Residential green space and child intelligence and behavior across urban, suburban, and rural areas in Belgium: A longitudinal birth cohort study of twins

Blue skies: Does the visual composition of sky guide subjective judgments of naturalness in the environment?

Expanding on previous findings, that highlighted the significance of sky in environmental perception, our analysis investigated whether the visual composition of the sky shapes perceptions of environmental naturalness. The study employed a novel, free-selection task in which participants viewed a series of environmental images with varying levels of natural and urban elements, as well as different sky visibility conditions, and were asked to identify "nature" within these images. The task procedure also involved subjective ratings of each scene. Using previously gathered data, we reassessed 105 participants' selection of the sky as "nature" across 96 photos of diverse outdoor scenes to understand which visuospatial features influence these perceptions. Utilizing the Boruta feature selection algorithm, we identified key characteristics-fractal dimensions, brightness, and entropy in brightness, hue, and saturation-that significantly predicted the selection of sky as "nature", irrespective of the environment type (urban or natural). Results indicated that lower fractal dimensions are preferred for sky selected as "nature", inversely affecting the naturalness judgment of scenes with the additional effect of brightness. These findings enhance our understanding of how visuospatial features influence environmental perception, offering implications for future research directions and theoretical advancements in understanding environmental perception.

Green spaces and respiratory, cardiometabolic, and neurodevelopmental outcomes: An individual-participant data meta-analysis of >35.000 European children

Studies evaluating the benefits and risks of green spaces on children's health are scarce. The present study aimed to examine the associations between exposure to green spaces during pregnancy and early childhood with respiratory, cardiometabolic, and neurodevelopmental outcomes in school-age children. We performed an Individual-Participant Data (IPD) meta-analysis involving 35,000 children from ten European birth cohorts across eight countries. For each participant, we calculated residential Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within a 300 m buffer and the linear distance to green spaces (meters) during prenatal life and childhood. Multiple harmonized health outcomes were selected: asthma and wheezing, lung function, body mass index, diastolic and systolic blood pressure, non-verbal intelligence, internalizing and externalizing problems, and ADHD symptoms. We conducted a two-stage IPD meta-analysis and evaluated effect modification by socioeconomic status (SES) and sex. Between-study heterogeneity was assessed via random-effects meta-regression. Residential surrounding green spaces in childhood, not pregnancy, was associated with improved lung function, particularly higher FEV1 (β = 0.06; 95 %CI: 0.03, 0.09 I2 = 4.03 %, p < 0.001) and FVC (β = 0.07; 95 %CI: 0.04, 0.09 I2 = 0 %, p < 0.001) with a stronger association observed in females (p < 0.001). This association remained robust after multiple testing correction and did not change notably after adjusting for ambient air pollution. Increased distance to green spaces showed an association with lower FVC (β = -0.04; 95 %CI: -0.07, -0.02, I2 = 4.8, p = 0.001), with a stronger effect in children from higher SES backgrounds (p < 0.001). No consistent associations were found between green spaces and asthma, wheezing, cardiometabolic, or neurodevelopmental outcomes, with direction of effect varying across cohorts. Wheezing and neurodevelopmental outcomes showed high between-study heterogeneity, and the age at outcome assessment was only associated with heterogeneity in internalizing problems.. This large European meta-analysis suggests that childhood exposure to green spaces may lead to better lung function. Associations with other respiratory outcomes and selected cardiometabolic and neurodevelopmental outcomes remain inconclusive.

Increased urban greenspace in childhood associated with lower inattention deficit among adolescents

PURPOSE

There is a growing interest in assessing the benefits of exposure to urban greenspace on mental health due to the increased urbanization of youth and concerns for their mental health. We investigated the prospective associations of residential greenspace in childhood and mental health in adolescence. Use of a well-characterized birth cohort permitted adjustment for a range of potential confounding factors including family and neighborhood characteristics in addition to prior mental health problems, and exploration of moderation effects by sex and family socioeconomic status.

METHODS

We analyzed longitudinal data collected from 742 urban-dwelling participants of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Children Development. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within 250, 500, and 1000 m buffer zones surrounding the home residence was used to indicate childhood exposure to greenspace. Six self-reported mental health problems at 15/17 years were examined using the Mental Health and Social Inadaptation questionnaire: inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, conduct, depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation.

RESULTS

Childhood urban greenspace was associated with lower inattention problems in both females and males. We observed a 0.14 reduced standard deviation (SD) (β = - 0.14, SE = 0.05, p < 0.01) in relation to an interquartile range (IQR) increase of NDVI (0.15) at the 250 m buffer zone, and similar results were found in 500 m and 1000 m buffer zones. These associations only slightly attenuated after adjustment for individual (sex, childhood mental health), family (family SES, maternal age at birth, parental mental health, family composition), and neighborhood (material and social deprivation) characteristics (β = - 0.13, SE = 0.06, p = 0.03). No association was found for other mental health problems, and no moderation associations of sex or family socioeconomic status were observed.

CONCLUSION

 These findings suggest that increasing residential greenspace in cities may be associated with modest benefits in attentional capacities in youth, necessitating further research to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

Pathways linking greenspace to behavioural problems in Polish children

Background

Previous cross-sectional studies have found a beneficial relationship between greenspace and children's behaviour. Nevertheless, evidence on the mechanisms underlying this association remains scant. We examined whether the availability of greenspace was related to fewer behavioural problems in Polish children and investigated potential mechanisms.

Methods

Data were obtained from the case-control NeuroSmog study, in which children with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were tested from October 2020 to September 2022. The analytic sample comprised 679 children aged 10-13 years. Parents reported internalizing, externalizing, and total behavioural problems using the Child Behaviour Check List (CBCL), as well as information about the presence of a domestic garden and potential mediators: greenspace perception, neighbourhood social cohesion, and physical activity. Tree and grass covers were extracted in 500 m and 1 km buffers around lifelong residences. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to examine the psychosocial pathways linking the greenspace metrics to behavioural problems.

Results

Greenspace was only indirectly related to fewer behavioural problems. Specifically, tree cover was related to greater levels of physical activity which, in turn, was related to fewer internalizing and total behavioural problems. Tree cover and presence of garden were related to greenspace perception which, in turn, was associated with higher neighbourhood social cohesion which, in turn, was linked to fewer behavioural problems. The patterns of associations in children without ADHD were very similar to those in the full sample except that the associations from garden to greenspace perception and from physical activity to total behavioural problems were no longer significant. The only association persisted among girls was from neighbourhood social cohesion to behavioural problems and among boys were from tree cover to physical activity and tree cover and garden to greenspace perception.

Conclusion

Trees and garden, but not grass, are linked to fewer behavioural problems through greenspace perception, neighbourhood social cohesion, and physical activity in Polish children.

Cluster pattern analysis of environmental stressors and quantifying their impact on all-cause mortality in Belgium

Environmental stress represents an important burden on health and leads to a considerable number of diseases, hospitalisations, and excess mortality. Our study encompasses a representative sample size drawn from the Belgian population in 2016 (n = 11.26 million, with a focus on n = 11.15 million individuals). The analysis is conducted at the geographical level of statistical sectors, comprising a total of n = 19,794 sectors, with a subset of n = 18,681 sectors considered in the investigation. We integrated multiple parameters at the finest spatial level and constructed three categories of environmental stress through clustering: air pollution, noise stress and stress related to specific land-use types. We observed identifiable patterns in the spatial distribution of stressors within each cluster category. We assessed the relationship between age-standardized all-cause mortality rates (ASMR) and environmental stressors. Our research found that especially very high air pollution values in areas where traffic is the dominant local component of air pollution (ASMR + 14,8%, 95% CI: 10,4 - 19,4%) and presence of industrial land (ASMR + 14,7%, 95% CI: 9,4 - 20,2%) in the neighbourhood are associated with an increased ASMR. Cumulative exposure to multiple sources of unfavourable environmental stress (simultaneously high air pollution, high noise, presence of industrial land or proximity of primary/secondary roads and lack of green space) is associated with an increase in ASMR (ASMR + 26,9%, 95% CI: 17,1 - 36,5%).

Associations of residential green space with internalizing and externalizing behavior in early childhood

BACKGROUND

Green space exposures may promote child mental health and well-being across multiple domains and stages of development. The aim of this study was to investigate associations between residential green space exposures and child mental and behavioral health at age 4-6 years.

METHODS

Children's internalizing and externalizing behaviors in the Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood (CANDLE) cohort in Shelby County, Tennessee, were parent-reported on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). We examined three exposures-residential surrounding greenness calculated as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), tree cover, and park proximity-averaged across the residential history for the year prior to outcome assessment. Linear regression models were adjusted for individual, household, and neighborhood-level confounders across multiple domains. Effect modification by neighborhood socioeconomic conditions was explored using multiplicative interaction terms.

RESULTS

Children were on average 4.2 years (range 3.8-6.0) at outcome assessment. Among CANDLE mothers, 65% self-identified as Black, 29% as White, and 6% as another or multiple races; 41% had at least a college degree. Higher residential surrounding greenness was associated with lower internalizing behavior scores (-0.66 per 0.1 unit higher NDVI; 95% CI: -1.26, -0.07) in fully-adjusted models. The association between tree cover and internalizing behavior was in the hypothesized direction but confidence intervals included the null (-0.29 per 10% higher tree cover; 95% CI: -0.62, 0.04). No associations were observed between park proximity and internalizing behavior. We did not find any associations with externalizing behaviors or the attention problems subscale. Estimates were larger in neighborhoods with lower socioeconomic opportunity, but interaction terms were not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings add to the accumulating evidence of the importance of residential green space for the prevention of internalizing problems among young children. This research suggests the prioritization of urban green spaces as a resource for child mental health.

Exposure to Residential Green Space and Bone Mineral Density in Young Children

Importance

Bone mass accrual is influenced by environmental and lifestyle factors. Targeted interventions at the early stages of life might decrease fracture and/or osteoporosis risk later in life.

Objective

To investigate whether early-life exposure to residential surrounding green space is associated with a change in bone mineral density in young children.

Design, Setting, and Participants

In this prospective birth cohort study (ENVIRONAGE [Environmental Influence on Aging in Early Life]), mother-child pairs from Flanders, Belgium, were recruited at birth and followed up for 4 to 6 years, between October 1, 2014, and July 31, 2021. Data analysis was conducted between January and February 2022.

Exposures

Green space was estimated for high green (>3 m vegetation height), low green (≤3 m vegetation height ), and total green (sum of high and low) within several radii (100-3000 m) around the residence after geocoding of the addresses.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Radial bone mineral density was assessed using quantitative ultrasound measurement at follow-up, measured as the mean of the axially transmitted speed of sound in meters per second. Multiple linear and logistic regression models were used while accounting for relevant covariates and potential confounders.

Results

The study population comprised 327 children (180 [55.0%] female; mean [SD] age, 4.6 [0.4] years at the follow-up evaluation). Early-life exposure to residential green space was associated with increased childhood bone health. An IQR increment in total green (21.2%) and high green (19.9%) space within 500 m was associated with an increase of 27.38 m/s (95% CI, 9.63-45.13 m/s) and 25.30 m/s (95% CI, 7.93-42.68 m/s) in bone mineral density, respectively. Additionally, an IQR increase in total (25.2%) and high (23.2%) green space within 1000 m was associated with a 67% (odds ratio, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.17-0.61) and 61% (odds ratio, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.18-0.75) lower risk of having a bone density lower than the sex-specific 10th percentile (3567.6 m/s for girls and 3522.8 m/s for boys).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this study of children aged 4 to 6 years, higher bone mineral density and a lower risk of having low bone density were associated with higher residential green space exposure during childhood. These findings highlight the importance of early-life exposure to residential green space on bone health during critical periods of growth and development, with long-term implications.

Emerging trends and knowledge domain of research on urban green open spaces and wellbeing: A scientometric review

Green Open Spaces (GOS) and its linkages to human health and wellbeing have received growing attention in the field of urban planning. In spite of increase in number of studies in this field, there is lack of scientometric perspective pertaining to this research domain. The purpose of the study is to map the research status and key research directions in the interdisciplinary domain: Green open spaces, public health and urban planning, using Citespace. Scientometric analysis (co-author, co-citation, co-word and cluster analysis) is conducted for 451 peer reviewed publications, primarily published in last two decades (2000-2021) in the web of science database. The study assessed influential authors, journals and documents to identify the intellectual structure and network of co-authorship and countries to understand research collaborations of this domain. As a result of this review, five emerging research trends in this domain are identified - Emerging data sources, Study areas at various spatial scales, Type of study, Assessment of urban GOS benefits and Urban planning contribution in the research area. In addition, critical review of these trends is conducted to understand corresponding challenges and opportunities. The critical analysis highlighted the need of generating evidence base appropriate for assessing GOS use and user perception, especially in developing nations capturing socio-demographic diversity. The use of Citespace for scientometric analysis facilitated the systematic understanding of this research area by visualizing and analyzing various patterns and trends. This study provides an intensive understanding of present research status and emerging trends of this research domain. Findings in this study are envisioned to provide practitioners, decision makers and researchers with promising future research directions.

Association of greenness surrounding school with aggression among adolescents: A multi-site study in China

Association of greenness surrounding school with aggression among adolescents was not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the associations of greenness surrounding school with adolescents' total and sub-types of aggression and explore potential mediators underlying these associations. A multi-site study of 15,301 adolescents aged 11-20 years were recruited through a multistage, random cluster sampling across 5 representative provinces in mainland China. Satellite-derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values within circular buffers of 100 m, 500 m, and 1000 m surrounding school were used to indicate the adolescents' greenness exposure. We used the Chinese version of Buss and Warren's Aggression Questionnaire to assess total and sub-types of aggression. Daily concentrations of PM2.5, and NO2 were obtained from the China High Air Pollutants datasets. Per IQR increment of NDVI 100 m and 500 m surrounding school was associated with lower odds of total aggression; odds ratio [OR] with 95% CI was 0.958 (0.926-0.990) for the 100 m buffer and 0.963 (0.932-0.996) for the 500 m buffer, respectively. Similar associations can be observed in two sub-types of aggression, including verbal (NDVI 100 m: 0.960 (0.925-0.995); NDVI500m: 0.964 (0.930-0.999)) and indirect aggression (NDVI 100 m: 0.956 (0.924-0.990); NDVI500m: 0.953 (0.921-0.986)). There were no sex and age differences in the associations of school surrounding greenness with aggression, except that the beneficial associations of greenness exposure with total aggression (0.933(0.895-0.975) vs.1.005(0.956-1.056)), physical aggression (0.971(0.925-1.019) vs.1.098(1.043-1.156)), and hostility (0.942(0.901-0.986) vs.1.016(0.965-1.069)) were greater among participants aged ≥16 years than those aged<16 years. PM2.5 (proportion mediated estimates: 0.21; 95% CI: 0.08, 0.94) and NO2 (-0.78, 95% CI: -3.22, -0.37) mediated the association of NDVI 500 m surrounding school with total aggression. Our data indicated that exposure to greenness in school surroundings was associated with reduced aggression, particularly in verbal and indirect aggression. The presence of PM2.5 and NO2 partially mediated these associations.

Availability, accessibility, and use of green spaces and cognitive development in primary school children

Green spaces may have beneficial impacts on children's cognition. However, few studies explored the exposure to green spaces beyond residential areas, and their availability, accessibility and uses at the same time. The aim of the present study was to describe patterns of availability, accessibility, and uses of green spaces among primary school children and to explore how these exposure dimensions are associated with cognitive development. Exposures to green space near home, school, commuting route, and other daily activity locations were assessed for 1607 children aged 6-11 years from six birth cohorts across Europe, and included variables related to: availability (NDVI buffers: 100, 300, 500 m), potential accessibility (proximity to a major green space: linear distance; within 300 m), and use (play time in green spaces: hours/year), and the number of visits to green spaces (times/previous week). Cognition measured as fluid intelligence, inattention, and working memory was assessed by computerized tests. We performed multiple linear regression analyses on pooled and imputed data adjusted for individual and area-level confounders. Availability, accessibility, and uses of green spaces showed a social gradient that was unfavorable in more vulnerable socioeconomic groups. NDVI was associated with more playing time in green spaces, but proximity to a major green space was not. Associations between green space exposures and cognitive function outcomes were not statistically significant in our overall study population. Stratification by socioeconomic variables showed that living within 300 m of a major green space was associated with improved working memory only in children in less deprived residential areas (β = 0.30, CI: 0.09,0.51), and that more time playing in green spaces was associated with better working memory only in children of highly educated mothers (β per IQR increase in hour/year = 0.10; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.19). However, studying within 300 m of a major green space increased inattention scores in children in more deprived areas (β = 15.45, 95% CI: 3.50, 27.40).

Social inequalities, green and blue spaces and mental health in 6-12 years old children participating in the INMA cohort

Availability of green and blue spaces in the area of residence has been related to various health outcomes during childhood, including mental health. These environmental exposures are not evenly distributed among socioeconomic groups, which may increase social inequalities in mental health. The mechanisms through which natural environments may promote mental health are numerous and diverse. This study aimed to explore 1) the potential associations of socioeconomic variables (SES and maternal education attainment) with mental health scores and residential greenness, blueness and NO2 metrics, and, 2) the association between greenness and blueness metrics and mental health scores of children in the Spanish INfancia y Medio Ambiente (INMA) birth cohort at two different time points. The study samples were composed of 1738 six-to eight-year-olds (49% female) and 1449 ten-to twelve-year-olds (living in Asturias, Gipuzkoa, Sabadell and Valencia, Spain. Individual Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) values in 100-, 300- and 500-m buffers and availability of green and blue spaces >5000 m2 in 300-m buffers were calculated using Geographic Information Systems software. Residential NO2 values were estimated using land use regression models. Internalizing, externalizing and total problems scores were obtained with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Linear and logistic mixed-effects models revealed unequal distribution of environmental exposures by SES and maternal education but did not show statistically significant associations between greenness and blueness metrics and mental health indicators. The protective effect of green and blue spaces on children's mental health could not be confirmed in this study and therefore further research is required.

Does exposure to nature make children more intelligent? Analysis in Polish children with and without ADHD

Previous studies have shown that exposure to nature and physical activity (PA) may be associated with higher intelligence in children. We examined whether there is an association between lifelong exposure to greenspace and bluespace and intelligence in children aged 10-13 with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and whether PA mediates this association. The sample (N = 714) was collected within the NeuroSmog case-control study, where children with (N = 206) and without ADHD (N = 508) were recruited from 18 towns in Southern Poland. Nature exposure was estimated as the sum of the z-scores of the objective and perceived measures. Objective greenspace exposure was defined as the percentage of grass and tree cover in 500 m and 1 km buffers around lifelong residential addresses, respectively. Objective bluespace exposure was defined as the percentage of water cover in 500 m and 1 km buffers. Perceived greenspace/bluespace was measured as the parent-rated availability, quality, and use of greenspace/bluespace. Intelligence was assessed using the Polish version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th edition (SB5). SB5 Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Nonverbal IQ, Verbal IQ, five factor and ten subtest scores were analysed as outcomes. The associations between nature and IQ scores were assessed by linear regressions separately for cases and controls, adjusting the models for sex, parental education, and urbanicity. Structural equation modeling was implemented to test whether PA mediated the association between nature and intelligence. None of the greenspace or bluespace measures were consistently associated with intelligence. PA was not found to be a mediator. We did not find evidence that higher lifelong nature exposure is associated with higher intelligence in Polish schoolchildren with or without ADHD. This casts doubts on whether exposure to nature has relevant influence on IQ.

What can drawings tell us about children's perceptions of nature?

The growing disconnect between children and nature has led to concerns around the loss of ecological knowledge and reduced nature connection. Understanding children's perceptions of nature is vital for engaging them with local wildlife and mitigating this growing disconnect. This study investigated children's perceptions of nature by analysing 401 drawings made by children (aged 7-11) of their local green spaces, collected from 12 different English schools, including state-funded and privately funded. We assessed which animal and plant groups were drawn the most and least often, quantified each drawing's species richness and community composition, and identified all terms used in the drawings to the highest taxonomic resolution possible. The most commonly drawn groups were mammals (80.5% of drawings) and birds (68.6% of drawings), while herpetofauna were the least commonly drawn (15.7% of drawings). Despite not explicitly being asked about plants, 91.3% of drawings contained a plant. Taxonomic resolution was highest for mammals and birds, with 90% of domestic mammals and 69.6% of garden birds identifiable to species, compared to 18.5% of insects and 14.3% of herpetofauna. No invertebrates other than insects were identifiable to species. Within plants, trees and crops were the most identifiable to species, at 52.6% and 25% of terms respectively. Drawings from state-school children had higher plant richness than those from private-school children. Animal community composition differed between school funding types, with more types of garden birds drawn by private-school than state-school children, and more types of invertebrates drawn by state-school than private-school children. Our findings indicate that children's perceptions of local wildlife are focused on mammals and birds. While plants feature prominently, plant knowledge is less specific than animal knowledge. We suggest that this skew in children's ecological awareness be addressed through better integration of ecology within national curricula and more funding for green space within schools.

Diversity of Studies on Neighborhood Greenspace and Brain Health by Racialized/Ethnic Group and Geographic Region: A Rapid Review

Studies examining associations between greenspace and Alzheimer's disease and related dementia (ADRD) outcomes are rapidly on the rise, yet no known literature reviews have summarized the racialized/ethnic group and geographic variation of those published studies. This is a significant gap given the known disparities in both greenspace access and ADRD risk between racialized/ethnic groups and between developed versus developing countries. In this rapid literature review, we (1) describe the diversity of published greenspace-brain health studies with respect to racialized/ethnic groups and geographic regions; (2) determine the extent to which published studies have investigated racialized/ethnic group differences in associations; and (3) review methodological issues surrounding studies of racialized/ethnic group disparities in greenspace and brain health associations. Of the 57 papers meeting our inclusion criteria as of 4 March 2022, 21% (n = 12) explicitly identified and included individuals who were Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and/or Asian. Twenty-one percent of studies (n = 12) were conducted in developing countries (e.g., China, Dominican Republic, Mexico), and 7% (n = 4) examined racialized/ethnic group differences in greenspace-brain health associations. None of the studies were framed by health disparities, social/structural determinants of health, or related frameworks, despite the known differences in both greenspace availability/quality and dementia risk by racialized/ethnic group and geography. Studies are needed in developing countries and that directly investigate racialized/ethnic group disparities in greenspace-brain health associations to target and promote health equity.

Exposure to greenspace and bluespace and cognitive functioning in children - A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The field of greenspace and bluespace research in relation to cognitive outcomes is rapidly growing. Several systematic reviews have already been published on this topic but none of them are specific to cognitive outcomes in the entire age range of children. Moreover, only a few of them have examined the effects of bluespace in addition to greenspace. Also, theses reviews are focused either only on observational studies or experimental studies. Our systematic review focuses on cognitive outcomes in relation to greenspace and bluespace in children and adolescents aged 0-18; it captures both observational and experimental studies. Cognitive outcomes are presented according to an evidence-based taxonomy of human cognitive abilities: the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory.

METHODS

We conducted searches in the PubMed and PsychInfo databases, from their inception dates to 17 December 2021. We used three-text terms related to outcome, exposure, and population as well as MeSH terms for outcome and population. Further, the reference lists and existing reviews were searched ("snowball" search) until 21 April 2022 to detect additional studies. For the results reporting, we followed the updated guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA). We included observational and experimental studies on greenspace or bluespace exposure in relation to cognitive functioning, published in English, German, or Polish. Two reviewers independently checked study eligibility and extracted data. Two reviewers evaluated the risk of bias according to the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) tool. At all stages, discrepancies between the two reviewers were solved via discussion with a third reviewer.

RESULTS

Records identified from PubMed (n = 2030) and PsycINFO (n = 1168) were deduplicated and screened. Twenty one reports were first selected. The "snowball" search revealed 16 additional reports. Altogether, 39 studies (17 experimental and 22 observational) published in 37 reports were qualified. The data extraction showed that the methodology used in the studies was heterogenous and the findings were inconsistent. The majority of the studies investigated attentional functioning, which we subdivided into two categories according to the CHC theory: attentional control and reaction and decision speed (12 studies) and attentional control and processing speed (10 studies). Eleven studies investigated working memory and/or short-term memory that we categorized as CHC working memory capacity. Nine studies investigated intellectual functioning, which we categorized as CHC general ability, fluid reasoning, and comprehension-knowledge. Two studies investigated visual-spatial skills, which we categorized as CHC visual processing and psychomotor speed. One study measured parent-reported attention; two studies examined early childhood/cognitive development; three studies examined decision-making and self-regulation, which can be categorized as several CHC theory abilities.

DISCUSSION

The heterogeneity of the included studies does not permit clear conclusions for our review. In accordance with previous systematic reviews, greenspace and bluespace were not more strongly related to a particular domain of cognitive functioning than other cognitive domains, and no effects of age or type of exposure assessment on the association between nature and cognition were detected. Further research is needed, including state-of-the-art of assessment of cognitive outcomes and diverse exposure assessment methods within both observational and experimental approaches. Expertise will be required in several domains, such as environmental epidemiology, cognitive psychology, and neuropsychology. Systematic review registration number (INPLASY): 202220018.

Residential green space improves cognitive performances in primary schoolchildren independent of traffic-related air pollution exposure

BACKGROUND

Cognitive performances of schoolchildren have been adversely associated with both recent and chronic exposure to ambient air pollution at the residence. In addition, growing evidence indicates that exposure to green space is associated with a wide range of health benefits. Therefore, we aimed to investigate if surrounding green space at the residence improves cognitive performance of primary schoolchildren while taking into account air pollution exposure.

METHODS

Cognitive performance tests were administered repeatedly to a total of 307 primary schoolchildren aged 9-12y, living in Flanders, Belgium (2012-2014). These tests covered three cognitive domains: attention (Stroop and Continuous Performance Tests), short-term memory (Digit Span Forward and Backward Tests), and visual information processing speed (Digit-Symbol and Pattern Comparison Tests). Green space exposure was estimated within several radii around their current residence (50 m to 2000 m), using a aerial photo-derived high-resolution (1 m²) land cover map. Furthermore, air pollution exposure to PM_2.5 and NO₂ during the year before examination was modelled for the child's residence using a spatial-temporal interpolation method.

RESULTS

An improvement of the children's attention was found with more residential green space exposure independent of traffic-related air pollution. For an interquartile range increment (21%) of green space within 100 m of the residence, a significantly lower mean reaction time was observed independent of NO₂ for both the sustained-selective (-9.74 ms, 95% CI: -16.6 to -2.9 ms, p = 0.006) and the selective attention outcomes (-65.90 ms, 95% CI: -117.0 to -14.8 ms, p = 0.01). Moreover, green space exposure within a large radius (2000 m) around the residence was significantly associated with a better performance in short-term memory (Digit-Span Forward Test) and a higher visual information processing speed (Pattern Comparison Test), taking into account traffic-related exposure. However, all associations were attenuated after taking into account long-term residential PM_2.5 exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Our panel study showed that exposure to residential surrounding green space was associated with better cognitive performances at 9-12 years of age, taking into account traffic-related air pollution exposure. These findings support the necessity to build attractive green spaces in the residential environment to promote healthy cognitive development in children.

The Association between Physical Environment and Externalising Problems in Typically Developing and Neurodiverse Children and Young People: A Narrative Review

The physical environment is of critical importance to child development. Understanding how exposure to physical environmental domains such as greenspace, urbanicity, air pollution or noise affects aggressive behaviours in typical and neurodiverse children is of particular importance given the significant long-term impact of those problems. In this narrative review, we investigated the evidence for domains of the physical environment that may ameliorate or contribute to the display of aggressive behaviours. We have considered a broad range of study designs that include typically developing and neurodiverse children and young people aged 0-18 years. We used the GRADE system to appraise the evidence. Searches were performed in eight databases in July 2020 and updated in June 2022. Additional articles were further identified by hand-searching reference lists of included papers. The protocol for the review was preregistered with PROSPERO. Results: We retrieved 7174 studies of which 67 are included in this review. The studies reported on green space, environmental noise and music, air pollution, meteorological effects, spatial density, urban or rural setting, and interior home elements (e.g., damp/sensory aspects/colour). They all used well validated parent and child reported measures of aggressive behaviour. Most of the studies were rated as having low or unclear risk of bias. As expected, noise, air pollution, urbanicity, spatial density, colour and humidity appeared to increase the display of aggressive behaviours. There was a dearth of studies on the role of the physical environment in neurodiverse children. The studies were heterogeneous and measured a range of aggressive behaviours from symptoms to full syndromes. Greenspace exposure was the most common domain studied but certainty of evidence for the association between environmental exposures and aggression problems in the child or young person was low across all domains. We found a large knowledge gap in the literature concerning neurodiverse children, which suggests that future studies should focus on these children, who are also more likely to experience adverse early life experiences including living in more deprived environments as well as being highly vulnerable to the onset of mental ill health. Such research should also aim to dis-aggregate the underlying aetiological mechanisms for environmental influences on aggression, the results of which may point to pathways for public health interventions and policy development to address inequities that can be relevant to ill health in neurodiverse young people.

Residential greenness and dyslipidemia risk: Dose-response relations and mediation through BMI and air pollution

BACKGROUND

Evidence on associations of residential greenness with dyslipidemia is limited, particularly regarding dose-response relations and mediation.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate associations between greenness and dyslipidemia, non-linear dose-response relationships and mediators.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study draws on the 2018 Fujian Behavior and Disease Surveillance (FBDS) cohort that used multi-stage stratified random sampling from the general population of Fujian Province, China. Participants with one or more abnormities in total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), or low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) were classified as having dyslipidemia. Residential greenness was operationalized as 3-year average of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI_500m) and enhanced vegetation index (EVI_500m). A doubly robust approach was used for effect quantification. Dose-response relations were studied with natural cubic splines. Mediation via physical activity (PA), body mass index (BMI), PM_2.5, PM₁₀, SO₂, and NO₂ was also examined.

RESULTS

Data from 43,183 participants were analyzed. Increases in NDVI_500m and EVI_500m residential greenness were associated with decreased dyslipidemia risk and improved blood lipids. Non-linear dose response relationships were discovered. Significant reduction of dyslipidemia risk was observed at levels of EVI_500m > 0.48 and NDVI_500m > 0.65. Joint mediation effects of PA, BMI, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, NO₂, and SO₂ on the associations of NDVI_500m and EVI_500m with dyslipidemia risk were 49.74% and 44.64%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased residential exposure to greenness was associated with decreased risk of dyslipidemia. A non-linear dose-response relationship between greenness and dyslipidemia suggests that specific thresholds of greenness need to be reached in order to achieve effects. BMI, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀ partially mediated the association.

Epigenome-wide analysis of maternal exposure to green space during gestation and cord blood DNA methylation in the ENVIRONAGE cohort

BACKGROUND

DNA methylation programming is sensitive to prenatal life environmental influences, but the impact of maternal exposure to green space on newborns DNA methylation has not been studied yet.

METHODS

We conducted a meta-epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) of maternal exposure to green space during gestation with cord blood DNA methylation in two subsets of the ENVIRONAGE cohort (N = 538). Cord blood DNA methylation was measured by Illumina HumanMethylation 450K in one subset (N = 189) and EPICarray in another (N = 349). High (vegetation height>3 m (m)), low (vegetation height<3 m) and total (including both) high-resolution green space exposures during pregnancy were estimated within 100 m and 1000 m distance around maternal residence. In each subset, we sought cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) sites via linear mixed models adjusted on newborns' sex, ethnicity, gestational age, season at delivery, sampling day, maternal parity, age, smoking, education, and estimated blood cell proportions. EWASs results were meta-analysed via fixed-effects meta-analyses. Differentially methylated regions (DMRs) were identified via ENmix-combp and DMRcate algorithms. Sensitivity analyses were additionally adjusted on PM_2.5, distance to major roads, urbanicity and neighborhood income. In the 450K subset, cord blood expression of differentially methylated genes was measured by Agilent microarrays and associated with green space.

RESULTS

147 DMRs were identified, 85 of which were still significant upon adjustment for PM_2.5, distance to major roads, urbanicity and neighborhood income, including HLA-DRB5, RPTOR, KCNQ1DN, A1BG-AS1, HTR2A, ZNF274, COL11A1 and PRSS36 DMRs. One CpG reached genome-wide significance, while 54 CpGs were suggestive significant (p-values<1e-05). Among them, a CpG, hypermethylated with 100 m buffer total green space, was annotated to PAQR9, whose expression decreased with 1000 m buffer low green space (p-value = 1.45e-05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that maternal exposure to green space during pregnancy is associated with cord blood DNA methylation, mainly at loci organized in regions, in genes playing important roles in neurological development (e.g., HTR2A).

Long-term results of liver transplantation for maple syrup urine disease: A single-center experience in Turkey

OBJECTIVES

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is an autosomal recessive inherited disorder. Despite the advances in medical nutrition therapies, classical phenotype causes severe neurological disorders and sudden death. It is known that MSUD patients do not experience metabolic attacks despite their free diet after liver transplantation (LT). This study aims to reveal the long-term results, development, mental, motor, intellectual and nutritional status of MSUD patients who underwent LT.

METHODS

The data of 12 patients who underwent deceased donor (5 recipients) and living donor liver transplantation (7 recipients) were retrospectively analyzed. The age, genotype, psychometric and mental status, development, BCAA values, type of LT, donor-recipient proximity, complications, and survival were assessed.

RESULTS

There were 4 (33%) girls and 8 (67%) boys. The mean current age was 9.33 ± 4.58 years. The mean follow-up time was 3 ± 2.5 years. The repeated measures of leucine and isoleucine values revealed that there were no significant differences from the pre-LT to post-LT 1-year. The protein-restricted nutrition was switched to a free diet when oral intake was opened after LT. None of the recipients experienced metabolic attacks after the living donor or deceased donor LT. The 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival rate of the patients is 83.3%. There was no significant difference in survival between living and deceased donor liver transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Liver transplantation is a treatment option for MSUD in proper conditions to save the patient life, increase the quality of life, and provide essential amino acids with free diet intake for growth and development.

Associations between urban birth or childhood trauma and first-episode schizophrenia mediated by low IQ

Exposure to urban birth, childhood trauma, and lower Intelligence Quotient (IQ) were the most well-established risk factors for schizophrenia in developed countries. In developing countries, whether urban birth is a risk factor for schizophrenia and how these factors are related to one another remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate whether IQ mediates the relationship between urban birth or childhood trauma and first-episode schizophrenia (FES) in China. Birthplace, childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ), and IQ were collected from 144 patients with FES and 256 healthy controls (HCs). Hierarchical logistic regression analysis was conducted to investigate the associations between birthplace, childhood trauma, IQ, and FES. Furthermore, mediation analysis was used to explore the mediation of IQ in the relationship between birthplace or childhood trauma and FES. After adjusting for age, sex and educational attainment, the final model identified urban birth (odds ratio (OR) = 3.15, 95% CI = 1.54, 6.44) and childhood trauma (OR = 2.79, 95% CI = 1.92, 4.06) were associated an elevated risk for FES. The 52.94% total effect of birthplace on the risk of FES could be offset by IQ (indirect effect/direct effect). The association between childhood trauma and FES could be partly explained by IQ (22.5%). In total, the mediation model explained 70.5% of the total variance in FES. Our study provides evidence that urban birth and childhood trauma are associated with an increased risk of FES. Furthermore, IQ mediates the relationship between urban birth or childhood trauma and FES.

Tourism as a Tool in Nature-Based Mental Health: Progress and Prospects Post-Pandemic

The healthcare sector recognises the role of nature in mental health. The tourism sector is equipped to take people to national parks. The conservation sector gains support from visitors. Theoretical frameworks for mental health benefits from nature tourism include: tourism destinations and activities; tourist personalities and life histories; sensory and emotional components of tourist experiences; and intensity and duration of memories. Mental health deteriorated worldwide during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recovery of global economic productivity requires immediate, accessible, affordable mental health measures at national scales, and nature-based approaches provide the best option. Different countries have adopted a variety of public, private, or voluntary mechanisms. Some focus on design of activities, others on provision of facilities. Costs and implementation depend on key research questions: marginal benefits of nature tour guides or psychologists compared to self-guided nature experiences; comparisons between repeated brief visits and one-off nature holidays; effects of biodiversity, flagship species, and scenic or wilderness quality; and differences between individuals, depending on personalities, life histories, and mental health status and symptoms.

Predictors and occurrence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in children undergoing noncardiac surgery: A prospective cohort study

In children after cardiac surgery, alterations in cognitive ability and behavior are increasingly common, but whether postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) occurs in children undergoing noncardiac surgery is not known. The present study was performed to investigate the incidence rate and potential risk factors of early neurocognitive dysfunction in children after noncardiac surgery. Two hundred patients aged between 4 and 14 years old underwent elective noncardiac surgery and 100 healthy age-matched controls were enrolled in this prospective observational study. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence or Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised were conducted 1 day before and 3 days after surgery. POCD was calculated and diagnosed as a combined Z score. Any factors that differed between POCD and non-POCD group (p < 0.10) were tested together by multivariate logistic regression analysis against the cognitive outcome of patients, to find out the independent risk factors of POCD. The general incidence of POCD was 15.6%. The univariate analysis revealed that POCD was associated with general anesthesia, surgical and anesthesia duration, early postoperative fever (EPF), and surgical history. However, only the history of surgery (p = 0.029), anesthesia duration (p = 0.010), and EPF (p < 0.001) were demonstrated to be independent risk factors for POCD. The occurrence rate of early POCD after noncardiac surgery in children is 15.6%. Children who had surgical history, longer anesthesia duration, or EPF are more prone to develop POCD.

Associations of residential greenness, ambient air pollution, biological sex, and glucocorticoids levels in rural China

AIMS

To evaluate the associations between residential greenness and glucocorticoid levels and whether air pollutants and sex modify the relationship between greenness and glucocorticoid level in Chinese rural adults.

METHODS

We collected cross-sectional survey data from 6055 participants from the Henan Rural cohort. The three-year average residential greenness for participants was assessed using normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values from a satellite platform. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was employed to quantify the concentrations of glucocorticoids, which were measured by morning blood draw after at least 8 hr of fasting. A random forest model was employed to obtain the average concentrations of PM₁, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀. A general linear regression model was performed to estimate the associations of NDVI_500-m values with cortisol, 11-deoxycortisol, and cortisone. Furthermore, interaction plots were used to present the interaction effects of particulate matter, sex, and green space on glucocorticoid levels.

RESULTS

After adjusting for multiple variables, an elevated average NDVI_500-m value in the total population was associated with a decrease in cortisol levels (β = -0.063, 95 % confidence interval (CI): - 0.118, - 0.008), and 11-deoxycortisol levels (β = -0.118, 95 % CI: -0.190, -0.047), as well as an increase in cortisone levels (β = 0.130, 95 % CI: 0.079, 0.181). By adding the interaction terms of air pollutants and residential greenness into the regression model, interaction effects between air pollutants and residential greenness were found (cortisol, PM_2.5: P interaction=:0.018; PM₁₀: P interaction=0.016; 11-deoxycortisol, all pollutants: P interaction< 0.001), suggesting that the protective effect of residential greenness on serum glucocorticoids disappeared accompanying with increased concentrations of particulate matter. Moreover, trends towards modification in the association between green space and glucocorticoid levels were also evident by sex, but these did not reach statistical significance (for all glucocorticoids: P interaction> 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Long-term exposure to green space was negatively correlated with cortisol and 11-deoxycortisol levels, and positively correlated with cortisone levels. There may be sex differences in these associations. Moreover, the protective effect of residential greenness on serum glucocorticoids was altered by high levels of particulate matter.

Growing up green: a systematic review of the influence of greenspace on youth development and health outcomes

Youth growing up in places with more greenspaces have better developmental outcomes. The literature on greenspace and youth development is largely cross-sectional, thus limited in terms of measuring development and establishing causal inference. We conducted a systematic review of prospective, longitudinal studies measuring the association between greenspace exposure and youth development outcomes measured between ages two and eighteen. We searched Cochrane, PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, and Environment Complete, and included prospective cohort, quasi-experimental, and experimental studies on greenspace and youth development. Study quality was assessed using a 10-item checklist adapted from a previously published review on greenspace and health. Twenty-eight studies met criteria for review and were grouped into five thematic categories based on reported outcomes: cognitive and brain development, mental health and wellbeing, attention and behavior, allergy and respiratory, and obesity and weight. Seventy-nine percent of studies suggest an association between greenspace and improved youth development. Most studies were concentrated in wealthy, Western European countries, limiting generalizability of findings. Key opportunities for future research include: (1) improved uniformity of standards in measuring greenspace, (2) improved measures to account for large latency periods between greenspace exposure and developmental outcomes, and (3) more diverse study settings and populations.

Residential green space in association with the methylation status in a CpG site within the promoter region of the placental serotonin receptor HTR2A

Green space could influence adult cognition and childhood neurodevelopment , and is hypothesized to be partly driven by epigenetic modifications. However, it remains unknown whether some of these associations are already evident during foetal development. Similar biological signals shape the developmental processes in the foetal brain and placenta.Therefore, we hypothesize that green space can modify epigenetic processes of cognition-related pathways in placental tissue, such as DNA-methylation of the serotonin receptor HTR2A. HTR2A-methylation was determined within 327 placentas from the ENVIRONAGE (ENVIRonmental influence ON early AGEing) birth cohort using bisulphite-PCR-pyrosequencing. Total green space exposure was calculated using high-resolution land cover data derived from the Green Map of Flanders in seven buffers (50 m-3 km) and stratified into low (<3 m) and high (≥3 m) vegetation. Residential nature was calculated using the Land use Map of Flanders. We performed multivariate regression models adjusted for several a priori chosen covariables. For an IQR increment in total green space within a 1,000 m, 2,000 m and 3,000 m buffer the methylation of HTR2A increased with 1.47% (95%CI:0.17;2.78), 1.52% (95%CI:0.21;2.83) and 1.42% (95%CI:0.15;2.69), respectively. Additionally,, we found 3.00% (95%CI:1.09;4.91) and 1.98% (95%CI:0.28;3.68) higher HTR2A-methylation when comparing residences with and without the presence of nature in a 50 m and 100 m buffer, respectively. The methylation status of HTR2A in placental tissue is positively associated with maternal green space exposure. Future research is needed to understand better how these epigenetic changes are related to functional modifications in the placenta and the consequent implications for foetal development.

Greenspace exposure and children behavior: A systematic review

We systematically reviewed the existing evidence (until end of November 2021) on the association between long-term exposure to greenspace and behavioral problems in children according to the PRISMA 2020. The review finally reached 29 relevant studies of which, 17 were cross-sectional, 11 were cohort, and one was a case-control. Most of the studies were conducted in Europe (n = 14), followed by the USA (n = 8), and mainly (n = 21) from 2015 onwards. The overall quality of the studies in terms of risk of bias was "fair" (mean quality score = 5.4 out of 9) according to the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Thirteen studies (45%) had good or very good quality in terms of risk of bias. The strength and difficulty questionnaire was the most common outcome assessment instrument. Exposure to the greenspace in the reviewed studies was characterized based on different indices (availability, accessibility, and quality), mostly at residential address locations. Association of exposure to different types of greenspace were reported for nine different behavioral outcomes including total behavioral difficulties (n = 16), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and severity (n = 15), ADHD diagnosis (n = 10), conduct problems (n = 10), prosocial behavior (n = 10), emotional symptoms (n = 8), peer-relationship problems (n = 8), externalizing disorders (n = 6), and internalizing disorders (n = 5). Most of the reported associations (except for conduct problems) were suggestive of beneficial association of greenspace exposure with children's behaviors; however, the studies were heterogeneous in terms of their exposure indicators, study design, and the outcome definition.

Social Inequalities in the Association between Social Infrastructure and Mental Health: An Observational Cross-Sectional Analysis of Children and Adolescents in Germany

The mental health (MH) of especially children and adolescents with low socioeconomic status (SES) benefits from access to greenspaces. This study aimed at investigating social inequalities in the association between several types of social infrastructure (SI) and MH in children and adolescents. The sample comprised 12,624 children and adolescents of the KiGGS Wave 2 study (2014-2017). KiGGS provided information on SI (access to playgrounds, sports fields, swimming pools, parks) for all children and the environmental module (GerES V) within KiGGS on the walking time to SI for a subsample. Social inequality was measured by parental SES and the German Index of Socioeconomic deprivation and MH by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Ordinal logistic regression analyses showed that access to fewer SI places was associated with higher odds of MH problems. Children and adolescents experiencing high (but not medium or low) socioeconomic deprivation at the municipal level were more likely to have MH problems when having less access to SI places. At the individual level, MH problems in high- and low-SES, but not medium-SES children and adolescents were associated with no access to SI places. Children and adolescents from high socioeconomically deprived areas and with low and high SES might benefit from high-availability SI.

Entitlement, Indeterminacy and Professional Discretion in Urban Planning: Problematising a Child’s Right to Clean Air for Play in London

The interaction between air quality and play space receives less focus in planning than it has in public health and environmental sciences research. In this paper, seven local planning authorities of inner London (UK) were sampled from the 10 boroughs with the worst air quality in parks. Greenwich, with significantly better air quality, was included for comparison. The selected authorities were validated against deprivation data, ensuring variance in socio-economic terms. Across this sample, 21 major residential planning applications were assessed, alongside a document analysis of planning policy documents for each authority. Lastly, five semi-structured interviews with different practitioners collectively provided multi-disciplinary perspectives on the planning processes across the sample. Despite the national government having conferred children a right to leisure space and a healthy environment via international conventions, the English planning system, as an institutional rights framework, is not consistently prioritising the delivery of children’s play space nor delivering play space where the air quality has been robustly assessed. In other words, such rights have been subjugated to other priorities in limited urban space in London. Therefore, a discretionary planning system does not preclude individual human rights from becoming disadvantaged under democratically controlled decision-making processes.

The influence of early-life residential exposure to different vegetation types and paved surfaces on early childhood development: A population-based birth cohort study

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence suggests that exposure to green space is associated with improved childhood health and development, but the influence of different green space types remains relatively unexplored. In the present study, we investigated the association between early-life residential exposure to vegetation and early childhood development and evaluated whether associations differed according to land cover types, including paved land.

METHODS

Early childhood development was assessed via kindergarten teacher-ratings on the Early Development Instrument (EDI) in a large population-based birth cohort (n = 27,539) in Metro Vancouver, Canada. The residential surrounding environment was characterized using a high spatial resolution land cover map that was linked to children by six-digit residential postal codes. Early-life residential exposure (from birth to time of EDI assessment, mean age = 5.6 years) was calculated as the mean of annual percentage values of different land cover classes (i.e., total vegetation, tree cover, grass cover, paved surfaces) within a 250 m buffer zone of postal code centroids. Multilevel models were used to analyze associations between respective land cover classes and early childhood development.

RESULTS

In adjusted models, one interquartile range increase in total vegetation percentage was associated with a 0.33 increase in total EDI score (95% CI: 0.21, 0.45). Similar positive associations were observed for tree cover (β-coefficient: 0.26, 95% CI: 0.15, 0.37) and grass cover (β-coefficient: 0.12, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.22), while negative associations were observed for paved surfaces (β-coefficient: -0.35, 95% CI: -0.47, -0.23).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that increased early-life residential exposure to vegetation is positively associated with early childhood developmental outcomes, and that associations may be stronger for residential exposure to tree cover relative to grass cover. Our results further indicate that childhood development may be negatively associated with residential exposure to paved surfaces. These findings can inform urban planning to support early childhood developmental health.

Does exposure to greenness improve children's neuropsychological development and mental health? A Navigation Guide systematic review of observational evidence for associations

BACKGROUND

Contact with nature may have a key role in child brain development. Recent observational studies have reported improvements in children's neuropsychological development and mental health associated with greenness exposure. In a rapidly urbanizing word, researchers, policymakers, healthcare workers and urban planners need to work together to elaborate evidence-based policies and interventions to increase the availability of quality green space with the potential to enhance childhood development.

OBJECTIVE

To review the observational evidence assessing the effect of exposure to greenness on children's neuropsychological development and mental health.

METHODS

The protocol for the review was preregistered at PROSPERO (CRD42020213838). The Navigation Guide systematic review methodology was followed. Search strategies were formulated and adapted to each database. Searches were performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and EBSCO's GreenFILE on October 5, 2021. Additional articles were further identified by hand-searching reference lists of included papers.

RESULTS

A systematic search of 4 databases identified 621 studies, of which 34 were included in the review. The studies included investigated diverse domains within neuropsychological development and mental health, such as attention, working memory, intelligence, cognitive development, academic performance, well-being, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, and behavior. Most of the studies were rated as having high or probably high risk of bias in the assessment.

DISCUSSION

Although nearly all studies showed a positive association between greenness exposure and the outcomes studied, the heterogeneity in the methods used to assess exposure and the diversity of domains within each main outcome has made it difficult to draw clear conclusions. Future studies should adopt a longitudinal design to confirm the causality of the associations and include measures to determine which characteristics of greenness have the greatest influence on each domain. Researchers should also try to explore pathways linking exposure to greenness with the neuropsychological development and mental health, by implementing mechanistic studies.

Residential and school green and blue spaces and intelligence in children: The Generation XXI birth cohort

Green and blue spaces have numerous health benefits. It has been hypothesized that contact with these spaces can have an important role in cognitive development, because it provides children with unique stimuli that can help develop curiosity, creativity, awareness, and control. This study aimed to estimate the association between exposure to green and blue spaces and the various measures of intelligence quotient (IQ) among children from Porto Metropolitan Area (Portugal). This investigation used data from the Generation XXI birth cohort. Exposure was assessed by Geographic Information Systems using vegetation indexes and measures of accessibility to urban green spaces and blue spaces in the surroundings of the residence and school, measured at 0, 4, 7 and 10 years. The outcome was the verbal, performance, and global IQ, measured using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III), administered at age 10. Associations were estimated using crude and adjusted multilevel models. The mediation role of air pollution and physical activity was quantified. This study included 3827 children. The adjusted models showed that having green spaces up to 800 m of the residence was positively associated with performance IQ (1.30 95%CI [0.26; 2.35]) and global IQ (1.27 [0.18; 2.36]). No clear associations were observed regarding accessibility to blue spaces. Physical activity appeared to have a minor mediation role. Children with urban green spaces around their residences had higher performance and global IQ. Local actors in the sectors of public health and urban planning should promote the creation of green spaces close to residential areas.

From Childhood Residential Green space to Adult Mental Wellbeing: A Pathway Analysis among Chinese Adults

Residential green spaces, arguably the most accessible type of urban green space, may have lasting impacts on children and even change their lives later in adulthood. However, the potential pathways from childhood residential green space to adulthood mental wellbeing are not well understood. Therefore, we conducted a questionnaire survey among Chinese adults (N = 770) in September 2021 to capture data on subjective measures of residential green space and nature contact during childhood, and nature connectedness, nature contact, and mental wellbeing during adulthood. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to examine theoretical pathways between childhood residential green space and adult mental wellbeing. The results suggest that childhood residential green space positively predicts childhood nature contact and also has direct and indirect positive impacts on nature contact, nature connectedness, and mental wellbeing during adulthood. These findings advance understanding of the long-term impacts of childhood residential green space. Policymakers are advised to prioritize residential greening as well as other recreational facilities for children when planning health-promoting environments in urban spaces. Due to limitations in our study design, we also advise future studies to re-examine and extend the framework documented here.

Early life exposure to residential green space impacts cognitive functioning in children aged 4 to 6 years

INTRODUCTION

During early childhood, neuronal networks are highly susceptible to environmental factors. Previous research suggests that green space exposure is beneficial for cognitive functioning. Here, we investigate the associations between residential green space exposure and behavioral problems and cognitive development in children aged four to six years.

METHOD

We included children participating in the ENVIRONAGE birth cohort. Residential green spaces were calculated based on high-resolution land cover data within several buffers (50-1,000 m) around the residence. The children's behavior was assessed with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) among 411 children. In addition, to evaluate cognitive function, 456 children completed four tasks of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). We used multivariate logistic and linear regression models while accounting for potential confounders and covariables.

RESULTS

An interquartile (IQR) increase of residential green space within 50 m was associated with a 38% (95% CI: 56;14) lower odds of a child having hyperactivity problems. Additionally, we found a beneficial influence of residential green space in close proximity (50-100 m) on the attention and psychomotor speed, represented by the Motor Screening Task. For example, we found a decrease of 0.45 (95% CI: -0.82;-0.09) pixel units from target center with an IQR increase of residential green space in a 50 m buffer. In addition, we observed an improved visual recognition/working memory, represented by the Delayed Matching to Sample Task within all included buffers (50-1000 m). For example, we observed a decrease of 4.91% (95 %CI: -7.46;-2.36) probability of an error occurring if the previous trial was correct and a 2.02% (95 %CI: 0.08; 3.97) increase of correct trials with an IQR increase of green space within a 100 m buffer.

CONCLUSION

This study provides additional indications for a beneficial influence of green space exposure on the development of behavioral problems and cognitive function as young as four years of age.

Willingness to Pay for Urban and Suburban Green

Peri-urban and urban green are considered among the basic priorities of the local government’s regional policy agenda, in line with the principles of spatial planning. This agenda is promoted at both the national and European levels through a variety of technical and institutional measures. Green spaces in urban and suburban areas are directly linked to the quality of life of urban residents and their environment. In this context, the purpose of this study is to investigate and identify the characteristics and factors that influence the residents of a small Greek city in terms of the value they attach to urban and suburban green spaces. These factors are identified through the residents’ willingness to pay (WTP) using the contingent valuation method (CVM). In general, the analysis aims to document the value of environmental economic methods as a tool in the management of natural heritage. According to the research, income and knowledge of environmental issues (global and local) as well as the benefits of green spaces (urban and suburban) are the key factors that drive residents to place a higher value on them. Future work may explore whether or how the COVID-19 pandemic affected city residents’ willingness to pay for green spaces.

Higher surrounding green space is associated with better attention in Flemish adolescents

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies suggested that green space is beneficial for the cognitive development in children. However, evidence in adolescents is limited. Therefore, we aim to investigate green space exposure in association with attention and behaviour in adolescents.

METHODS

This study includes 596 Flemish adolescents between 13 and 17 years old. Attention was assessed with Stroop Test (selective attention) and Continuous Performance Test (sustained and selective attention). Behaviour was determined based on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Green space was estimated in several radius distances around their current residence and school based on high-resolution land cover data. Multilevel regression analyses were used adjusting for participant's age, sex, education level of the mother, and area deprivation index.

RESULTS

Surrounding green space in a 2000 m radius is associated with a faster reaction time in adolescents. An IQR (13%) increment in total green space within 2000 m of the residence and school combined, is associated with a 32.7 ms (95% CI: -58.9 to -6.5; p = 0.02) and a 7.28 ms (95% CI: -11.7 to -2.8; p = 0.001) shorter mean reaction time between the presentation of a stimulus and the response based on the Stroop Test and the Continuous Performance Test. Subdividing green space based on vegetation height, shows that green space higher than 3 m is associated with a faster reaction time of the Continuous Performance Test (-6.50 ms; 95% CI: -10.9 to -2.2; p = 0.004), while low green is not. We did not find an association between green space and behavioural development in adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that green space, especially trees, surrounding the residence and school combined is associated with better sustained and selected attention in adolescents. These findings indicate that the availability of green is important for adolescents that are growing up in a rapidly urbanizing world.

Early-Life Exposure to Green Space and Mid-Childhood Cognition in the Project Viva Cohort, Massachusetts

The association between early-life greenness and child cognition is not well understood. Using prospective data from Project Viva (n = 857) from 1999-2010, we examined associations of early-life greenness exposure with mid-childhood cognition. We estimated residential greenness at birth, early childhood (median age 3.1 years), and mid-childhood (7.8 years) using 30-m resolution Landsat satellite imagery (normalized difference vegetation index). In early childhood and mid-childhood, we administered standardized assessments of verbal and nonverbal intelligence, visual-motor abilities, and visual memory. We used natural splines to examine associations of early life-course greenness with mid-childhood cognition, adjusting for age, sex, race, income, neighborhood socioeconomic status, maternal intelligence, and parental education. At lower levels of greenness (greenness <0.6), greenness exposure at early childhood was associated with a 0.48% increase in nonverbal intelligence and 2.64% increase in visual memory in mid-childhood. The association between early-childhood greenness and mid-childhood visual memory was observed after further adjusting for early childhood cognition and across different methodologies, while the association with nonverbal intelligence was not. No other associations between early life-course greenness and mid-childhood cognition were found. Early childhood greenness was nonlinearly associated with higher mid-childhood visual memory. Our findings highlight the importance of nonlinear associations between greenness and cognition.

Is residential greenness associated with dyslipidemia and lipid levels in Chinese rural-dwelling adults? The Henan rural cohort study

Scarce epidemiologic research examined the associations between residential greenness and dyslipidemia or lipid levels in low/middle-income countries. Baseline statistics (2015-2017) of 39,259 rural-dwelling adults were obtained from a Chinese longitudinal study. The blood lipid level was measured utilizing an enzymatic assay method. According to the 2016 Chinese guidelines on dyslipidemia (revision), patients with dyslipidemia were defined. Participants' exposure to residential greenness was characterized by the satellite-based normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Mixed effects logistic regression and mixed effects linear regression were performed to assess the associations of residential greenness with dyslipidemia and lipid levels. The median (interquartile range, IQR) of 3-year average NDVI_1000-m was 0.521 (0.089) units. Each IQR increase in NDVI_1000-m was significantly linked with increased odds of hyperbetalipoproteinemia (OR = 1.33, 95%CI 1.21-1.46). The same increment in NDVI_1000-m was associated with lower total cholesterol (TC) levels and increased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels. For instance, the %changes in HDL-C levels was 0.71% (95%CI 0.17%-1.26%). The above relationships were partially mediated by reducing air pollution and lowering body mass index (BMI). Interaction effect analysis observed the greenness-lipid association was stronger in males than females (i.e., NDVI_1000-m-TC association). Long-term exposure to residential greenness was associated with odds of dyslipidemia and lipid levels in Chinese rural-dwelling adults, particularly among males. Considering the cross-sectional study design, more longitudinal studies are needed to identify the causal associations.

Early life exposure to greenness and executive function and behavior: An application of inverse probability weighting of marginal structural models

Increasingly, studies suggest benefits of natural environments or greenness on children's health. However, little is known about cumulative exposure or windows of susceptibility to greenness exposure. Using inverse probability weighting of marginal structural models (IPW/MSM), we estimated effects of greenness exposure from birth through adolescence on executive function and behavior. We analyzed data of 908 children from Project Viva enrolled at birth in 1999-2002 and followed up until early adolescence. In mid-childhood (median 7.7 years) and early adolescence (13.1 years), executive function and behavior were assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Greenness was measured at birth, early childhood, mid-childhood, and early adolescence, using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index. We used inverse probability weighting of marginal structural models to estimate effects of interventions that ensure maximum greenness exposure versus minimum through all intervals; and that ensure maximum greenness only in early childhood (vs. minimum through all intervals). Results of the effects of "maximum (vs. minimum) greenness at all timepoints" did not suggest associations with mid-childhood outcomes. Estimates of "maximum greenness only in early childhood (vs. minimum)" suggested a beneficial association with mid-childhood SDQ (-3.21, 99 %CI: -6.71,0.29 mother-rated; -4.02, 99 %CI: -7.87,-0.17 teacher-rated). No associations were observed with early adolescent outcomes. Our results for "persistent" maximum greenness exposure on behavior, were not conclusive with confidence intervals containing the null. The results for maximum greenness "only in early childhood" may shed light on sensitive periods of greenness exposure for behavior regulation.

Assessing the association between lifetime exposure to greenspace and early childhood development and the mediation effects of air pollution and noise in Canada: a population-based birth cohort study

BACKGROUND

Exposure to greenspace is associated with improved childhood development, but the pathways behind this relationship are insufficiently understood. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the association between lifetime residential exposure to greenspace and early childhood development and evaluate the extent to which this association is mediated by reductions in traffic-related air pollution and noise.

METHODS

This population-based birth cohort study comprised singleton births in Metro Vancouver, BC, Canada, between April 1, 2000, and Dec 31, 2005. Children and mothers had to be registered with the mandatory provincial health insurance programme, Medical Services Plan, and have lived within the study area from the child's birth to the time of outcome assessment. Early childhood development was assessed via teacher ratings on the Early Development Instrument (EDI), and we used the total EDI score as the primary outcome variable. We estimated greenspace using percentage vegetation derived from spectral unmixing of annual Landsat satellite image composites. Lifetime residential exposure to greenspace was estimated as the mean of annual percentage vegetation values within 250 m of participants' residential postal codes. Multilevel modelling, adjusted for eight covariates, was used to investigate associations between greenspace exposure and EDI scores. We estimated the mediation effects of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), fine particulate matter (PM_2·5), and noise levels using causal mediation analyses.

FINDINGS

Of the 37 745 children born in Metro Vancouver between April 1, 2000, and Dec 31, 2005, 27 372 were included in our final study sample. In the adjusted model, 1 IQR increase in percentage vegetation was associated with a 0·16 (95% CI 0·04-0·28; p=0·0073) increase in total EDI score, indicating small improvements in early childhood development. We estimated that 97·1% (95% CI 43·0-396·0), 29·5% (12·0-117·0), and 35·2% (17·9-139·0) of the association was mediated through reductions in NO₂, PM_2·5, and noise, respectively.

INTERPRETATION

Increased exposure to residential greenspace might improve childhood development by reducing the adverse developmental effects of traffic-related exposures, especially NO₂ air pollution. Our study supports the implementation of healthy urban planning and green infrastructure interventions.

FUNDING

Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Nature and Children's Health: A Systematic Review

CONTEXT

Daily outdoor play is encouraged by the American Academy of Pediatrics. Existing evidence is unclear on the independent effect of nature exposures on child health.

OBJECTIVE

We systematically evaluated evidence regarding the relationship between nature contact and children's health.

DATA SOURCES

The database search was conducted by using PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, PsychInfo, ERIC, Scopus, and Web of Science in February 2021.

STUDY SELECTION

We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. In all searches, the first element included nature terms; the second included child health outcome terms.

DATA EXTRACTION

Of the 10 940 studies identified, 296 were included. Study quality and risk of bias were assessed.

RESULTS

The strongest evidence for type of nature exposure was residential green space studies (n = 147, 50%). The strongest evidence for the beneficial health effects of nature was for physical activity (n = 108, 32%) and cognitive, behavioral, or mental health (n = 85, 25%). Physical activity was objectively measured in 55% of studies, and 41% of the cognitive, behavioral, or mental health studies were experimental in design.

LIMITATIONS

Types of nature exposures and health outcomes and behaviors were heterogenous. Risk of selection bias was moderate to high for all studies. Most studies were cross-sectional (n = 204, 69%), limiting our ability to assess causality.

CONCLUSIONS

Current literature supports a positive relationship between nature contact and children's health, especially for physical activity and mental health, both public health priorities. The evidence supports pediatricians in advocating for equitable nature contact for children in places where they live, play, and learn.

Socioeconomic Differences in Walking Time of Children and Adolescents to Public Green Spaces in Urban Areas-Results of the German Environmental Survey (2014-2017)

Public green spaces have a high potential for a positive impact on people's health and wellbeing, especially in urban areas. Studies on environmental justice indicate socially unequal access possibilities to urban green spaces. This article presents results on associations between individual socioeconomic position (SEP) and walking time from home to public green spaces in young people living in urban areas with more than 20,000 inhabitants in Germany. Data were derived from the German Environmental Survey for Children and Adolescents 2014-2017 (GerES V), the environmental module of the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS Wave 2). The sample comprises 1149 participants aged 3 to 17 years. A total of 51.5% of the participants reach a public green space on foot within five and 72.8% within ten minutes from home. The lower the participant's SEP, the longer the walking time. Logistic regression models controlling for age group, sex, migration background, and region of residence show that participants with a low SEP have a significantly higher risk (odds ratio = 1.98; 95% confidence interval: 1.31-2.99) of needing more than ten minutes to walk from home to a public green space than participants with a high SEP. GerES V data indicate that young people living in urban areas in Germany do not equally benefit from the health-promoting potential of green spaces, which is an important aspect of environmental health inequalities.

Enhancing Adolescent Girls' Well-Being in the Arctic-Finding What Motivates Spending Time in Nature

Background: According to previous studies, the natural environment positively influences well-being, including that of adolescent girls. However, knowledge is lacking on what motivates adolescent girls to spend time in nature. A secondary analysis of qualitative data was conducted employing three preexisting sets of interview data that had formed the basis of previously published research reports. A novel perspective on what motivates adolescent girls in the Arctic to spend time in nature was uncovered—a finding that previous articles have not reported. Aim: The aim was to describe what motivates adolescent girls in the Arctic to spend time in nature. Methods: The participants were adolescent girls aged 13 to 16 living in the province of Finnish Lapland. The girls wrote about well-being (n = 117) and were interviewed (n = 19) about the meaning of seasonal changes, nature and animals’ influence on well-being. Also, five focus group interviews (n = 17) were held. The materials were analyzed by inductive content analysis. Results: After the secondary analysis, three generic categories were found: (1) wanting to have pleasant emotions, (2) the possibility of participating in activities and (3) a desire to feel better. The main category of “need to experience positive sensations” was formed. Conclusion: Based on these results, through personalized guidance and advice, it is possible to strengthen adolescent girls’ willingness to spend time in nature.