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Angelike T, Musch J. A comparative evaluation of measures to assess randomness in human-generated sequences. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:7831-7848. [PMID: 38954396 PMCID: PMC11362514 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02456-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Whether and how well people can behave randomly is of interest in many areas of psychological research. The ability to generate randomness is often investigated using random number generation (RNG) tasks, in which participants are asked to generate a sequence of numbers that is as random as possible. However, there is no consensus on how best to quantify the randomness of responses in human-generated sequences. Traditionally, psychologists have used measures of randomness that directly assess specific features of human behavior in RNG tasks, such as the tendency to avoid repetition or to systematically generate numbers that have not been generated in the recent choice history, a behavior known as cycling. Other disciplines have proposed measures of randomness that are based on a more rigorous mathematical foundation and are less restricted to specific features of randomness, such as algorithmic complexity. More recently, variants of these measures have been proposed to assess systematic patterns in short sequences. We report the first large-scale integrative study to compare measures of specific aspects of randomness with entropy-derived measures based on information theory and measures based on algorithmic complexity. We compare the ability of the different measures to discriminate between human-generated sequences and truly random sequences based on atmospheric noise, and provide a systematic analysis of how the usefulness of randomness measures is affected by sequence length. We conclude with recommendations that can guide the selection of appropriate measures of randomness in psychological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Angelike
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Department of Psychological Assessment and Differential Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Jochen Musch
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Department of Psychological Assessment and Differential Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
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2
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Castillo L, León-Villagrá P, Chater N, Sanborn A. Explaining the flaws in human random generation as local sampling with momentum. PLoS Comput Biol 2024; 20:e1011739. [PMID: 38181041 PMCID: PMC10796055 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024] Open
Abstract
In many tasks, human behavior is far noisier than is optimal. Yet when asked to behave randomly, people are typically too predictable. We argue that these apparently contrasting observations have the same origin: the operation of a general-purpose local sampling algorithm for probabilistic inference. This account makes distinctive predictions regarding random sequence generation, not predicted by previous accounts-which suggests that randomness is produced by inhibition of habitual behavior, striving for unpredictability. We verify these predictions in two experiments: people show the same deviations from randomness when randomly generating from non-uniform or recently-learned distributions. In addition, our data show a novel signature behavior, that people's sequences have too few changes of trajectory, which argues against the specific local sampling algorithms that have been proposed in past work with other tasks. Using computational modeling, we show that local sampling where direction is maintained across trials best explains our data, which suggests it may be used in other tasks too. While local sampling has previously explained why people are unpredictable in standard cognitive tasks, here it also explains why human random sequences are not unpredictable enough.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Castillo
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Pablo León-Villagrá
- Cognitive, Linguistic & Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, United States of America
| | - Nick Chater
- Warwick Business School, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Sanborn
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
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3
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Mantas V, Kotoula V, Pehlivanidis A. Exploring randomness in autism. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15751. [PMID: 37529214 PMCID: PMC10389071 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The fast, intuitive and autonomous system 1 along with the slow, analytical and more logical system 2 constitute the dual system processing model of decision making. Whether acting independently or influencing each other both systems would, to an extent, rely on randomness in order to reach a decision. The role of randomness, however, would be more pronounced when arbitrary choices need to be made, typically engaging system 1. The present exploratory study aims to capture the expression of a possible innate randomness mechanism, as proposed by the authors, by trying to isolate system 1 and examine arbitrary decision making in autistic participants with high functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Methods Autistic participants withhigh functioning ASD and an age and gender matched comparison group performed the random number generation task. The task was modified to limit the contribution of working memory and allow any innate randomness mechanisms expressed through system 1, to emerge. Results Utilizing a standard analyses approach, the random number sequences produced by autistic individuals and the comparison group did not differ in their randomness characteristics. No significant differences were identified when the sequences were examined using a moving window approach. When machine learning was used, random sequences' features could discriminate the groups with relatively high accuracy. Conclusions Our findings indicate the possibility that individual patterns during random sequence production could be consistent enough between groups to allow for an accurate discrimination between the autistic and the comparison group. In order to draw firm conclusions around innate randomness and further validate our experiment, our findings need to be replicated in a bigger sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasileios Mantas
- 1st Department of Psychiatry, Aiginiteion Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Attica, Greece
| | | | - Artemios Pehlivanidis
- 1st Department of Psychiatry, Aiginiteion Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Attica, Greece
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Schlosser L, Naef N, Ehrler M, Wehrle F, Greutmann M, Oxenius A, Tuura R, Latal B, Brugger P. Counting on random number generation: Uncovering mild executive dysfunction in congenital heart disease. Brain Cogn 2023; 166:105955. [PMID: 36709638 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2023.105955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Congenital heart disease (CHD) is associated with various neurocognitive deficits, particularly targeting executive functions (EFs), of which random number generation (RNG) is one indicator. RNG has, however, never been investigated in CHD. We administered the Mental Dice Task (MDT) to 67 young adults with CHD and 55 healthy controls. This 1-minute-task requires the generation of numbers 1 to 6 in a random sequence. RNG performance was correlated with a global EF score. Participants underwent MRI to examine structural-volumetric correlates of RNG. Compared to controls, CHD patients showed increased backward counting, reflecting deficient inhibition of automatized behavior. They also lacked a small-number bias (higher frequency of small relative to large numbers). RNG performance was associated with global EF scores in both groups. In CHD patients, MRI revealed an inverse association of counting bias with most of the volumetric measurements and the amount of small numbers was positively associated with corpus callosum volume, suggesting callosal involvement in the "pseudoneglect in number space". In conclusion, we found an impaired RNG performance in CHD patients, which is associated with brain volumetric measures. RNG, reportedly resistant to learning effects, may be an ideal task for the longitudinal assessment of EFs in patients with CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ladina Schlosser
- Child Development Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Steinwiesstrasse 75, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; University Heart Center, Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Nadja Naef
- Child Development Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Steinwiesstrasse 75, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Ehrler
- Child Development Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Steinwiesstrasse 75, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Flavia Wehrle
- Child Development Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Steinwiesstrasse 75, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Neonatology and Intensive Care, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Greutmann
- University Heart Center, Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Angela Oxenius
- University Heart Center, Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ruth Tuura
- Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beatrice Latal
- Child Development Centre, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Steinwiesstrasse 75, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Brugger
- Psychiatric University Clinic PUK, University Hospital Zurich, Lenggstrasse 31, PO Box 1931, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland; Neuropsychology Unit, Valens Rehabilitation Centre, Taminaplatz 1, 7317 Valens, Switzerland
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5
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Verma AK, Chivukula U. The effect of an affect, sensation seeking, and premeditation on risky decision-making: Conditional process analysis. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0281324. [PMID: 36745594 PMCID: PMC9901752 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Risks often accompany available choices in decision-making, particularly where the monetary factor gets involved. Researchers have explored the pathways underlying risky decision-making for decades, but most of these pathways have explored the factors individually rather than through a holistic approach. The present study examines the role of personality, cognitive, and biological components in risky decision-making. Here, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) paradigm is used to study the targeted outcome variable (IGT payoff) in 281 healthy students. Two moderation-mediation models hypothesized sensation seeking and lack of premeditation as predictors of IGT payoff. Positive and negative moods prior to IGT administration were considered mediators, and age and gender as moderators in predicting payoff. The hypothesized models were tested using conditional process analysis. Results indicate that both predictors significantly negatively predict payoff while moderated by gender and age categories. Interestingly, the indirect relationships apply to 21-34 years old men and 21-25 years old women. These age and gender-specific findings in apparently healthy participants highlight the need for replicating the current research in different age groups and clinical populations involving maladaptive decision-making patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adarsh K. Verma
- Centre for Health Psychology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
- * E-mail:
| | - Usha Chivukula
- Centre for Health Psychology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
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6
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Zenil H, Marshall JAR, Tegnér J. Approximations of algorithmic and structural complexity validate cognitive-behavioral experimental results. Front Comput Neurosci 2023; 16:956074. [PMID: 36761393 PMCID: PMC9904762 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2022.956074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Being able to objectively characterize the intrinsic complexity of behavioral patterns resulting from human or animal decisions is fundamental for deconvolving cognition and designing autonomous artificial intelligence systems. Yet complexity is difficult in practice, particularly when strings are short. By numerically approximating algorithmic (Kolmogorov) complexity (K), we establish an objective tool to characterize behavioral complexity. Next, we approximate structural (Bennett's Logical Depth) complexity (LD) to assess the amount of computation required for generating a behavioral string. We apply our toolbox to three landmark studies of animal behavior of increasing sophistication and degree of environmental influence, including studies of foraging communication by ants, flight patterns of fruit flies, and tactical deception and competition (e.g., predator-prey) strategies. We find that ants harness the environmental condition in their internal decision process, modulating their behavioral complexity accordingly. Our analysis of flight (fruit flies) invalidated the common hypothesis that animals navigating in an environment devoid of stimuli adopt a random strategy. Fruit flies exposed to a featureless environment deviated the most from Levy flight, suggesting an algorithmic bias in their attempt to devise a useful (navigation) strategy. Similarly, a logical depth analysis of rats revealed that the structural complexity of the rat always ends up matching the structural complexity of the competitor, with the rats' behavior simulating algorithmic randomness. Finally, we discuss how experiments on how humans perceive randomness suggest the existence of an algorithmic bias in our reasoning and decision processes, in line with our analysis of the animal experiments. This contrasts with the view of the mind as performing faulty computations when presented with randomized items. In summary, our formal toolbox objectively characterizes external constraints on putative models of the "internal" decision process in humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Zenil
- Machine Learning Group, Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Kellogg College, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Oxford Immune Algorithmics Ltd., Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - James A. R. Marshall
- Complex Systems Modelling Research Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Jesper Tegnér
- Living Systems Laboratory, Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
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7
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Rajpal H, Mediano PAM, Rosas FE, Timmermann CB, Brugger S, Muthukumaraswamy S, Seth AK, Bor D, Carhart-Harris RL, Jensen HJ. Psychedelics and schizophrenia: Distinct alterations to Bayesian inference. Neuroimage 2022; 263:119624. [PMID: 36108798 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia and states induced by certain psychotomimetic drugs may share some physiological and phenomenological properties, but they differ in fundamental ways: one is a crippling chronic mental disease, while the others are temporary, pharmacologically-induced states presently being explored as treatments for mental illnesses. Building towards a deeper understanding of these different alterations of normal consciousness, here we compare the changes in neural dynamics induced by LSD and ketamine (in healthy volunteers) against those associated with schizophrenia, as observed in resting-state M/EEG recordings. While both conditions exhibit increased neural signal diversity, our findings reveal that this is accompanied by an increased transfer entropy from the front to the back of the brain in schizophrenia, versus an overall reduction under the two drugs. Furthermore, we show that these effects can be reproduced via different alterations of standard Bayesian inference applied on a computational model based on the predictive processing framework. In particular, the effects observed under the drugs are modelled as a reduction of the precision of the priors, while the effects of schizophrenia correspond to an increased precision of sensory information. These findings shed new light on the similarities and differences between schizophrenia and two psychotomimetic drug states, and have potential implications for the study of consciousness and future mental health treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hardik Rajpal
- Centre for Complexity Science, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom; Department of Mathematics, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom; Public Policy Program, The Alan Turing Institute, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Pedro A M Mediano
- Department of Computing, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom; Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Psychology, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Fernando E Rosas
- Centre for Complexity Science, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Data Science Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Informatics, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher B Timmermann
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan Brugger
- Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre, School of Psychology, Cardiff University, United Kingdom; Centre for Academic Mental Health, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | - Anil K Seth
- School of Engineering and Informatics, University of Sussex, United Kingdom; CIFAR Program on Brain, Mind, and Consciousness, Toronto, Canada
| | - Daniel Bor
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Psychology, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robin L Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Psychedelics Division, Neuroscape, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, US
| | - Henrik J Jensen
- Centre for Complexity Science, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom; Department of Mathematics, Imperial College London, South Kensington, London, United Kingdom; Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
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8
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Saloner R, Lobo JD, Paolillo EW, Campbell LM, Letendre SL, Cherner M, Grant I, Heaton RK, Ellis RJ, Roesch SC, Moore DJ, Grant I, Letendre SL, Ellis RJ, Marcotte TD, Franklin D, McCutchan JA, Smith DM, Heaton RK, Atkinson JH, Dawson M, Fennema-Notestine C, Taylor MJ, Theilmann R, Gamst AC, Cushman C, Abramson I, Vaida F, Sacktor N, Rogalski V, Morgello S, Simpson D, Mintz L, McCutchan JA, Collier A, Marra C, Storey S, Gelman B, Head E, Clifford D, Al-Lozi M, Teshome M. Identification of Youthful Neurocognitive Trajectories in Adults Aging with HIV: A Latent Growth Mixture Model. AIDS Behav 2022; 26:1966-1979. [PMID: 34878634 PMCID: PMC9046348 DOI: 10.1007/s10461-021-03546-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Despite the neurocognitive risks of aging with HIV, initial cross-sectional data suggest a subpopulation of older people with HIV (PWH) possess youthful neurocognition (NC) characteristic of SuperAgers (SA). Here we characterize longitudinal NC trajectories of older PWH and their convergent validity with baseline SA status, per established SuperAging criteria in PWH, and baseline biopsychosocial factors. Growth mixture modeling (GMM) identified longitudinal NC classes in 184 older (age ≥ 50-years) PWH with 1–5 years of follow-up. Classes were defined using ‘peak-age’ global T-scores, which compare performance to a normative sample of 25-year-olds. 3-classes were identified: Class 1Stable Elite (n = 31 [16.8%], high baseline peak-age T-scores with flat trajectory); Class 2Quadratic Average (n = 100 [54.3%], intermediate baseline peak-age T-scores with u-shaped trajectory); Class 3Quadratic Low (n = 53 [28.8%], low baseline peak-age T-scores with u-shaped trajectory). Baseline predictors of Class 1Stable Elite included SA status, younger age, higher cognitive and physiologic reserve, and fewer subjective cognitive difficulties. This GMM analysis supports the construct validity of SuperAging in older PWH through identification of a subgroup with longitudinally-stable, youthful neurocognition and robust biopsychosocial health.
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9
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Overman KE, Choi DM, Leung K, Shaevitz JW, Berman GJ. Measuring the repertoire of age-related behavioral changes in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS Comput Biol 2022; 18:e1009867. [PMID: 35202388 PMCID: PMC8903287 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging affects almost all aspects of an organism—its morphology, its physiology, its behavior. Isolating which biological mechanisms are regulating these changes, however, has proven difficult, potentially due to our inability to characterize the full repertoire of an animal’s behavior across the lifespan. Using data from fruit flies (D. melanogaster) we measure the full repertoire of behaviors as a function of age. We observe a sexually dimorphic pattern of changes in the behavioral repertoire during aging. Although the stereotypy of the behaviors and the complexity of the repertoire overall remains relatively unchanged, we find evidence that the observed alterations in behavior can be explained by changing the fly’s overall energy budget, suggesting potential connections between metabolism, aging, and behavior. Aging is a ubiquitous biological phenomenon that affects many aspects of an animal’s appearance, physiology, and behavior. Our understanding of how changes in physiology lead to behavioral changes, however, has been partially limited by our ability to robustly quantify how behavior alters over timescales of days and weeks. In this study, we measure a large repertoire of behaviors of fruit flies at various ages, finding how the actions the animals perform shift with age. We observe a difference between the aging dynamics of male and female flies, and we show that many of these changes can be explained with a model of energy consumption, leading us to make predictions as to the role of metabolism in changes in aging behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E. Overman
- Department of Physics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Daniel M. Choi
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Kawai Leung
- Department of Physics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Joshua W. Shaevitz
- Department of Physics and Lewis-Sigler Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Gordon J. Berman
- Department of Physics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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10
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Biesaga M, Talaga S, Nowak A. The Effect of Context and Individual Differences in Human-Generated Randomness. Cogn Sci 2021; 45:e13072. [PMID: 34913501 PMCID: PMC9285827 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Many psychological studies have shown that human-generated sequences are hardly ever random in the strict mathematical sense. However, what remains an open question is the degree to which this (in)ability varies between people and is affected by contextual factors. Herein, we investigated this problem. In two studies, we used a modern, robust measure of randomness based on algorithmic information theory to assess human-generated series. In Study 1 ( N = 183 ), in a factorial design with task description as a between-subjects variable, we tested the effects of context and mental fatigue on human-generated randomness. In Study 2 ( N = 266 ), in online research, in experimental design, we further investigated the effect of mental fatigue on the randomness of human-generated series and the relationship between the need for cognition (NFC) and the ability to produce random-like series. Results of Study 1 show that the activation of the ability to produce random-like series depends on the relevance of the contextual cues ( χ 2 ( 2 ) = 7.9828 , p = . 0192 ), whether they activate known representations of a random series generator and consequently help to avoid the production of trivial sequences. Our findings from both studies on the effect of mental fatigue (Study 1 - t ( 47 , 529.5568 ) = - 18.62 , p < . 001 ; Study 2 - F ( e d f = 3.587 , R e f . d f = 3.587 ) = 11.863 , p < . 0001 ) and cognitive motivation ( t ( 180 ) = 2.66 , p = . 009 ) demonstrate that regardless of the context or task's novelty people quickly lose interest in the random series generation. Therefore, their performance decreases over time. However, people high in the NFC can maintain the cognitive motivation for a longer period and consequently on average generate more random series. In general, our results suggest that when contextual cues and intrinsic constraints are in optimal interaction people can temporarily escape the structured and trivial patterns and produce more random-like sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikołaj Biesaga
- Robert Zajonc Institute for Social Studies, University of Warsaw
| | - Szymon Talaga
- Robert Zajonc Institute for Social Studies, University of Warsaw
| | - Andrzej Nowak
- Robert Zajonc Institute for Social Studies, University of Warsaw.,Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University
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11
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Cieri F, Zhuang X, Caldwell JZK, Cordes D. Brain Entropy During Aging Through a Free Energy Principle Approach. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:647513. [PMID: 33828471 PMCID: PMC8019811 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.647513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural complexity and brain entropy (BEN) have gained greater interest in recent years. The dynamics of neural signals and their relations with information processing continue to be investigated through different measures in a variety of noteworthy studies. The BEN of spontaneous neural activity decreases during states of reduced consciousness. This evidence has been showed in primary consciousness states, such as psychedelic states, under the name of "the entropic brain hypothesis." In this manuscript we propose an extension of this hypothesis to physiological and pathological aging. We review this particular facet of the complexity of the brain, mentioning studies that have investigated BEN in primary consciousness states, and extending this view to the field of neuroaging with a focus on resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. We first introduce historic and conceptual ideas about entropy and neural complexity, treating the mindbrain as a complex nonlinear dynamic adaptive system, in light of the free energy principle. Then, we review the studies in this field, analyzing the idea that the aim of the neurocognitive system is to maintain a dynamic state of balance between order and chaos, both in terms of dynamics of neural signals and functional connectivity. In our exploration we will review studies both on acute psychedelic states and more chronic psychotic states and traits, such as those in schizophrenia, in order to show the increase of entropy in those states. Then we extend our exploration to physiological and pathological aging, where BEN is reduced. Finally, we propose an interpretation of these results, defining a general trend of BEN in primary states and cognitive aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Cieri
- Department of Neurology, Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health, Las Vegas, NV, United States
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12
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Pflugshaupt T, Bauer D, Frey J, Vanbellingen T, Kaufmann BC, Bohlhalter S, Nyffeler T. The right anterior temporal lobe critically contributes to magnitude knowledge. Brain Commun 2020; 2:fcaa157. [PMID: 33225278 PMCID: PMC7667527 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcaa157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive estimation is a mental ability applied to solve numerical problems when precise facts are unknown, unavailable or impractical to calculate. It has been associated with several underlying cognitive components, most often with executive functions and semantic memory. Little is known about the neural correlates of cognitive estimation. To address this issue, the present cross-sectional study applied lesion-symptom mapping in a group of 55 patients with left hemineglect due to right-hemisphere stroke. Previous evidence suggests a high prevalence of cognitive estimation impairment in these patients, as they might show a general bias towards large magnitudes. Compared to 55 age- and gender-matched healthy controls, the patient group demonstrated impaired cognitive estimation. However, the expected large magnitude bias was not found. Lesion-symptom mapping related their general estimation impairment predominantly to brain damage in the right anterior temporal lobe. Also critically involved were the right uncinate fasciculus, the anterior commissure and the right inferior frontal gyrus. The main findings of this study emphasize the role of semantic memory in cognitive estimation, with reference to a growing body of neuroscientific literature postulating a transmodal hub for semantic cognition situated in the bilateral anterior temporal lobe. That such semantic hub function may also apply to numerical knowledge is not undisputed. We here propose a critical contribution of the right anterior temporal lobe to at least one aspect of number processing, i.e. the knowledge about real-world numerical magnitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Bauer
- Neurocenter, Luzerner Kantonsspital, Luzern, Switzerland
| | - Julia Frey
- Neurocenter, Luzerner Kantonsspital, Luzern, Switzerland
| | - Tim Vanbellingen
- Neurocenter, Luzerner Kantonsspital, Luzern, Switzerland
- Gerontechnology and Rehabilitation Group, ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Brigitte C Kaufmann
- Neurocenter, Luzerner Kantonsspital, Luzern, Switzerland
- Gerontechnology and Rehabilitation Group, ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Thomas Nyffeler
- Neurocenter, Luzerner Kantonsspital, Luzern, Switzerland
- Gerontechnology and Rehabilitation Group, ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Rothacher Y, Nguyen A, Lenggenhager B, Kunz A, Brugger P. Walking through virtual mazes: Spontaneous alternation behaviour in human adults. Cortex 2020; 127:1-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2020.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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14
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Zenil H. A Review of Methods for Estimating Algorithmic Complexity: Options, Challenges, and New Directions. ENTROPY 2020; 22:e22060612. [PMID: 33286384 PMCID: PMC7517143 DOI: 10.3390/e22060612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Some established and also novel techniques in the field of applications of algorithmic (Kolmogorov) complexity currently co-exist for the first time and are here reviewed, ranging from dominant ones such as statistical lossless compression to newer approaches that advance, complement and also pose new challenges and may exhibit their own limitations. Evidence suggesting that these different methods complement each other for different regimes is presented and despite their many challenges, some of these methods can be better motivated by and better grounded in the principles of algorithmic information theory. It will be explained how different approaches to algorithmic complexity can explore the relaxation of different necessary and sufficient conditions in their pursuit of numerical applicability, with some of these approaches entailing greater risks than others in exchange for greater relevance. We conclude with a discussion of possible directions that may or should be taken into consideration to advance the field and encourage methodological innovation, but more importantly, to contribute to scientific discovery. This paper also serves as a rebuttal of claims made in a previously published minireview by another author, and offers an alternative account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Zenil
- Algorithmic Dynamics Lab, Karolinska Institute, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden;
- Oxford Immune Algorithmics, Reading RG1 3EU, UK
- Algorithmic Nature Group, LABORES, 75006 Paris, France
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15
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Carhart-Harris RL, Friston KJ. REBUS and the Anarchic Brain: Toward a Unified Model of the Brain Action of Psychedelics. Pharmacol Rev 2019; 71:316-344. [PMID: 31221820 PMCID: PMC6588209 DOI: 10.1124/pr.118.017160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 364] [Impact Index Per Article: 72.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper formulates the action of psychedelics by integrating the free-energy principle and entropic brain hypothesis. We call this formulation relaxed beliefs under psychedelics (REBUS) and the anarchic brain, founded on the principle that-via their entropic effect on spontaneous cortical activity-psychedelics work to relax the precision of high-level priors or beliefs, thereby liberating bottom-up information flow, particularly via intrinsic sources such as the limbic system. We assemble evidence for this model and show how it can explain a broad range of phenomena associated with the psychedelic experience. With regard to their potential therapeutic use, we propose that psychedelics work to relax the precision weighting of pathologically overweighted priors underpinning various expressions of mental illness. We propose that this process entails an increased sensitization of high-level priors to bottom-up signaling (stemming from intrinsic sources), and that this heightened sensitivity enables the potential revision and deweighting of overweighted priors. We end by discussing further implications of the model, such as that psychedelics can bring about the revision of other heavily weighted high-level priors, not directly related to mental health, such as those underlying partisan and/or overly-confident political, religious, and/or philosophical perspectives. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Psychedelics are capturing interest, with efforts underway to bring psilocybin therapy to marketing authorisation and legal access within a decade, spearheaded by the findings of a series of phase 2 trials. In this climate, a compelling unified model of how psychedelics alter brain function to alter consciousness would have appeal. Towards this end, we have sought to integrate a leading model of global brain function, hierarchical predictive coding, with an often-cited model of the acute action of psychedelics, the entropic brain hypothesis. The resulting synthesis states that psychedelics work to relax high-level priors, sensitising them to liberated bottom-up information flow, which, with the right intention, care provision and context, can help guide and cultivate the revision of entrenched pathological priors.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Carhart-Harris
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (R.L.C.-H.); and Institute of Neurology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom (K.J.F.)
| | - K J Friston
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Division of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom (R.L.C.-H.); and Institute of Neurology, Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom (K.J.F.)
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16
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Zenil H, Kiani NA, Tegnér J. The Thermodynamics of Network Coding, and an Algorithmic Refinement of the Principle of Maximum Entropy. ENTROPY 2019; 21:e21060560. [PMID: 33267274 PMCID: PMC7515049 DOI: 10.3390/e21060560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
The principle of maximum entropy (Maxent) is often used to obtain prior probability distributions as a method to obtain a Gibbs measure under some restriction giving the probability that a system will be in a certain state compared to the rest of the elements in the distribution. Because classical entropy-based Maxent collapses cases confounding all distinct degrees of randomness and pseudo-randomness, here we take into consideration the generative mechanism of the systems considered in the ensemble to separate objects that may comply with the principle under some restriction and whose entropy is maximal but may be generated recursively from those that are actually algorithmically random offering a refinement to classical Maxent. We take advantage of a causal algorithmic calculus to derive a thermodynamic-like result based on how difficult it is to reprogram a computer code. Using the distinction between computable and algorithmic randomness, we quantify the cost in information loss associated with reprogramming. To illustrate this, we apply the algorithmic refinement to Maxent on graphs and introduce a Maximal Algorithmic Randomness Preferential Attachment (MARPA) Algorithm, a generalisation over previous approaches. We discuss practical implications of evaluation of network randomness. Our analysis provides insight in that the reprogrammability asymmetry appears to originate from a non-monotonic relationship to algorithmic probability. Our analysis motivates further analysis of the origin and consequences of the aforementioned asymmetries, reprogrammability, and computation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Zenil
- Algorithmic Dynamics Lab, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
- Unit of Computational Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
- Algorithmic Nature Group, Laboratory of Scientific Research (LABORES) for the Natural and Digital Sciences, 75006 Paris, France
- Oxford Immune Algorithmics, Oxford University Innovation, Reading RG1 7TT, UK
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
- Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence:
| | - Narsis A. Kiani
- Algorithmic Dynamics Lab, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
- Unit of Computational Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
- Algorithmic Nature Group, Laboratory of Scientific Research (LABORES) for the Natural and Digital Sciences, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Jesper Tegnér
- Unit of Computational Medicine, Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
- Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955, Saudi Arabia
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17
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Ventresca M. Using Algorithmic Complexity to Differentiate Cognitive States in fMRI. STUDIES IN COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2019:663-674. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-05414-4_53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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18
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Rueda-Posada MF, Quiroz-Padilla MF, Giraldo JJ. Características de los Sistemas Centrales de Conocimiento en niños de 3 a 6 años de edad. UNIVERSITAS PSYCHOLOGICA 2018. [DOI: 10.11144/javeriana.upsy17-5.cscc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Los Sistemas Centrales de Conocimiento son la base de las habilidades cognitivas de la especie humana. Teniendo en cuenta el valor evolutivo de los mismos, se buscó reconocer las relaciones o diferencias entre estos y otras variables de crecimiento (sexo y edad) y variables ambientales (nivel socioeconómico). Para ello, se evaluó cada sistema central de conocimiento y el desarrollo sociocognitivo de 164 niños y 164 niñas, entre los 37 y 71 meses de edad (M = 54 meses; DE = 0.55). Al aplicar una prueba Kruskal-Wallis se encontró que la edad tuvo un efecto significativo sobre el índice general de desarrollo sociocognitivo (p < 0.001) y sobre el reconocimiento funcional del objeto (χ2 = 54.221, p < 0.001), del número (χ2 = 85.735, p < 0.001) y la ubicación espacial (χ2 = 8.258, p < 0.016). En contraste, no se hallaron efectos del sexo ni del nivel socioeconómico para las diferencias en los sistemas centrales de conocimiento ni en el índice de desarrollo sociocognitivo.
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Devine S. Algorithmic Entropy and Landauer's Principle Link Microscopic System Behaviour to the Thermodynamic Entropy. ENTROPY (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 20:e20100798. [PMID: 33265885 PMCID: PMC7512359 DOI: 10.3390/e20100798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 10/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Algorithmic information theory in conjunction with Landauer's principle can quantify the cost of maintaining a reversible real-world computational system distant from equilibrium. As computational bits are conserved in an isolated reversible system, bit flows can be used to track the way a highly improbable configuration trends toward a highly probable equilibrium configuration. In an isolated reversible system, all microstates within a thermodynamic macrostate have the same algorithmic entropy. However, from a thermodynamic perspective, when these bits primarily specify stored energy states, corresponding to a fluctuation from the most probable set of states, they represent "potential entropy". However, these bits become "realised entropy" when, under the second law of thermodynamics, they become bits specifying the momentum degrees of freedom. The distance of a fluctuation from equilibrium is identified as the number of computational bits that move from stored energy states to momentum states to define a highly probable or typical equilibrium state. When reversibility applies, from Landauer's principle, it costs k B l n 2 T Joules to move a bit within the system from stored energy states to the momentum states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Devine
- School of Management, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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20
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Comparison of Compression-Based Measures with Application to the Evolution of Primate Genomes. ENTROPY 2018; 20:e20060393. [PMID: 33265483 PMCID: PMC7512912 DOI: 10.3390/e20060393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2018] [Revised: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
An efficient DNA compressor furnishes an approximation to measure and compare information quantities present in, between and across DNA sequences, regardless of the characteristics of the sources. In this paper, we compare directly two information measures, the Normalized Compression Distance (NCD) and the Normalized Relative Compression (NRC). These measures answer different questions; the NCD measures how similar both strings are (in terms of information content) and the NRC (which, in general, is nonsymmetric) indicates the fraction of one of them that cannot be constructed using information from the other one. This leads to the problem of finding out which measure (or question) is more suitable for the answer we need. For computing both, we use a state of the art DNA sequence compressor that we benchmark with some top compressors in different compression modes. Then, we apply the compressor on DNA sequences with different scales and natures, first using synthetic sequences and then on real DNA sequences. The last include mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), messenger RNA (mRNA) and genomic DNA (gDNA) of seven primates. We provide several insights into evolutionary acceleration rates at different scales, namely, the observation and confirmation across the whole genomes of a higher variation rate of the mtDNA relative to the gDNA. We also show the importance of relative compression for localizing similar information regions using mtDNA.
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21
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Eguiraun H, Casquero O, Sørensen AJ, Martinez I. Reducing the Number of Individuals to Monitor Shoaling Fish Systems - Application of the Shannon Entropy to Construct a Biological Warning System Model. Front Physiol 2018; 9:493. [PMID: 29867544 PMCID: PMC5952214 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aims at identifying the lowest number of fish (European seabass) that could be used for monitoring and/or experimental purposes in small-scale fish facilities by quantifying the effect that the number of individuals has on the Shannon entropy (SE) of the trajectory followed by the shoal’s centroid. Two different experiments were performed: (i) one starting with 50 fish and decreasing to 25, 13, and 1 fish, and (ii) a second experiment starting with one fish, adding one new fish per day during 5 days, ending up with five fish in the tank. The fish were recorded for 1h daily, during which time a stochastic event (a hit in the tank) was introduced. The SE values were calculated from the images corresponding to three arbitrary basal (shoaling) periods of 3.5 min prior to the event, and to the 3.5 min period immediately after the event (schooling response). Taking both experiments together, the coefficient of variation (CV) of the SE among measurements was largest for one fish systems (CV 37.12 and 17.94% for the daily average basal and response SE, respectively) and decreased concomitantly with the number of fish (CV 8.6–10% for the basal SE of 2 to 5 fish systems and 5.86, 2.69, and 2.31% for the basal SE of 13, 25, and 50 fish, respectively). The SE of the systems kept a power relationship with the number of fish (basal: R2= 0.93 and response: R2= 0.92). Thus, 5–13 individuals should be the lowest number for a compromise between acceptable variability (<10%) in the data and reduction in the number of fish. We believe this to be the first scientific work made to estimate the minimum number of individuals to be used in subsequent experimental (including behavioral) studies using shoaling fish species that reaches a compromise between the reduction in number demanded by animal welfare guidelines and a low variability in the fish system’s response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harkaitz Eguiraun
- Department of Graphic Design & Engineering Projects, Faculty of Engineering in Bilbao, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain.,Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology - Plentziako Itsas Estazioa, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Plentzia, Spain
| | - Oskar Casquero
- Department of Systems Engineering and Automatic Control, Faculty of Engineering in Bilbao, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Asgeir J Sørensen
- Centre for Autonomous Marine Operations and Systems, Department of Marine Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Iciar Martinez
- Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology and Biotechnology - Plentziako Itsas Estazioa, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Plentzia, Spain.,IKERBASQUE Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.,Norwegian College of Fishery Science, Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
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22
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Ninaus M, Moeller K, Kaufmann L, Fischer MH, Nuerk HC, Wood G. Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Directional and Non-directional Spatial-Numerical Associations across the Lifespan. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1421. [PMID: 28878716 PMCID: PMC5572383 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
There is accumulating evidence suggesting an association of numbers with physical space. However, the origin of such spatial-numerical associations (SNAs) is still debated. In the present study we investigated the development of two SNAs in a cross-sectional study involving children, young and middle-aged adults as well as the elderly: (1) the SNARC (spatial-numerical association of response codes) effect, reflecting a directional SNA; and (2) the numerical bisection bias in a line bisection task with numerical flankers. Results revealed a consistent SNARC effect in all age groups that continuously increased with age. In contrast, a numerical bisection bias was only observed for children and elderly participants, implying an U-shaped distribution of this bias across age groups. Additionally, individual SNARC effects and numerical bisection biases did not correlate significantly. We argue that the SNARC effect seems to be influenced by longer-lasting experiences of cultural constraints such as reading and writing direction and may thus reflect embodied representations. Contrarily, the numerical bisection bias may originate from insufficient inhibition of the semantic influence of irrelevant numerical flankers, which should be more pronounced in children and elderly people due to development and decline of cognitive control, respectively. As there is an ongoing debate on the origins of SNAs in general and the SNARC effect in particular, the present results are discussed in light of these differing accounts in an integrative approach. However, taken together, the present pattern of results suggests that different cognitive mechanisms underlie the SNARC effect and the numerical bisection bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Ninaus
- Leibniz-Institut für WissensmedienTübingen, Germany.,Department of Psychology, University of GrazGraz, Austria.,LEAD Graduate School and Research Network, Eberhard Karls University of TübingenTübingen, Germany
| | - Korbinian Moeller
- Leibniz-Institut für WissensmedienTübingen, Germany.,Department of Psychology, University of GrazGraz, Austria.,LEAD Graduate School and Research Network, Eberhard Karls University of TübingenTübingen, Germany
| | - Liane Kaufmann
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy A, General HospitalHall, Austria
| | - Martin H Fischer
- Division of Cognitive Sciences, Department of Psychology, University of PotsdamPotsdam, Germany
| | - Hans-Christoph Nuerk
- LEAD Graduate School and Research Network, Eberhard Karls University of TübingenTübingen, Germany.,Department of Psychology, Eberhard Karls University TübingenTübingen, Germany
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23
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Adamatzky A, Akl S, Burgin M, Calude CS, Costa JF, Dehshibi MM, Gunji YP, Konkoli Z, MacLennan B, Marchal B, Margenstern M, Martínez GJ, Mayne R, Morita K, Schumann A, Sergeyev YD, Sirakoulis GC, Stepney S, Svozil K, Zenil H. East-West paths to unconventional computing. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 131:469-493. [PMID: 28818636 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2017.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Unconventional computing is about breaking boundaries in thinking, acting and computing. Typical topics of this non-typical field include, but are not limited to physics of computation, non-classical logics, new complexity measures, novel hardware, mechanical, chemical and quantum computing. Unconventional computing encourages a new style of thinking while practical applications are obtained from uncovering and exploiting principles and mechanisms of information processing in and functional properties of, physical, chemical and living systems; in particular, efficient algorithms are developed, (almost) optimal architectures are designed and working prototypes of future computing devices are manufactured. This article includes idiosyncratic accounts of 'unconventional computing' scientists reflecting on their personal experiences, what attracted them to the field, their inspirations and discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Adamatzky
- Unconventional Computing Centre, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK; Unconventional Computing Ltd, Bristol, UK.
| | - Selim Akl
- School of Computing, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mark Burgin
- University of California at Los Angelos, USA
| | - Cristian S Calude
- Department of Computer Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - José Félix Costa
- Departamento de Matemática, Instituto Superior Técnico, Centro de Filosofia das Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | | | - Zoran Konkoli
- Department of Microtechnology and Nanoscience - MC2, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Bruce MacLennan
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, USA
| | | | - Maurice Margenstern
- Laboratoire d'Informatique Théorique et Appliquée, Université de Lorraine, Metz, France
| | - Genaro J Martínez
- Escuela Superior de Cómputo, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico; Unconventional Computing Centre, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
| | - Richard Mayne
- Unconventional Computing Centre, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
| | | | - Andrew Schumann
- University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszow, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Yaroslav D Sergeyev
- University of Calabria, Rende, Italy and Lobachevsky State University, Nizhni Novgorod, Russia
| | - Georgios Ch Sirakoulis
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece
| | - Susan Stepney
- Department of Computer Science, University of York, UK
| | - Karl Svozil
- Institute for Theoretical Physics, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
| | - Hector Zenil
- Algorithmic Dynamics Lab, Unit of Computational Medicine SciLifeLab and Center of Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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24
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Zenil H, Kiani NA, Tegnér J. Low-algorithmic-complexity entropy-deceiving graphs. Phys Rev E 2017; 96:012308. [PMID: 29347130 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.96.012308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In estimating the complexity of objects, in particular, of graphs, it is common practice to rely on graph- and information-theoretic measures. Here, using integer sequences with properties such as Borel normality, we explain how these measures are not independent of the way in which an object, such as a graph, can be described or observed. From observations that can reconstruct the same graph and are therefore essentially translations of the same description, we see that when applying a computable measure such as the Shannon entropy, not only is it necessary to preselect a feature of interest where there is one, and to make an arbitrary selection where there is not, but also more general properties, such as the causal likelihood of a graph as a measure (opposed to randomness), can be largely misrepresented by computable measures such as the entropy and entropy rate. We introduce recursive and nonrecursive (uncomputable) graphs and graph constructions based on these integer sequences, whose different lossless descriptions have disparate entropy values, thereby enabling the study and exploration of a measure's range of applications and demonstrating the weaknesses of computable measures of complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Zenil
- Information Dynamics Lab, Unit of Computational Medicine, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, SciLifeLab, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden; Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QD, United Kingdom; and Algorithmic Nature Group, LABoRES, Paris 75006, France
| | - Narsis A Kiani
- Information Dynamics Lab, Unit of Computational Medicine, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, SciLifeLab, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden and Algorithmic Nature Group, LABoRES, Paris 75006, France
| | - Jesper Tegnér
- Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division, Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955 - 6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Unit of Computational Medicine, Department of Medicine Solna, Center for Molecular Medicine, SciLifeLab, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm 171 76, Sweden
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