domains to support fathers to take greater strides towards strengthened engagement in RSE with their children.

Dysfunctional Parent-Child Communication About Sexting During Adolescence

Sexting (sending, receiving, and forwarding nude, semi-nude, or sexually explicit content) entails risks for adolescents; therefore, it is important for parents to be able to communicate with their children about its implications. The goal of the present study was to identify parental characteristics that lead to dysfunctional communication (lower quality of communication) about sexting, on a sample of 427 parents (336 mothers and 91 fathers) of Israeli adolescents aged 10-18 years and to determine whether parents' perceived severity of sexting and the degree to which they perceive their adolescent to be susceptible to sexting function as mediating factors. Parents completed a set of questionnaires online. Findings indicated that authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were positively associated with dysfunctional parent-child communication about sexting. Authoritative style was inversely related to dysfunctional communication and was mediated by positive attitudes toward sex education. Additionally, authoritative parents were capable of assessing the severity of their children's sexting activities, and the degree to which their children were susceptible to engage in sexting. The quality of the discussion initiated by authoritative parents appears to have enabled them to be aware of adolescent behaviors and to adjust their communication about the inherent risks. Findings suggest that the perception of sexting as too risky diminishes parents' ability to conduct a high-quality discussion about it. In conclusion, research findings emphasize parents' role in mediation of the online experiences of their children and conducting a constructive discussions with them about sexting.

Perceptions of adolescents' racial discrimination experiences, racial identity, and depressive symptoms among Black American fathers

Objective

This study examined whether Black American fathers' perceptions of their adolescents' experiences of racial discrimination were related to fathers' depressive symptoms and if this association was moderated by fathers' racial identity beliefs and adolescent gender.

Background

Racial discrimination is not only an individual-level but also a family-level stressor for Black families. Racial discrimination experienced by parents can spillover to influence their children; however, fewer studies have examined how adolescents' discrimination experiences relate to parents' psychological outcomes, especially among Black fathers.

Method

Data were collected via online survey from 240 Black fathers (Mage = 45.93 years, SD = 8.72) of adolescents (Mage = 14.44 years, SD = 2.11) residing in the United States. Participants completed questions about their racial identity beliefs and depressive symptoms, as well as their adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination.

Results

Regression analyses revealed that adolescent-experienced racial discrimination was directly associated with fathers' depressive symptoms. Fathers whose race was more central to them (racial centrality) had higher depressive symptoms when their adolescents had high racial discrimination experiences. Also, fathers' beliefs about how Black people are viewed by society (public regard) moderated the relation between adolescent-experienced racial discrimination and fathers' depressive symptoms differently based on adolescent gender. Adolescent gender also moderated the relation between fathers' personal feelings about being Black (private regard) and their depressive symptoms.

Conclusions

Overall, fathers' beliefs about their race, as well as the gender of their adolescents, play a role in their psychological health when their adolescents experience discrimination.

Talking About Sexting: Association Between Parental Factors and Quality of Communication About Sexting With Adolescent Children in Jewish and Arab Society in Israel

Sexting (sending and receiving sexual messages online), a legitimate means of communication if there is mutual consent, may put adolescent users at risk. Hence, parents must be able to address their children's sexuality and be capable of mediating the implications of sexting for them. Cultural differences may play a role in this important discourse. The current study sought to identify parental factors that lead to low-quality communication about adolescent sexting in Jewish and Arab societies in Israel. Participants included 427 Israeli parents (Jewish N = 242, 56.7%, Arab N = 185, 43.3%) who answered seven online questionnaires. Results revealed ethnic differences between Arab and Jewish parents with regard to the quality of parent-child communication about sexting. Arab parents tended more toward low-quality communication about sexting than did Jewish parents. Perceived severity of sexting and perceived susceptibility to sexting led to more low-quality communication by Arab than by Jewish parents. Mothers in both societies were better able to mediate sexting and displayed higher parental efficacy than did the fathers. These findings provide useful insights for therapists and parents into the link between parental factors and the quality of communication about sexting with adolescent children.

Themes and Theories Revisited: Perspectives on Processes in Family-Peer Relationships

Nearly thirty years ago, we invited a consortium of esteemed researchers to contribute to a volume entitled Family-Peer Relations: Modes of Linkage that provided a state-of-the-science appraisal of theory and research within the newly emerging discipline of family-peer relations. The volume's first chapter was titled, "Themes and Theories: Perspectives on Processes in Family-Peer Relationships", and its primary aims were to identify the processes in the family system that were posited to have a bearing on children's development in the peer system (and vice versa), characterize potential mechanisms of linkage, describe extant lines of investigation, appraise empirical accomplishments, and identify issues in need of further investigation. Here, nearly thirty years hence, we are pleased to have the opportunity to reappraise the theory and research on family-peer relations. In this article, we revisit the primary objectives that were addressed in our previously published "Themes and Theories" chapter but do so with the express purpose of evaluating the discipline's progress. Likewise, we also revisit our prior roadmap and associated calls-to-action to update these entities in light of past accomplishments, current limitations, and pressing sociocultural issues and concerns.

'He supported me 100%': Mexican-immigrant fathers, daughters, and adolescent sexual health

Objective: First and second generation Mexican-origin adolescents in the U.S. face social and economic disadvantage and sexual health disparities. Although fathers can support child and adolescent development, the literature has portrayed Mexican-origin immigrant fathers as emotionally distant and sexist. This study aims to treat migration as a social determinant of health to examine father-daughter relationships and adolescent sexual health in Mexican-origin immigrant families.Methods: Integrating qualitative data from life history interviews with 21 Mexican-origin young women in immigrant families with quantitative data on first and second generation Mexican-origin young women in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, this study describes father-daughter relationships, examines the association between father-daughter relationships and daughters' early sexual initiation, and considers the impact of migration on the father-daughter relationship and sexual health among Mexican-origin young women.Results: Qualitative data identify four types of father-daughter relationships: 'good,' hostile, distant, and conflicted. Supporting the qualitative patterns, quantitative data find that positive or 'good' father-daughter relationship quality is significantly associated with reduced risk of early sexual initiation. Importantly, father-daughter separation across borders and economic inequality facing immigrant families is associated with hostile or distant father-daughter relationship quality and increased risk of early sexual initiation.Conclusions: Reports of good father-daughter relationships are common and may protect against early sexual initiation in Mexican-origin immigrant families. Policies that keep families together and reduce economic inequality among immigrants may also reduce sexual health disparities among immigrant adolescents.

Preventing Teen Relationship Abuse and Sexual Assault through Bystander Training: Intervention Outcomes for School Personnel

The purpose of the current study was to examine the impact of exposure to Bringing in the Bystander-High School Curriculum (BITB-HSC) on school personnel, which included a seven session classroom curriculum for ninth through twelfth graders (student curriculum), a bystander training workshop for school personnel (school personnel workshop), and reading materials (handout). We examined how exposure to these various BITB-HSC intervention components was associated with school personnel's knowledge and bystander efficacy, intentions, and barriers specific to student relationship abuse (RA) and sexual assault (SA). Participants were 488 school personnel from 12 high schools in upper New England who completed the 4-month follow-up survey that assessed for intervention exposure (284 participants completed both the baseline and follow-up survey). Whereas 53% of participants were exposed to no intervention components, the other half of the sample were exposed to a combination of intervention components. Higher baseline knowledge and reactive bystander intentions were associated with subsequent exposure to both the student curriculum and the handout, and fewer barriers to bystander action predicted exposure to the school personnel workshop. Exposure to the school personnel workshop, student curriculum, and handout was associated with subsequent greater knowledge, exposure to the student curriculum predicted reactive bystander intentions, and exposure to the handout predicted higher reactive bystander intentions and bystander efficacy. Findings suggest that despite challenges with engagement, exposure to the BITB-HSC components may be a useful tool in improving school personnel's responses to RA and SA among high school students.

Menstrual health communication among Indian adolescents: A mixed-methods study

BACKGROUND

Research in health communication frequently views it as an information dissemination strategy, thus neglecting the intricacies involved in communicating a sensitive topic such as menstruation. The social patterning in menstrual communication, a taboo in India, and its consequent health-effects on adolescents are under-studied.

METHODS

We studied the social determinants of menstrual communication influencing menstrual- health through semi-structured interviews of 21 boys and girls each, 12 key-respondent interviews, followed by a cross-sectional survey of 1421 adolescents from Nashik district, India. We thematically analysed the qualitative data and fit multivariable logistic regression to model risk ratios.

FINDINGS

We found social disparities in adolescents' experiences of communication taboo regarding menstruation. While boys curbed their curiosity about the topic, girls too faced resistance to their experience-sharing and treatment-seeking for menstrual illnesses. The inequality in menstruation-related communication was evident as more boys than girls faced avoidance to their questions [IRR at 95%CI: 2.75 (2.04, 3.71)]], and fewer tribal than rural girls were communicated severe taboos (OR at 95% CI: 0.18 (0.09, 0.36))]. Girls who had been communicated severe (versus no/mild) taboos reported greater stress about menstrual staining (IRR at 95% CI: 1.31 (1.10, 1.57)], emphasizing the health consequences of such communication inequalities.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights the need to address gender and setting-specific communication experiences of adolescents in India, a patriarchal society. The inequality in communication needs attention as it creates unequal patterns in Indian adolescents' menstrual health and experiences, which may manifest as inequities in reproductive health-related outcomes even in their adult-lives.

Principal Sources of Information African American Fathers Draw Upon to Inform their Sons about Sex and Sexual Health Risks

BACKGROUND

While parent-child communication about sex is associated with safer sexual practices among African American youth, there is a noticeable gap in the representation of fathers' perspectives on talking with their sons about sexual and reproductive health. Moreover, less is known about the sources from which fathers seek information to inform such conversations.

PURPOSE

To explore the sources of information used by African-American fathers that formulate the basis of conversations they have with their sons about sex and sexual health risks.

METHODS

This was a qualitative study of African American fathers (N = 29) who had sons, ages 10-15 years. The fathers participated in one of five focus groups conducted across urban and rural North Carolina communities. Data were collected using a 2-hour, audio-recorded semi-structured interview.

RESULTS

Qualitative content analysis revealed three themes: a) fathers' personal stories and testimonies; b) instructional media preferences; and c) religious teachings and moral examples. The findings indicated that African-American fathers considered father-son sex education an important and critical aspect of their fathering role. Additionally, we found that the content of father-son sexual and reproductive health communication emphasized the importance of sexual risk reduction, open communication, and sharing their values and beliefs regarding initiation of and appropriate context for sex. The findings have implications for social work, nursing, and public health.

Sexuality as taboo: using interpretative phenomenological analysis and a Foucauldian lens to explore fathers' practices in talking to their children about puberty, relationships and reproduction

Background

Fathers can play an important role in their children's learning about relationships and sexuality but we know very little about the father's lived experience in this regard.

Aim

To explore eight fathers' perceptions and experiences of discussing puberty, relationships and reproduction with their 10-year-old children.

Methods

The paper commences with a genealogical analysis of the history of sex education in England from the Public Health Act of 1848 to the present day. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used as both a methodology and a method. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with each father and results were analysed ideographically, followed by analysis across the group. Interpretations were developed using a Foucauldian lens of governmentality and biopower.

Findings

The paper explores how synthesis of IPA with a Foucauldian lens revealed significant tensions between the fathers' cognitions, accounts and behaviours, which were underpinned by an enduring perception of sexuality as taboo.

Conclusion

By providing a contextualised understanding of the fathers' practices, this study demonstrates that a more informed approach to health promotion strategy can be achieved and the implications for nursing are explored.

Father 2 Son: The Impact of African American Father-Son Sexual Communication on African American Adolescent Sons' Sexual Behaviors

Parent-child sexual communication has been associated with reducing adolescent sexual risk behaviors. Limited research on parent-child sexual communication has been conducted on African American (AA) adolescent males who are at increased risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS. The purpose of this research was to examine AA father-son sexual communication and the effect of contextual factors on the sexual risk behaviors. The final sample consisted of 96 AA adolescent males, ages 16-21 years. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the variables of interest (neighborhood characteristics, father-son closeness and connectedness, father-son communication, sexual permissiveness, condom attitudes, sexual risk behaviors). A path model was developed and tested. Results demonstrated that AA father-son closeness and connectedness were related to father-son communication. AA father-son communication was negatively related to sons' permissiveness and positively related to condom attitudes. Sons' permissiveness positively predicted their sexual risk behaviors. AA sons' condom attitudes did not negatively or positively predict their sexual risk behaviors. The findings from this study demonstrate that AA father-son communication is an important factor in decreasing AA adolescent males' sexual risk behaviors and HIV risk.

The silencing effects of the childhood innocence ideal: the perceptions and practices of fathers in educating their children about sexuality

This study employed Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis to explore eight fathers' perceptions and practices in talking to their ten year old children about puberty, relationships and reproduction. The fathers participated in face to face interviews which were analysed idiographically initially, followed by analysis at the group level. Interpretations were then developed through critical application of a Foucauldian lens of governmentality and biopower. The results revealed a tension between the fathers' cognitions, accounts and behaviours. Their practices were largely characterised by silence yet they reported positive attitudes towards children's sexuality education and perceived themselves as equipped and willing to take on the role of sexuality educator. They also reported enjoying open relationships with their children. Interpretations centred on contradictions and conflict between the majority of the fathers' aspirations and the compelling nature of the childhood innocence discourse as a technology of governmentality. Whilst all of the fathers felt that it was in their children's interests to learn about sexuality, all but one adhered to hegemonic protective discourses and unquestioningly integrated their normalising effects into their fathering practices which, it is argued, may paradoxically render their children more vulnerable both now and in the future.

Intergenerational Associations in Sexual Onset: Mediating Influences of Parental and Peer Sexual Teasing and Youth Substance Use

PURPOSE

The prospective intergenerational association between fathers' age of onset of sexual intercourse and their son's or daughter's age of onset of oral sex or intercourse up to 30 years later was examined using survival analyses across child ages 11-12 years to 17-18 years. In addition, novel constructs of parental and peer sexual teasing (at ages 11-12 years) and general risk factors of child substance use onset (alcohol and marijuana) before or concurrent with sexual onset were assessed as predictors of children's sexual onset and mediators of intergenerational associations.

METHODS

Hypotheses were tested using the Oregon Youth Study Intergenerational sample, including 100 fathers and 176 children (46% girls).

RESULTS

Univariate findings indicated that children were at risk for earlier sexual onset, provided their fathers had onset of sex at younger ages; in addition, child alcohol and marijuana onset and parental, but not peer, sexual teasing predicted earlier age of sexual onset for children. Multivariate findings indicated that child alcohol onset fully mediated the intergenerational association in age of sexual onset, whereas parental teasing and child marijuana onset did not explain the intergenerational association.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings of intergenerational associations in risk of sexual onset indicate that mechanisms of this association should be further examined. Substance use onset also confers risk for earlier child sexual onset, with alcohol use onset accounting for intergenerational associations; thus, substance use onset should be a prime target for prevention. Parental sexual teasing warrants further study as a mechanism related to possibly unintended encouragement of youth's early sexual onset.

Myths of Sexual Economics Theory

The authors of sexual economics theory (Baumeister & Twenge, 2002; Baumeister & Vohs, 2004) argue that sex is a female commodity that women exchange for men’s resources; therefore, women (not men) are responsible for the cultural suppression of sexuality, ostensibly to preserve the value of sex. In this article, I describe the central tenets of sexual economics theory and summarize a growing body of research contradicting them. I also explain the negative implications of the claims of sexual economics theory for gender equality and heterosexual relationships. Researchers, clinicians, and educators engaged in understanding human sexuality may use the arguments provided in this article to counteract gender myths. This article also serves as a case study of how feminist scholars can employ empirical evidence to weaken a popularized, patriarchal theory.

African-American Fathers' Perspectives on Facilitators and Barriers to Father-Son Sexual Health Communication

African-American males ages 13 through 24 are disproportionately affected by sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), accounting for over half of all HIV infections in this age group in the United States. Clear communication between African-American parents and their youth about sexual health is associated with higher rates of sexual abstinence, condom use, and intent to delay initiation of sexual intercourse. However, little is known about African-American fathers' perceptions of what facilitates and inhibits sexual health communication with their preadolescent and adolescent sons. We conducted focus groups with 29 African-American fathers of sons ages 10-15 to explore perceived facilitators and barriers for father-son communication about sexual health. Participants were recruited from barbershops in metropolitan and rural North Carolina communities highly affected by STIs and HIV, and data were analyzed using content analysis. Three factors facilitated father-son communication: (a) fathers' acceptance of their roles and responsibilities; (b) a positive father-son relationship; and (c) fathers' ability to speak directly to their sons about sex. We also identified three barriers: (a) fathers' difficulty in initiating sexual health discussions with their sons; (b) sons' developmental readiness for sexual health information; and (c) fathers' lack of experience in talking with their own fathers about sex. These findings have implications for father-focused prevention interventions aimed at reducing risky sexual behaviors in adolescent African-American males. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Values that Fathers Communicate to Sons about Sex, Sexuality, Relationships, and Marriage

African American males between ages 13 and 24 are disproportionately affected by unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV/AIDS; indeed, they account for 50% of HIV infections among all youth. Clear communication between parents and their youth about sex is associated with higher rates of sexual abstinence, condom use, and intent to delay initiation of sexual intercourse, which can prevent STIs and unintended pregnancy. However, barriers exist for parents to educate their youth about sexual health. The purpose of this article is to explore the values fathers communicate to their sons to prevent their risky sexual behaviors that lead to STIs, HIV, and adolescent parenthood. This was a qualitative study conducted from May and June 2015. African American fathers (N = 29) who had sons, ages 10 to 15 years, participated in five focus groups across metropolitan and rural North Carolina communities in barbershops. A qualitative content analysis revealed four themes regarding areas that fathers imparted their values onto their sons to protect them from sexual health risks: (a) sex, (b) sexuality, (c) relationships, and (d) marriage. The findings have implications for social work and public health practice.

21st Century Parent-Child Sex Communication in the United States: A Process Review

Parent-child sex communication results in the transmission of family expectations, societal values, and role modeling of sexual health risk-reduction strategies. Parent-child sex communication's potential to curb negative sexual health outcomes has sustained a multidisciplinary effort to better understand the process and its impact on the development of healthy sexual attitudes and behaviors among adolescents. This review advances what is known about the process of sex communication in the United States by reviewing studies published from 2003 to 2015. We used the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PsycINFO, SocINDEX, and PubMed, and the key terms "parent child" AND "sex education" for the initial query; we included 116 original articles for analysis. Our review underscores long-established factors that prevent parents from effectively broaching and sustaining talks about sex with their children and has also identified emerging concerns unique to today's parenting landscape. Parental factors salient to sex communication are established long before individuals become parents and are acted upon by influences beyond the home. Child-focused communication factors likewise describe a maturing audience that is far from captive. The identification of both enduring and emerging factors that affect how sex communication occurs will inform subsequent work that will result in more positive sexual health outcomes for adolescents.

Parent-Youth Communication to Reduce At-Risk Sexual Behavior: A Systematic Literature Review

There are nearly 110 million cases of sexually transmitted infections (STI) in the United States. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that annually there are more than 19.7 million new STI cases. Of those, more than half are accounted for by youth aged 15 to 24 years. Although some STIs are not considered to be life threatening, they can lead to severe health problems, risk of HIV infection or infertility if they are not properly treated. Some research has shown that parent-youth communication can reduce youth's at-risk sexual behaviors. The following is a systematic review of the literature on parent-youth sexual communication and family-level interventions designed to reduce risky sexual behavior in youth.

Factors associated with parental communication with young people about sexual and reproductive health

Purpose

Available studies on parent-child communication about sexual and reproductive health in Ghana have largely focused on assessing communication frequency, barriers, and who communicates with whom within the family. The purpose of this paper is to examine parental and family contextual factors that predict parental communication with young people about sexual and reproductive health.

Design/methodology/approach

A cross-sectional interviewer-administered survey was conducted among 790 parents selected through a multistage sampling technique. The Cronbach’s α statistic was used to assess various parental and family contextual constructs on parent-child communication about sexual and reproductive health. Separate hierarchical multiple regression models for mothers and fathers were constructed to assess predictors of parental communication about sexual and reproductive health.

Findings

Nearly the same factors predicted mothers’ and fathers’ communication with young people about sexual and reproductive health matters. The predictors for both mothers and fathers included high socioeconomic status (SES), family religiousity, parent discipline, perceived parent sexual knowledge and parent trustworthiness. Parent permissiveness predicted only for fathers.

Social implications

Parental communication on sexual and reproductive health is influenced by high SES, family religiousity, parent sexual knowledge, parent discipline and trustworthiness. Interventional programmes on communication about sexual and reproductive health need to take cognisance of these factors to improve parent-child communication about sexual and reproductive health.

Originality/value

This paper adds to the limited evidence on parent-child communication about sexual and reproductive health in Ghana, by examining parental and family contextual factors that influence parental communication with young people about sexual and reproductive health.

The Amagugu Intervention: A Conceptual Framework for Increasing HIV Disclosure and Parent-Led Communication about Health among HIV-Infected Parents with HIV-Uninfected Primary School-Aged Children

Advances in access to HIV prevention and treatment have reduced vertical transmission of HIV, with most children born to HIV-infected parents being HIV-uninfected themselves. A major challenge that HIV-infected parents face is disclosure of their HIV status to their predominantly HIV-uninfected children. Their children enter middle childhood and early adolescence facing many challenges associated with parental illness and hospitalization, often exacerbated by stigma and a lack of access to health education and support. Increasingly, evidence suggests that primary school-aged children have the developmental capacity to grasp concepts of health and illness, including HIV, and that in the absence of parent-led communication and education about these issues, HIV-exposed children may be at increased risk of psychological and social problems. The Amagugu intervention is a six-session home-based intervention, delivered by lay counselors, which aims to increase parenting capacity to disclose their HIV status and offer health education to their primary school-aged children. The intervention includes information and activities on disclosure, health care engagement, and custody planning. An uncontrolled pre-post-evaluation study with 281 families showed that the intervention was feasible, acceptable, and effective in increasing maternal disclosure. The aim of this paper is to describe the conceptual model of the Amagugu intervention, as developed post-evaluation, showing the proposed pathways of risk that Amagugu aims to disrupt through its intervention targets, mechanisms, and activities; and to present a summary of results from the large-scale evaluation study of Amagugu to demonstrate the acceptability and feasibility of the intervention model. This relatively low-intensity home-based intervention led to: increased HIV disclosure to children, improvements in mental health for mother and child, and improved health care engagement and custody planning for the child. The intervention model demonstrates the potential for disclosure interventions to include pre-adolescent HIV education and prevention for primary school-aged children.

Social Networks Influencing Black Girls’ Interpretations of Chris Brown’s Violence Against Rihanna

This study identifies the social networks used by urban Black girls to interpret a highly publicized episode of dating violence and ensuing conflicts between hip-hop stars Chris Brown and Rihanna. Forty-three adolescent Black girls (age 11-17 years) were asked how they heard about the relationship conflicts and what they thought about them. The media, school peers, friends, and family members emerged as the key social networks participants relied on when gathering information about and interpreting reported incidents. The mainstream media was seen as portraying Brown, the perpetrator, negatively, whereas school peers, friends, and family were seen as portraying Brown in more mixed or positive ways. The degree to which participants viewed each source as influential depended on whether the source was seen as generally trustworthy and knowledgeable about hip-hop. While the media was a frequently cited source of information, participants did not trust the mainstream media’s analyses. In contrast, hip-hop media was viewed as the most unbiased and accurate information source. The importance of these networks in supporting healthy relationships for Black girls is discussed.

Father Knows Best: Paternal Presence and Sexual Debut in African-American Adolescents Living in Poverty

Adolescents found within single-parent families without a residential father have reported higher levels of sexual debut and higher levels of reported pregnancy. Using data from the Mobile Youth Survey, the purpose of this study is to determine the impact of the presence of a father figure on the sexual debut of African-American adolescents living in poverty and to determine if gender moderates the relationship between the presence of a father figure and sexual debut. Additionally, this study will examine the family processes in which the presence of a father figure can affect the sexual debut of African-American adolescents who live within economically and socially disadvantaged communities. The results revealed that African-American adolescents reporting a father figure had lower rates of sexual debut than those youth reporting no father figure. Gender was not found to be a significant moderator in the relationship between father figure presence and sexual debut. However, existing curfews and family rules did account for some of the effects of presence of a father figure and sexual debut. The results suggest that when adolescents have a father figure in their lives, it may reduce the possibility of early sexual debut.

Parent-based adolescent sexual health interventions and effect on communication outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analyses

CONTEXT

Parent-based adolescent sexual health interventions aim to reduce sexual risk behaviors by bolstering parental protective behaviors. Few studies of theory use, methods, applications, delivery and outcomes of parent-based interventions have been conducted.

METHODS

A systematic search of databases for the period 1998-2013 identified 28 published trials of U.S. parent-based interventions to examine theory use, setting, reach, delivery mode, dose and effects on parent-child communication. Established coding schemes were used to assess use of theory and describe methods employed to achieve behavioral change; intervention effects were explored in meta-analyses.

RESULTS

Most interventions were conducted with minority parents in group sessions or via self-paced activities; interventions averaged seven hours, and most used theory extensively. Meta-analyses found improvements in sexual health communication: Analysis of 11 controlled trials indicated a medium effect on increasing communication (Cohen's d, 0.5), and analysis of nine trials found a large effect on increasing parental comfort with communication (0.7); effects were positive regardless of delivery mode or intervention dose. Intervention participants were 68% more likely than controls to report increased communication and 75% more likely to report increased comfort.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings point to gaps in the range of programs examined in published trials-for example, interventions for parents of sexual minority youth, programs for custodial grandparents and faith-based services. Yet they provide support for the effectiveness of parent-based interventions in improving communication. Innovative delivery approaches could extend programs' reach, and further research on sexual health outcomes would facilitate the meta-analysis of intervention effectiveness in improving adolescent sexual health behaviors.

Will it help? Identifying socialization discourses that promote sexual risk and sexual health among African American youth

Because much of the existing research examining sexual communication to African American youth focuses on demographic and parental factors predicting sexual risk behaviors, less is known about factors predicting sexual health, and little is understood about the contributions of peer communications. The current study aimed to expand existing approaches by assessing which socialization discourses communicated by parents and peers contribute to sexual risk and health outcomes (sexual assertiveness, positive sexual affect, and condom self-efficacy). Participants were 631 African American undergraduates (73% female) who indicated the extent to which they had received from their parents and peers each of 28 messages representing four cultural discourses: abstinence, relational sex, sex positive, and gendered sexual roles. As expected, parents were perceived to emphasize relational sex and abstinence messages more than peers, and peers were perceived to communicate sex-positive and gendered sex role messages more than parents. Greater exposure to abstinence messages predicted lower levels of sexual experimentation, whereas exposure to sex-positive messages predicted higher levels. In addition, exposure to relational sex and sex-positive messages predicted higher levels of sexual assertiveness and positive sexual affect. Implications are discussed concerning sexual communications that could help Black youth develop healthy sexual perspectives.

Effects of media messages on parent-child sexual communication

Parent-child communication about sex is an important reproductive health outcome. Consistent, positive perceptions of communication by parents and children can promote behavioral outcomes such as delaying sexual debut and increasing contraceptive use. The authors investigated whether exposure to messages from the Parents Speak Up National Campaign (PSUNC), a social marketing campaign to promote increased parent-child sexual communication, led to increased children's self-reports of communication. Also, the authors examined whether PSUNC message exposure increased agreement about communication between parents and their children. In a randomized experimental design, the authors surveyed children of parents exposed and not exposed to PSUNC messages. Parents and children completed online instruments asking matched questions about sexual attitudes, beliefs, and communication. The authors matched 394 parents and children for analysis. They used ordinal logistic regression modeling and kappa statistics. Children of parents exposed to PSUNC messages were more likely to (a) report sexual communication than were those not exposed and (b) agree with their parents about extent and content. Parent-child pairs of the same gender, younger pairs, and non-White pairs were more likely to agree. Overall, PSUNC message exposure appears to have promoted more extensive sexual communication. Future research should examine behavioral mechanisms and message receptivity among subgroups of parents and children.

Mothers, fathers, sons, and daughters: gender differences in factors associated with parent-child communication about sexual topics

BACKGROUND

In the United States, nearly half of high school students are sexually active, and adolescents experience high rates of unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Parents can have an important influence on their children's sexual behaviour, but many parents do not talk with their children about sexual topics. Research has shown significant differences in parent-child communication about sexual topics depending on the gender of both the parent and the child. Little is known, however, about the reasons for these gender differences. The purpose of this paper is to describe how factors associated with parent-child communication about sexual topics differ by gender.

METHODS

Data are from a nationwide online survey with 829 fathers and 1,113 mothers of children aged 10 to 14. For each of the four gender groups (fathers of sons, fathers of daughters, mothers of sons, mothers of daughters), we calculated the distribution of responses to questions assessing (1) parent-child communication about sex-related topics, and (2) factors associated with that communication. We used chi-square tests to determine whether the distributions differed and the false discovery rate control to reduce the likelihood of type I errors.

RESULTS

With both sons and daughters, fathers communicated less about sexual topics than mothers did. Fathers also had lower levels of many characteristics that facilitate communication about sex (e.g., lower self-efficacy and lower expectations that talking to their children about sex would have positive outcomes). Compared with parents of sons, parents of daughters (both mothers and fathers) talked more about sexual topics, were more concerned about potential harmful consequences of sexual activity, and were more disapproving of their child having sex at an early age.

CONCLUSIONS

Using a large national sample, this study confirms findings from previous studies showing gender differences in parent-child communication about sexual topics and identifies gender differences in factors that may influence parent-child communication about sexual topics. Interventions designed to support parent-child communication about sexual topics should emphasize to both mothers and fathers the importance of talking to sons as well as daughters. Fathers need particular support to overcome the barriers to communication they encounter.