Exposure to sublethal doses of fipronil and thiacloprid highly increases mortality of honeybees previously infected by Nosema ceranae

Acute toxicity of the fungicide captan to honey bees and mixed evidence for synergism with the insecticide thiamethoxam

Honey bees are commonly co-exposed to pesticides during crop pollination, including the fungicide captan and neonicotinoid insecticide thiamethoxam. We assessed the impact of exposure to these two pesticides individually and in combination, at a range of field-realistic doses. In laboratory assays, mortality of larvae treated with captan was 80-90% greater than controls, dose-independent, and similar to mortality from the lowest dose of thiamethoxam. There was evidence of synergism (i.e., a non-additive response) from captan-thiamethoxam co-exposure at the highest dose of thiamethoxam, but not at lower doses. In the field, we exposed whole colonies to the lowest doses used in the laboratory. Exposure to captan and thiamethoxam individually and in combination resulted in minimal impacts on population growth or colony mortality, and there was no evidence of synergism or antagonism. These results suggest captan and thiamethoxam are each acutely toxic to immature honey bees, but whole colonies can potentially compensate for detrimental effects, at least at the low doses used in our field trial, or that methodological differences of the field experiment impacted results (e.g., dilution of treatments with natural pollen). If compensation occurred, further work is needed to assess how it occurred, potentially via increased queen egg laying, and whether short-term compensation leads to long-term costs. Further work is also needed for other crop pollinators that lack the social detoxification capabilities of honey bee colonies and may be less resilient to pesticides.

Interaction of acetamiprid, Varroa destructor, and Nosema ceranae in honey bees

Health of honey bees is threatened by a variety of stressors, including pesticides and parasites. Here, we investigated effects of acetamiprid, Varroa destructor, and Nosema ceranae, which act either alone or in combination. Our results suggested that interaction between the three factors was additive, with survival risk increasing as the number of stressors increased. Although exposure to 150 μg/L acetamiprid alone did not negatively impact honey bee survival, it caused severe damage to midgut tissue. Among the three stressors, V. destructor posed the greatest threat to honey bee survival, and N. ceranae exacerbated intestinal damage and increased thickness of the midgut wall. Transcriptomic analysis indicated that different combinations of stressors elicited specific gene expression responses in honey bees, and genes involved in energy metabolism, immunity, and detoxification were altered in response to multiple stressor combinations. Additionally, genes associated with Toll and Imd signalling, tyrosine metabolism, and phototransduction pathway were significantly suppressed in response to different combinations of multiple stressors. This study enhances our understanding of the adaptation mechanisms to multiple stressors and aids in development of suitable protective measures for honey bees. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: We believe our study is environmentally relevant for the following reasons: This study investigates combined effects of pesticide, Varroa destructor, and Nosema ceranae. These stressors are known to pose a threat to long-term survival of honey bees (Apis mellifera) and stability of the ecosystems. The research provides valuable insights into the adaptive mechanisms of honey bees in response to multiple stressors and developing effective conservation strategies. Further research can identify traits that promote honey bee survival in the face of future challenges from multiple stressors to maintain the overall stability of environment.

Prospects of probiotics in beekeeping: a review for sustainable approach to boost honeybee health

Honeybees are vital for global crop pollination, making indispensable contributions to agricultural productivity. However, these vital insects are currently facing escalating colony losses on a global scale, primarily attributed to parasitic and pathogenic attacks. The prevalent response to combat these infections may involve the use of antibiotics. Nevertheless, the application of antibiotics raises concerns regarding potential adverse effects such as antibiotic resistance and imbalances in the gut microbiota of bees. In response to these challenges, this study reviews the utilization of a probiotic-supplemented pollen substitute diet to promote honeybee gut health, enhance immunity, and overall well-being. We systematically explore various probiotic strains and their impacts on critical parameters, including survival rate, colony strength, honey and royal jelly production, and the immune response of bees. By doing so, we emphasize the significance of maintaining a balanced gut microbial community in honeybees. The review also scrutinizes the factors influencing the gut microbial communities of bees, elucidates the consequences of dysbiosis, and evaluates the potential of probiotics to mitigate these challenges. Additionally, it delineates different delivery mechanisms for probiotic supplementation and elucidates their positive effects on diverse health parameters of honeybees. Given the alarming decline in honeybee populations and the consequential threat to global food security, this study provides valuable insights into sustainable practices aimed at supporting honeybee populations and enhancing agricultural productivity.

The Response of the Honey Bee Gut Microbiota to Nosema ceranae Is Modulated by the Probiotic Pediococcus acidilactici and the Neonicotinoid Thiamethoxam

The honey bee Apis mellifera is exposed to a variety of biotic and abiotic stressors, such as the highly prevalent microsporidian parasite Nosema (Vairimorpha) ceranae and neonicotinoid insecticides. Both can affect honey bee physiology and microbial gut communities, eventually reducing its lifespan. They can also have a combined effect on the insect's survival. The use of bacterial probiotics has been proposed to improve honey bee health, but their beneficial effect remains an open question. In the present study, western honey bees were experimentally infected with N. ceranae spores, chronically exposed to the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam, and/or supplied daily with the homofermentative bacterium Pediococcus acidilactici MA18/5M thought to improve the honey bees' tolerance to the parasite. Deep shotgun metagenomic sequencing allowed the response of the gut microbiota to be investigated with a taxonomic resolution at the species level. All treatments induced significant changes in honey bee gut bacterial communities. Nosema ceranae infection increased the abundance of Proteus mirabilis, Frischella perrara, and Gilliamella apicola and reduced the abundance of Bifidobacterium asteroides, Fructobacillus fructosus, and Lactobacillus spp. Supplementation with P. acidilactici overturned some of these alterations, bringing back the abundance of some altered species close to the relative abundance found in the controls. Surprisingly, the exposure to thiamethoxam also restored the relative abundance of some species modulated by N. ceranae. This study shows that stressors and probiotics may have an antagonistic impact on honey bee gut bacterial communities and that P. acidilactici may have a protective effect against the dysbiosis induced by an infection with N. ceranae.

Sublethal effects of imidacloprid-contaminated honey stores on colony performance, queens, and worker activities in fall and early winter colonies

Neonicotinoid-contaminated sugar stores can have both near term and long term effects on honey bees due to their persistence in honey stores. Effects of imidacloprid food stores contaminants were examined in subtropical colonies that experience reduced brood rearing and foraging during overwintering. Colonies were given treatment sugar syrup containing 0 ppb (control), 20 ppb (field relevant), or 100 ppb (above field relevant) imidacloprid over six weeks to simulate contaminated fall nectar. Colonies were evaluated immediately (post-treatment) and 10 weeks (mid-winter) after treatment to compare proximal and latent effects. Post-treatment 0 ppb and 20 ppb colonies had more workers than 100 ppb colonies while 0 ppb colonies more brood than 20 ppb or 100 ppb colonies. Mid-winter 0 ppb and 20 ppb colonies had more workers than 100 ppb colonies and 0 ppb colonies more brood than 100 ppb colonies. Colonies experienced seasonal declines in stored pollen but no treatment effects. Lower 100 ppb colony performance was associated with reduced effort rather than lifespan. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tracking revealed that workers had similar adult lifespans across treatments; however, 100 ppb workers engaged in activities outside the colony for less time than 0 ppb workers. Imidacloprid exposure affected queen but not worker nutritional physiology. Nurses retained well-developed hypopharyngeal glands (as indicated by head protein) across treatments. Mid-winter queens from 0 ppb colonies had marginally higher ovary protein than queens from 100 ppb colonies and more ovary lipids than queens from 20 ppb colonies. However, queen nutrient stores in non-reproductive tissues (fat bodies) did not differ across treatments. Queens from different treatments were attended by comparable numbers of retinue workers and had similar gland contents of four QMP (Queen Mandibular Pheromone) components essential to queen care. High levels of imidacloprid in sugar stores can negatively affect colony performance months after initial storage.

Combined effect of a neonicotinoid insecticide and a fungicide on honeybee gut epithelium and microbiota, adult survival, colony strength and foraging preferences

Fungicides, insecticides and herbicides are widely used in agriculture to counteract pathogens and pests. Several of these molecules are toxic to non-target organisms such as pollinators and their lethal dose can be lowered if applied as a mixture. They can cause large and unpredictable problems, spanning from behavioural changes to alterations in the gut. The present work aimed at understanding the synergistic effects on honeybees of a combined in-hive exposure to sub-lethal doses of the insecticide thiacloprid and the fungicide penconazole. A multidisciplinary approach was used: honeybee mortality upon exposure was initially tested in cage, and the colonies development monitored. Morphological and ultrastructural analyses via light and transmission electron microscopy were carried out on the gut of larvae and forager honeybees. Moreover, the main pollen foraging sources and the fungal gut microbiota were studied using Next Generation Sequencing; the gut core bacterial taxa were quantified via qPCR. The mortality test showed a negative effect on honeybee survival when exposed to agrochemicals and their mixture in cage but not confirmed at colony level. Microscopy analyses on the gut epithelium indicated no appreciable morphological changes in larvae, newly emerged and forager honeybees exposed in field to the agrochemicals. Nevertheless, the gut microbial profile showed a reduction of Bombilactobacillus and an increase of Lactobacillus and total fungi upon mixture application. Finally, we highlighted for the first time a significant honeybee diet change after pesticide exposure: penconazole, alone or in mixture, significantly altered the pollen foraging preference, with honeybees preferring Hedera pollen. Overall, our in-hive results showed no severe effects upon administration of sublethal doses of thiacloprid and penconazole but indicate a change in honeybees foraging preference. A possible explanation can be that the different nutritional profile of the pollen may offer better recovery chances to honeybees.

Effects of Plant-Based Supplement on Oxidative Stress of Honey Bees (Apis mellifera) Infected with Nosema ceranae

One of the most important approaches in the prevention and treatment of nosemosis is the use of herbal preparations as food supplements for bees. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a plant-based supplement branded as "B+" on honeybees in a laboratory experiment. Four experimental groups were established: treated group (T), N. ceranae-infected and treated group (IT), N. ceranae-infected group (I) and non-infected group (NI). Survival, N. ceranae spore load and oxidative stress parameters together with expression levels of antioxidant enzyme genes and vitellogenin gene were monitored. The mortality in the T, IT and NI groups was significantly (p < 0.001) lower than in than in the I group. Within Nosema-infected groups, the IT group had a significantly lower (p < 0.001) number of N. ceranae spores than the I group. In addition, expression levels of genes for antioxidant enzymes were lower (p < 0.001) in the IT group compared to the I group. The concentration of malondialdehyde and the activities of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione S-transferase) were significantly lower (p < 0.001) in the IT group compared to the I group. No negative effects of the tested supplement were observed. All these findings indicate that the tested supplement exerted beneficial effects manifested in better bee survival, reduced N. ceranae spore number and reduced oxidative stress of bees (lower expression of genes for antioxidant enzymes and oxidative stress parameters).

Bees exposed to climate change are more sensitive to pesticides

Bee populations are exposed to multiple stressors, including land-use change, biological invasions, climate change, and pesticide exposure, that may interact synergistically. We analyze the combined effects of climate warming and sublethal insecticide exposure in the solitary bee Osmia cornuta. Previous Osmia studies show that warm wintering temperatures cause body weight loss, lipid consumption, and fat body depletion. Because the fat body plays a key role in xenobiotic detoxification, we expected that bees exposed to climate warming scenarios would be more sensitive to pesticides. We exposed O. cornuta females to three wintering treatments: current scenario (2007-2012 temperatures), near-future (2021-2050 projected temperatures), and distant-future (2051-2080). Upon emergence in spring, bees were orally exposed to three sublethal doses of an insecticide (Closer, a.i. sulfoxaflor; 0, 4.55 and 11.64 ng a.i./bee). We measured the combined effects of wintering and insecticide exposure on phototactic response, syrup consumption, and longevity. Wintering treatment by itself did not affect winter mortality, but body weight loss increased with increasing wintering temperatures. Similarly, wintering treatment by itself hardly influenced phototactic response or syrup consumption. However, bees wintered at the warmest temperatures had shorter longevity, a strong fecundity predictor in Osmia. Insecticide exposure, especially at the high dose, impaired the ability of bees to respond to light, and resulted in reduced syrup consumption and longevity. The combination of the warmest winter and the high insecticide dose resulted in a 70% longevity decrease. Smaller bees, resulting from smaller pollen-nectar provisions, had shorter longevity suggesting nutritional stress may further compromise fecundity in O. cornuta. Our results show a synergistic interaction between two major drivers of bee declines, and indicate that bees will become more sensitive to pesticides under the current global warming scenario. Our findings have important implications for pesticide regulation and underscore the need to consider multiple stressors to understand bee declines.

The role of the veterinary diagnostic toxicologist in apiary health

Susceptibility of individuals and groups to toxicants depends on complex interactions involving the host, environment, and other exposures. Apiary diagnostic investigation and honey bee health are truly population medicine: the colony is the patient. Here we provide basic information on the application of toxicology to the testing of domestic honey bees, and, in light of recent research, expand on some of the challenges of interpreting analytical chemistry findings as they pertain to hive health. The hive is an efficiently organized system of wax cells used to store brood, honey, and bee bread, and is protected by the bee-procured antimicrobial compound propolis. Toxicants can affect individual workers outside or inside the hive, with disease processes that range from acute to chronic and subclinical to lethal. Toxicants can impact brood and contaminate honey, bee bread, and structural wax. We provide an overview of important natural and synthetic toxicants to which honey bees are exposed; behavioral, husbandry, and external environmental factors influencing exposure; short- and long-term impacts of toxicant exposure on individual bee and colony health; and the convergent impacts of stress, nutrition, infectious disease, and toxicant exposures on colony health. Current and potential future toxicology testing options are included. Common contaminants in apiary products consumed or used by humans (honey, wax, pollen), their sources, and the potential need for product testing are also noted.

Environmental Effects on Bee Microbiota

Anthropogenic activities and increased land use, which include industrialization, agriculture and urbanization, directly affect pollinators by changing habitats and floral availability, and indirectly by influencing their microbial composition and diversity. Bees form vital symbioses with their microbiota, relying on microorganisms to perform physiological functions and aid in immunity. As altered environments and climate threaten bees and their microbiota, characterizing the microbiome and its complex relationships with its host offers insights into understanding bee health. This review summarizes the role of sociality in microbiota establishment, as well as examines if such factors result in increased susceptibility to altered microbiota due to environmental changes. We characterize the role of geographic distribution, temperature, precipitation, floral resources, agriculture, and urbanization on bee microbiota. Bee microbiota are affected by altered surroundings regardless of sociality. Solitary bees that predominantly acquire their microbiota through the environment are particularly sensitive to such effects. However, the microbiota of obligately eusocial bees are also impacted by environmental changes despite typically well conserved and socially inherited microbiota. We provide an overview of the role of microbiota in plant-pollinator relationships and how bee microbiota play a larger role in urban ecology, offering microbial connections between animals, humans, and the environment. Understanding bee microbiota presents opportunities for sustainable land use restoration and aiding in wildlife conservation.

Overlapping exposure effects of pathogen and dimethoate on honeybee (Apis mellifera Linnaeus) metabolic rate and longevity

Introduction: Declines in honeybee abundance have been observed worldwide during last decades. This is partly due to plant protection agents used in intensive farming, landscaping and infrastructure maintenance. Another type of factors negatively affecting honeybees is the spread of diseases caused by different pathogens and pests. Lately, more focus has been paid to the interactions between different overlapping stressors affecting honeybee health, the combination of these often being more detrimental compared to individual stressors. The most widely used stress-evaluating methods take into account lethal- or motorial changes of the individuals or colonies. Comparatively little honeybee research has examined changes in initial recovery potential and physiological symptoms of toxification. The aim of this study was to examine the combined effect of Nosema apis and N. ceranae (according to a newer classification Vairimorpha apis and V. ceranae), the common causes of nosemosis in the honeybee Apis mellifera L., with the insecticide dimethoate. Methods: In this study, honeybee mortality and metabolic rate were used to assess the combined effects interactions of Nosema ssp. and dimethoate. Results: Our results showed that exposure to the low concentration of either dimethoate, either one or both species of Nosema ssp as single factors or in the combination had no significant effect on honeybee metabolic rate. The mortality increased with the two Nosema spp., as well as with infection by N. ceranae alone. The effect of dimethoate was observed only in combination with N. apis infection, which alone had no effect on individual honeybee mortality. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that the overlapping exposure to a non-lethal concentration of a pesticide and a pathogen can be hidden by stronger stressor but become observable with milder stressors.

The ameliorative effects of quercetin and curcumin against subacute nephrotoxicity of fipronil induced in Wistar rats

Fipronil is a phenylpyrazole insecticide that is widely used in agricultural, veterinary, and public health fields for controlling a wide variety of insect species and it is an environmentally potent toxic substance. Curcumin and quercetin, which are well-known natural antioxidants, are widely used to prevent the harmful effects of free radicals on biological systems. The present study aimed to determine the potential ameliorative effects of quercetin and/or curcumin on fipronil-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Curcumin (100 mg/kg of body weight), quercetin (50 mg/kg of body weight), and fipronil (3.88 mg/kg of body weight) were administered to male rats by intragastric gavage for 28 consecutive days. In the present study, body weight, kidney weight, the renal function markers (blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and uric acid levels) in the blood, antioxidant enzyme activities, and malondialdehyde level as markers of oxidative stress, and histological changes of the renal tissue were evaluated. The levels of serum blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and uric acid were significantly increased in fipronil-treated animals. Additionally, while superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase, and glutathione peroxidase activities were decreased in the kidney tissue of rats treated with fipronil, malondialdehyde level was significantly increased. Histopathological analyses showed that the glomerular and tubular injury occurred in the renal tissue of fipronil-treated animals. Also, the supplementation of quercetin and/or curcumin with fipronil significantly improved fipronil-induced alterations in renal function markers, antioxidant enzyme activities, malondialdehyde levels, and histological features of renal tissue.

Enantioselective activity and toxicity of chiral acaricide cyflumetofen toward target and non-target organisms

Cyflumetofen (CYF), a novel chiral acaricide, exert enantiomer-specific effects on target organisms by binding to glutathione S-transferase. However, there is limited knowledge regarding the response of non-target organisms to CYF, including enantioselective toxicity. In this study, we investigated the effects of racemic CYF (rac-CYF) and its two enantiomers (+)-CYF and (-)-CYF on MCF-7 cells and non-target (honeybees) and target (bee mites and red spider mites) organisms. The results showed that similar to estradiol, 1 μM (+)-CYF promoted the proliferation and disturbed the redox homeostasis of MCF-7 cells, whereas at high concentrations (≥100 μM) it exerted a negative effect on cell viability that was substantially stronger than that of (-)-CYF or rac-CYF. (-)-CYF and rac-CYF at 1 μM concentration did not significantly affect cell proliferation, but caused cell damage at high concentrations (≥100 μM). Analysis of acute CYF toxicity against non-target and target organisms revealed that for honeybees, all CYF samples had high lethal dose (LD₅₀) values, indicating low toxicity. In contrast, for bee mites and red spider mites, LD₅₀ values were low, whereas those of (+)-CYF were the lowest, suggesting higher toxicity of (+)-CYF than that of the other CYF samples. Proteomics profiling revealed potential CYF-targeted proteins in honeybees related to energy metabolism, stress responses, and protein synthesis. Upregulation of estrogen-induced FAM102A protein analog indicated that CYF might exert estrogenic effects by dysregulating estradiol production and altering estrogen-dependent protein expression in bees. Our findings suggest that CYF functions as an endocrine disruptor in non-target organisms in an enantiomer-specific manner, indicating the necessity for general ecological risk assessment for chiral pesticides.

The Fungus Nosema ceranae and a Sublethal Dose of the Neonicotinoid Insecticide Thiamethoxam Differentially Affected the Health and Immunity of Africanized Honey Bees

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are affected by different biotic and abiotic stressors, such as the fungus Nosema ceranae and neonicotinoid insecticides, that negatively impact their health. However, most studies so far conducted have focused on the effect of these stressors separately and in European honey bees. Therefore, this study was conducted to analyze the impact of both stressors, singly and in combination, on honey bees of African descent that have demonstrated resistance to parasites and pesticides. Africanized honey bees (AHBs, Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier) were inoculated with N. ceranae (1 × 10⁵ spores/bee) and/or chronically exposed for 18 days to a sublethal dose of thiamethoxam (0.025 ng/bee) to evaluate their single and combined effects on food consumption, survivorship, N. ceranae infection, and immunity at the cellular and humoral levels. No significant effects by any of the stressors were found for food consumption. However, thiamethoxam was the main stressor associated to a significant decrease in AHB survivorship, whereas N. ceranae was the main stressor affecting their humoral immune response by upregulating the expression of the gene AmHym-1. Additionally, both stressors, separately and combined, significantly decreased the concentration of haemocytes in the haemolymph of the bees. These findings indicate that N. ceranae and thiamethoxam differentially affect the lifespan and immunity of AHBs and do not seem to have synergistic effects when AHBs are simultaneously exposed to both stressors.

Modeling disruption of Apis mellifera (honey bee) odorant-binding protein function with high-affinity binders

Chemical toxins pose a great threat to honey bee health because they affect memory and cognition, diminish immunity, and increase susceptibility to infection, resulting in decreased colony performance, reproduction, and survival. Although the behavioral effects of sub-lethal chemical exposure on honey bees have been intensively studied, how xenobiotics affect olfaction, at the molecular level, still needs to be elucidated. In the present work, in silico tools, such as molecular docking, binding free energy calculations, and molecular dynamics simulations are used to predict if environmental chemicals have stronger binding affinities to honey bee antennal odorant-binding protein 14 (OBP14) than the representative floral odors citralva, eugenol, and the fluorescent probe 1-N-phenylnaphthylamine. Based on structural analysis, 21 chemicals from crop pesticides, household appliances, cosmetics, food, public health-related products, and other sources, many of which are pervasive in the hive environment, have higher binding affinities than the floral odors. These results suggest that chemical exposures are likely to interfere with the honey bee's sense of smell and this disruptive mechanism may be responsible for the lower associative learning and memory based on olfaction found in bees exposed to pesticides. Moreover, bees mainly rely on olfactory cues to perceive their environment and orient themselves as well as to discriminate and identify their food, predators, nestmates, and diseased individuals that need to be removed with hygienic behavior. In summary, sub-lethal exposure to environmental toxins can contribute to colony collapse in several ways from the disruption of proper olfaction functioning.

A GABA Receptor Modulator and Semiochemical Compounds Evidenced Using Volatolomics as Candidate Markers of Chronic Exposure to Fipronil in Apis mellifera

Among the various "omics" approaches that can be used in toxicology, volatolomics is in full development. A volatolomic study was carried out on soil bacteria to validate the proof of concept, and this approach was implemented in a new model organism: the honeybee Apis mellifera. Emerging bees raised in the laboratory in pain-type cages were used. Volatolomics analysis was performed on cuticles, fat bodies, and adhering tissues (abdomens without the digestive tract), after 14 and 21 days of chronic exposure to 0.5 and 1 µg/L of fipronil, corresponding to sublethal doses. The VOCs analysis was processed using an HS-SPME/GC-MS method. A total of 281 features were extracted and tentatively identified. No significant effect of fipronil on the volatolome could be observed after 14 days of chronic exposure. Mainly after 21 days of exposure, a volatolome deviation appeared. The study of this deviation highlighted 11 VOCs whose signal abundances evolved during the experiment. Interestingly, the volatolomics approach revealed a VOC (2,6-dimethylcyclohexanol) that could act on GABA receptor activity (the fipronil target) and VOCs associated with semiochemical activities (pheromones, repellent agents, and compounds related to the Nasonov gland) leading to a potential impact on bee behavior.

The Effect of Plasmodium falciparum (Welch) (Haemospororida: Plasmodiidae) Infection on the Susceptibility of Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae) to Pyrethroid Insecticides in the North-Western and South-Eastern, Tanzania

The rapid development of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors threatens insecticide-based interventions. It is hypothesized that infection of insecticide-resistant vectors with Plasmodium parasites increases their vulnerability to insecticides, thus assuring the effectiveness of insecticide-based strategies for malaria control. Nonetheless, there is limited field data to support this. We investigated the effect of the Plasmodium falciparum infection on the susceptibility of Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles funestus to pyrethroids in south-eastern (Kilombero) and north-western (Muleba), Tanzania. The wild-collected mosquitoes were tested against 0.05% deltamethrin and 0.75% permethrin, then assessed for sporozoite rate and resistant gene (kdr) mutations. All Anopheles gambiae s.l. from Kilombero were An. arabiensis (Patton, 1905) while those from Muleba were 87% An. gambiae s.s (Giles, 1902) and 13% An. Arabiensis. High levels of pyrethroid resistance were observed in both areas studied. The kdr mutation was only detected in An. gambiae s.s. at the frequency of 100% in survivors and 97% in dead mosquitoes. The P. falciparum sporozoite rates were slightly higher in susceptible than in resistant mosquitoes. In Muleba, sporozoite rates in An. gambiae s.l. were 8.1% and 6.4% in dead mosquitoes and survivors, respectively (SRR = 1.28, p = 0.19). The sporozoite rates in Kilombero were 1.3% and 0.7% in the dead and survived mosquitoes, respectively (sporozoite rate ratio (SRR) = 1.9, p = 0.33). In An. funestus group sporozoite rates were 6.2% and 4.4% in dead and survived mosquitoes, respectively (SRR = 1.4, p = 0.54). These findings indicate that insecticides might still be effective in malaria control despite the rapid development of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors.

Identifying global trends and gaps in research on pesticide fipronil: a scientometric review

Fipronil is a broad potent insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical family. Its action mode acting in the presynaptic and postsynaptic blocking the chlorine ions by the neurotransmitters GABA. It is considered highly toxic, and in some countries, its use has been prohibited. The objective of this review is to perform a scientometric analysis for global measurement of the research on the insecticide fipronil. All information in this study was searched in the Web of Science (WoS) database in December 2021. The search was carried using the term "fipronil." Thus, 2362 studies were selected. Most selected articles showed toxicity effects of fipronil on non-target organisms, analytical methods to detect the insecticide, environmental degradation processes, and efficiency in reducing insects through its use. The H index for this dataset was 91. The cooperation network of the authors among countries showed the USA as the most notorious, with 30.6% of studies, followed by China (15.7%) and Brazil (10.9%). There are many studies on the toxicity of fipronil in bees, forms of degradation, and effectiveness of this insecticide. The present work presents suggestions pointed out in the articles for further research and highlights the importance of studies involving fipronil, as well as studies of alternative pest control.

Monitoring the effects of field exposure of acetamiprid to honey bee colonies in Eucalyptus monoculture plantations

Eucalyptus plantations occupy 26 % of Portuguese forested areas. Its flowers constitute important sources for bees and beekeepers take advantage of this and keep their honey bee colonies within or near the plantations for honey production. Nonetheless, these plantations are susceptible to pests, such as the eucalyptus weevil Gonipterus platensis. To control this weevil, some plantations must be treated with pesticides, which might harm non-target organisms. This study aimed to perform a multifactorial assessment of the health status and development of Apis mellifera iberiensis colonies in two similar landscape windows dominated by Eucalyptus globulus plantations - one used as control and the other with insecticide treatment. In each of the two selected areas, an apiary with five hives was installed and monitored before and after a single application of the insecticide acetamiprid (40 g a.i./ha). Colony health and development, resources use, and pesticide residues accumulation were measured. The results showed that the application of acetamiprid in this area did not alter the health status and development of the colonies. This can be explained by the low levels of residues of acetamiprid detected only in pollen and bee bread samples, ~52 fold lower than the sublethal effect threshold. This could be attributed to the low offer of resources during and after the application event and within the application area, with the consequent foraging outside the sprayed area during that period. Since exposure to pesticides in such complex landscapes seems to be dependent on the spatial and temporal distribution of resources, we highlight some key monitoring parameters and tools that are able to provide reliable information on colony development and use of resources. These tools can be easily applied and can provide a better decision-taking of pesticide application in intensive production systems to decrease the risk of exposure for honey bees.

Increased Stress Levels in Caged Honeybee (Apis mellifera) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Workers

Honeybees, Apis mellifera, usually live in large colonies consisting of thousands of individuals. Within the colony, workers interact with their social environment frequently. The large workforce, division of labour, and other features may promote the ecological success of honeybees. For decades, artificial mini colonies in cages within the laboratory have become the gold standard, especially in experiments related to toxicology, effects of pesticides and pathogens. Experiments using caged bees and full-sized colonies yielded contradictory results. Here, the effect of cage experiments on the stress level of individual bees is analysed. Two different stress response were targeted, the heat shock response and the mobilization of energetic resources. While no differences were found for varying group sizes of bees, very strong effects emerged by comparing caged workers with bees from natural colonies. Caged workers showed increased levels of hsp expression and reduced haemolymph titres for trehalose, the energy storage sugar. These results reveal that the lack of the social environment (e.g., lack of queen, lack of sufficient group size) induce stress in caged bees, which might act synergistically when bees are challenged by additional stressors (e.g., pesticides, pathogens) resulting in higher mortality than observed under field conditions.

Epidemiology of the Microsporidium Nosema ceranae in Four Mediterranean Countries

Nosema ceranae is a highly prevalent intracellular parasite of honey bees' midgut worldwide. This Microsporidium was monitored during a long-term study to evaluate the infection at apiary and intra-colony levels in six apiaries in four Mediterranean countries (France, Israel, Portugal, and Spain). Parameters on colony strength, honey production, beekeeping management, and climate were also recorded. Except for São Miguel (Azores, Portugal), all apiaries were positive for N. ceranae, with the lowest prevalence in mainland France and the highest intra-colony infection in Israel. A negative correlation between intra-colony infection and colony strength was observed in Spain and mainland Portugal. In these two apiaries, the queen replacement also influenced the infection levels. The highest colony losses occurred in mainland France and Spain, although they did not correlate with the Nosema infection levels, as parasitism was low in France and high in Spain. These results suggest that both the effects and the level of N. ceranae infection depends on location and beekeeping conditions. Further studies on host-parasite coevolution, and perhaps the interactions with other pathogens and the role of honey bee genetics, could assist in understanding the difference between nosemosis disease and infection, to develop appropriate strategies for its control.

Do pesticide and pathogen interactions drive wild bee declines?

There is clear evidence for wild insect declines globally. Habitat loss, climate change, pests, pathogens and environmental pollution have all been shown to cause detrimental effects on insects. However, interactive effects between these stressors may be the key to understanding reported declines. Here, we review the literature on pesticide and pathogen interactions for wild bees, identify knowledge gaps, and suggest avenues for future research fostering mitigation of the observed declines. The limited studies available suggest that effects of pesticides most likely override effects of pathogens. Bees feeding on flowers and building sheltered nests, are likely less adapted to toxins compared to other insects, which potential susceptibility is enhanced by the reduced number of genes encoding detoxifying enzymes compared with other insect species. However, to date all 10 studies using a fully-crossed design have been conducted in the laboratory on social bees using Crithidia spp. or Nosema spp., identifying an urgent need to test solitary bees and other pathogens. Similarly, since laboratory studies do not necessarily reflect field conditions, semi-field and field studies are essential if we are to understand these interactions and their potential effects in the real-world. In conclusion, there is a clear need for empirical (semi-)field studies on a range of pesticides, pathogens, and insect species to better understand the pathways and mechanisms underlying their potential interactions, in particular their relevance for insect fitness and population dynamics. Such data are indispensable to drive forward robust modelling of interactive effects in different environmental settings and foster predictive science. This will enable pesticide and pathogen interactions to be put into the context of other stressors more broadly, evaluating their relative importance in driving the observed declines of wild bees and other insects. Ultimately, this will enable the development of more effective mitigation measures to protect bees and the ecosystem services they supply.

The impact of mass-flowering crops on bee pathogen dynamics

Nearly two fifths of the Earth's land area is currently used for agriculture, substantially impacting the environment and ecosystems. Besides the direct impact through land use change, intensive agriculture can also have an indirect impact, for example by changing wildlife epidemiology. We review here the potential effects of mass-flowering crops (MFCs), which are rapidly expanding in global cropping area, on the epidemiology of known pathogens in bee pollinators. We bring together the fifty MFCs with largest global area harvested and give an overview of their pollination dependency as well as their impact on bee pollinators. When in bloom these crops provide an abundance of flowers, which can provide nutrition for bees and increase bee reproduction. After their short bloom peak, however, the fields turn into green deserts. These big changes in floral availability strongly affect the plant-pollinator network, which in turn affects the pathogen transmission network, mediated by shared flowers. We address this dual role of flowers provided by MFCs, serving as nutritional resources as well as pathogen transmission spots, and bring together the current knowledge to assess how MFCs could affect pathogen prevalence in bee pollinator communities.

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MFC can greatly differ in nutritional quality and availability for bees.

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MFC can alter the pathogen transmission network of bees.

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MFC can abruptly alter the nutritional landscape during bloom and after.

Antifungal activity of "HO21-F", a formulation based on Olea europaea plant extract, in honey bees infected with Nosema ceranae

Nosema ceranae is a microsporidium parasite that silently affects honey bees, causing a disease called nosemosis. This parasite produces resistant spores and germinates in the midgut of honey bees, extrudes a polar tubule that injects an infective sporoplasm in the host cell epithelium, proliferates, and produces intestinal disorders that shorten honey bee lifespan. The rapid extension of this disease has been reported to be widespread among adult bees, and treatments are less effective and counterproductive weakening colonies. This work aimed to evaluate the antifungal activity of a prototype formulation based on a non-toxic plant extract (HO21-F) against N. ceranae. In laboratory, honey bees were infected artificially, kept in cages for 17 days and samples were taken at 7 and 14 days post infection (dpi). At the same time, in field conditions we evaluated the therapeutic effect of HO21-F for 28 days in naturally infected colonies. The effectiveness of the treatment has been demonstrated by a reduction of 83.6 % of the infection levels observed in laboratory conditions at concentrations of 0.5 and 1 g/L without affecting the survival rate. Besides, in-field conditions we reported a reduction of 88 % of the infection level at a concentration of 2.5 g/L, obtaining better antifungal effectiveness in comparison to other commercially available treatments. As a result, we observed that the use of HO21-F led to an increase in population size and honey production, both parameters associated with colony strength. The reported antifungal activity of HO21-F against N. ceranae, with a significant control of spore proliferation in worker bees, suggests the promising commercial application use of this product against nosemosis, and it will encourage new research studies to understand the mechanism of action, whether related to the spore-inhibition effect and/or a stimulating effect in natural response of colonies to counteract the disease.

Use of Thymol in Nosema ceranae Control and Health Improvement of Infected Honey Bees

Simple Summary

In the European Union, there is no registered product for the control of the honey bee endoparasite Nosema ceranae. Thus, researchers are looking for options for Nosema treatment. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a natural essential-oil ingredient (thymol) derived from Thymus vulgaris on honey bees infected with N. ceranae. Thymol exerted certain positive effects (increasing bee survival, immunity, and antioxidative protection), as well as positively affecting the spore loads in Nosema-infected bees. However, when applied to Nosema-free bees, thymol caused certain health disorders; therefore, beekeepers should be careful with its use.

Abstract

Nosema ceranae is the most widespread microsporidian species which infects the honey bees of Apis mellifera by causing the weakening of their colonies and a decline in their productive and reproductive capacities. The only registered product for its control is the antibiotic fumagillin; however, in the European Union, there is no formulation registered for use in beekeeping. Thymol (3-hydroxy-p-cymene) is a natural essential-oil ingredient derived from Thymus vulgaris, which has been used in Varroa control for decades. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of thymol supplementation on the expression of immune-related genes and the parameters of oxidative stress and bee survival, as well as spore loads in bees infected with the microsporidian parasite N. ceranae. The results reveal mostly positive effects of thymol on health (increasing levels of immune-related genes and values of oxidative stress parameters, and decreasing Nosema spore loads) when applied to Nosema-infected bees. Moreover, supplementation with thymol did not induce negative effects in Nosema-infected bees. However, our results indicate that in Nosema-free bees, thymol itself could cause certain disorders (affecting bee survival, decreasing oxidative capacity, and downregulation of some immune-related gene expressions), showing that one should be careful with preventive, uncontrolled, and excessive use of thymol. Thus, further research is needed to reveal the effect of this phytogenic supplement on the immunity of uninfected bees.

The use of insecticide mixtures containing neonicotinoids as a strategy to limit insect pests: Efficiency and mode of action

Synthetic insecticides continue to be the main strategy for managing insect pests, which are a major concern for both crop protection and public health. As nicotinic acetylcholine receptors play a central role in insect neurotransmission, they are the molecular target of neurotoxic insecticides such as neonicotinoids. These insecticides are used worldwide and have shown high efficiency in culture protection. However, the emergence of insect resistance mechanisms, and negative side-effects on non-target species have highlighted the need for a new control strategy. In this context, the use of insecticide mixtures with synergistic effects have been used in order to decrease the insecticide dose, and thus delay the selection of resistance-strains, and limit their negative impact. In this review, we summarize the available data concerning the mode of action of neonicotinoid mixtures, as well as their toxicity to various insect pests and non-target species. We found that insecticide mixtures containing neonicotinoids may be an effective strategy for limiting insect pests, and in particular resistant strains, although they could also negatively impact non-target species such as pollinating insects.

Molecular Oscillator Affects Susceptibility of Caterpillars to Insecticides: Studies on the Egyptian Cotton Leaf Worm-Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The molecular oscillator is the core of the biological clock and is formed by genes and proteins whose cyclic expression is regulated in the transcriptional-translational feedback loops (TTFLs). Proteins of the TTFLs are regulators of both their own and executive genes involved in the control of many processes in insects (e.g., rhythmic metabolism of xenobiotics, including insecticides). We disrupted the clock operation in S. littoralis larvae by injecting the dsRNA of clock genes into their body cavity and culturing the larvae under continuous light. As a result, the daily susceptibility of larvae to insecticides was abolished and the susceptibility itself increased (in most cases). In the fat body, midgut, and Malpighian tubules (the main organs metabolizing xenobiotics) of the larvae treated with injected-dsRNA, the daily activity profiles of enzymes involved in detoxification-cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, Glutathione-S-transferase, and esterase-have changed significantly. The presented results prove the role of the molecular oscillator in the regulation of larvae responses to insecticides and provide grounds for rational use of these compounds (at suitable times of the day), and may indicate clock genes as potential targets of molecular manipulation to produce plant protection compounds based on the RNAi method.

Bee Stressors from an Immunological Perspective and Strategies to Improve Bee Health

Honeybees are the most prevalent insect pollinator species; they pollinate a wide range of crops. Colony collapse disorder (CCD), which is caused by a variety of biotic and abiotic factors, incurs high economic/ecological loss. Despite extensive research to identify and study the various ecological stressors such as microbial infections, exposure to pesticides, loss of habitat, and improper beekeeping practices that are claimed to cause these declines, the deep understanding of the observed losses of these important insects is still missing. Honeybees have an innate immune system, which includes physical barriers and cellular and humeral responses to defend against pathogens and parasites. Exposure to various stressors may affect this system and the health of individual bees and colonies. This review summarizes and discusses the composition of the honeybee immune system and the consequences of exposure to stressors, individually or in combinations, on honeybee immune competence. In addition, we discuss the relationship between bee nutrition and immunity. Nutrition and phytochemicals were highlighted as the factors with a high impact on honeybee immunity.

Phagocytosis Is the Sole Arm of Drosophila melanogaster Known Host Defenses That Provides Some Protection Against Microsporidia Infection

Microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites able to infest specifically a large range of species, including insects. The knowledge about the biology of microsporidial infections remains confined to mostly descriptive studies, including molecular approaches such as transcriptomics or proteomics. Thus, functional data to understand insect host defenses are currently lacking. Here, we have undertaken a genetic analysis of known host defenses of the Drosophila melanogaster using an infection model whereby Tubulinosema ratisbonensis spores are directly injected in this insect. We find that phagocytosis does confer some protection in this infection model. In contrast, the systemic immune response, extracellular reactive oxygen species, thioester proteins, xenophagy, and intracellular antiviral response pathways do not appear to be involved in the resistance against this parasite. Unexpectedly, several genes such as PGRP-LE seem to promote this infection. The prophenol oxidases that mediate melanization have different functions; PPO1 presents a phenotype similar to that of PGRP-LE whereas that of PPO2 suggests a function in the resilience to infection. Similarly, eiger and Unpaired3, which encode two cytokines secreted by hemocytes display a resilience phenotype with a strong susceptibility to T. ratisbonensis.

Effects of Thiamethoxam-Dressed Oilseed Rape Seeds and Nosema ceranae on Colonies of Apis mellifera iberiensis, L. under Field Conditions of Central Spain. Is Hormesis Playing a Role?

Simple Summary

The collapse of the honey bee colonies is a complex phenomenon in which different factors may participate in an interrelated manner (e.g., pathogen interactions, exposure to chemicals, beekeeping practices, climatology, etc.). In light of the current debate regarding the interpretation of field and monitoring studies in prospective risk assessments, here we studied how exposure to thiamethoxam affects honey bee colonies in Central Spain when applied as a seed treatment to winter oilseed rape, according to the good agricultural practice in place prior to the EU restrictions. Under the experimental conditions, exposure to thiamethoxam, alone or in combination with other stressors, did not generate and maintain sufficient chronic stress as to provoke honey bee colony collapse. The stress derived from exposure to thiamethoxam and honey bee pathogens was compensated by adjustments in the colony’s dynamics, and by an increase in the worker bee population, a behavior known as hormesis. An analysis of the factors underlying this phenomenon should be incorporated into the prospective risk assessment of plant protection products in order to improve the future interpretation of field studies and management practices.

Abstract

To study the influence of thiamethoxam exposure on colony strength and pathogen prevalence, an apiary (5 colonies) was placed in front of a plot sown with winter oilseed rape (wOSR), just before the flowering phase. Before sowing, the seeds were treated with an equivalent application of 18 g thiamethoxam/ha. For comparison, a second apiary (5 colonies) was located in front of a separate 750 m plot sown with untreated wOSR. Dead foragers at the entrance of hives were assessed every 2–3 days throughout the exposure period, while the colony strength (number of combs covered with adult honey bees and brood) and pathogens were monitored each month until the following spring. Foraging on the wOSR crop was confirmed by melissopalynology determination of the corbicular pollen collected periodically, while the chemical analysis showed that exposure to thiamethoxam was mainly through nectar. There was an increase in the accumulation of dead bees in the apiary exposed to thiamethoxam relating with the control, which was coped with an increment of bee brood surface and adult bee population. However, we did not find statistically significant differences between apiaries (α = 0.05) in terms of the evolution of pathogens. We discuss these results under hormesis perspective.

Functional Properties and Antimicrobial Activity from Lactic Acid Bacteria as Resources to Improve the Health and Welfare of Honey Bees

Simple Summary

Honey bees play a pivotal role in the sustainability of ecosystems and biodiversity. Many factors including parasites, pathogens, pesticide residues, forage losses, and poor nutrition have been proposed to explain honey bee colony losses. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of honey bees and their role has been consistently reported in the literature. In recent years, there have been numerous scientific evidence that the intestinal microbiota plays an essential role in honey bee health. Management strategies, based on supplementation of the gut microbiota with probiotics, may be important to increase stress tolerance and disease resistance. In this review, recent scientific advances on the use of LABs as microbial supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed.

Abstract

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are agriculturally important pollinators. Over the past decades, significant losses of wild and domestic bees have been reported in many parts of the world. Several biotic and abiotic factors, such as change in land use over time, intensive land management, use of pesticides, climate change, beekeeper’s management practices, lack of forage (nectar and pollen), and infection by parasites and pathogens, negatively affect the honey bee’s well-being and survival. The gut microbiota is important for honey bee growth and development, immune function, protection against pathogen invasion; moreover, a well-balanced microbiota is fundamental to support honey bee health and vigor. In fact, the structure of the bee’s intestinal bacterial community can become an indicator of the honey bee’s health status. Lactic acid bacteria are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of many insects, and their presence in the honey bee intestinal tract has been consistently reported in the literature. In the first section of this review, recent scientific advances in the use of LABs as probiotic supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed. The second section discusses some of the mechanisms by which LABs carry out their antimicrobial activity against pathogens. Afterward, individual paragraphs are dedicated to Chalkbrood, American foulbrood, European foulbrood, Nosemosis, and Varroosis as well as to the potentiality of LABs for their biological control.

The Role of Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) in Honey Bee Colony Losses and Current Insights on Treatment

Honeybee populations have locally and temporally declined in the last few years because of both biotic and abiotic factors. Among the latter, one of the most important reasons is infection by the microsporidia Nosema ceranae, which is the etiological agent of type C nosemosis. This species was first described in Asian honeybees (Apis cerana). Nowadays, domestic honeybees (Apis mellifera) worldwide are also becoming infected due to globalization. Type C nosemosis can be asymptomatic or can cause important damage to bees, such as changes in temporal polyethism, energy and oxidative stress, immunity loss, and decreased average life expectancy. It causes drastic reductions in workers, numbers of broods, and honey production, finally leading to colony loss. Common treatment is based on fumagillin, an antibiotic with side effects and relatively poor efficiency, which is banned in the European Union. Natural products, probiotics, food supplements, nutraceuticals, and other veterinary drugs are currently under study and might represent alternative treatments. Prophylaxis and management of affected colonies are essential to control the disease. While N. ceranae is one potential cause of bee losses in a colony, other factors must also be considered, especially synergies between microsporidia and the use of insecticides.

Varroa mite and deformed wing virus infestations interactively make honey bees (Apis mellifera) more susceptible to insecticides

Varroa mite is one of the major adverse factors causing honey bee population decline. In this study, Varroa destructor-infested and uninfested honey bee colonies were established by selective applying miticide (Apivar® amitraz). Mite population was monitored monthly (April-October 2016), and deformed wing virus (DWV) loading was detected seasonally (April, July, and October). Four immunity- and two physiology-related gene expressions, natural mortality, and susceptibility to five insecticides were comparatively and seasonally examined in field-collected honey bee workers. Results showed that Apivar-treated bee colonies had minor or undetectable mite and DWV (using RT-qPCR) infestations in whole bee season, while untreated colonies had substantially higher mite and DWV infestations. In untreated colonies, Varroa mite population irregularly fluctuated over the bee season with higher mite counts in Jun (318 ± 89 mites dropped in 48 h) or August (302) than that (25 ± 4 or 34) in October, and mite population density was not dynamically or closely correlated with the seasonal shift of honey bee natural mortality (regression slope = -0.5212). Unlike mite, DWV titer in untreated colonies progressively increased over the bee season, and it was highly correlated (R² = 1) with the seasonal increase of honey bee natural mortality. Significantly lower gene expressions of dor, PPO, mfe, potentially PPOa and eat as well, in untreated colonies also indicated an association of increased DWV infestation with decreased physiological and immunity-related functions in late-season honey bees. Furthermore, bees with lower mite/DWV infestations exhibited generally consistently lower susceptibilities (contact and oral toxicities) to five representative insecticides than the bees without Apivar treatment. All of these data from this study consistently indicated an interaction of Varroa/viral infestations with insecticide susceptibilities in honey bees, potentially through impairing bee's physiology and immunity, emphasizing the importance of mite control in order to minimize honey bee decline.

Inhibiting the proteasome reduces molecular and biological impacts of the natural product insecticide, spinosad

BACKGROUND

Insecticide targets are often identified by mutations that confer resistance, but the intricacies of insecticide binding and downstream processes leading to insect death often remain obscure. Mutations in α6-like nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes have been associated with high levels of resistance to spinosad in many insect species, including Drosophila melanogaster. Here, we aimed to expand our understanding of the effects of the natural product insecticide spinosad on its protein target, the α6 subunit, using genetic tools available in D. melanogaster.

RESULTS

Functional, fluorescently tagged Dα6 subunits (Dα6^YFP ) were developed to allow observation of the protein in vivo. Larvae expressing Dα6^YFP were exposed to a sub-lethal concentration of spinosyn A (0.025 ppm) for 6 days, leading to a 64% reduction in fluorescence relative to unexposed larvae. Direct application of high doses of spinosyn A to dissected larval brains resulted in a visible 38.25% decrease in Dα6^YFP within 20 min, indicating that degradation of the Dα6 protein occurred in response to spinosyn A exposure. Chemical inhibition of the proteasome system using the multiple myeloma treatment drug, PS-341 reduced loss of Dα6^YFP in response to spinosyn A at the 20-min time point to 6.35%. In addition, in vivo administration of PS-341 prior to spinosad exposure reduced the effect of spinosad on larval activity.

CONCLUSION

Based on these data, we propose that exposure to spinosad leads to degradation of the α6-like target protein, a potentially novel element in the mode of action of spinosyns that may contribute to their toxicity towards insects. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Physiological effects of the interaction between Nosema ceranae and sequential and overlapping exposure to glyphosate and difenoconazole in the honey bee Apis mellifera

Pathogens and pollutants, such as pesticides, are potential stressors to all living organisms, including honey bees. Herbicides and fungicides are among the most prevalent pesticides in beehive matrices, and their interaction with Nosema ceranae is not well understood. In this study, the interactions between N. ceranae, the herbicide glyphosate and the fungicide difenoconazole were studied under combined sequential and overlapping exposure to the pesticides at a concentration of 0.1 µg/L in food. In the sequential exposure experiment, newly emerged bees were exposed to the herbicide from day 3 to day 13 after emerging and to the fungicide from day 13 to day 23. In the overlapping exposure experiment, bees were exposed to the herbicide from day 3 to day 13 and to the fungicide from day 7 to day 17. Infection by Nosema in early adult life stages (a few hours post emergence) greatly affected the survival of honey bees and elicited much higher mortality than was induced by pesticides either alone or in combination. Overlapping exposure to both pesticides induced higher mortality than was caused by sequential or individual exposure. Overlapping, but not sequential, exposure to pesticides synergistically increased the adverse effect of N. ceranae on honey bee longevity. The combination of Nosema and pesticides had a strong impact on physiological markers of the nervous system, detoxification, antioxidant defenses and social immunity of honey bees.

Pesticides residues and metabolites in honeybees: A Greek overview exploring Varroa and Nosema potential synergies

The aim of this study was to investigate reported cases of honeybee mortality incidents and the potential association to pesticide exposure and to their metabolites. The same honeybee samples were also assessed for Varroa mites, and Nosema microsporidia provoked infections to provide an integrated picture of all observable stressors that may impact bees' survival. Thus, honeybee samples from different areas of Greece (2014-2018) were analyzed for the presence of pesticide residues and metabolites. In this context, an existing LC-ESI-QqQ-MS multiresidue method of analytes of different chemical classes such as neonicotinoids, organophosphates, triazoles, carbamates, was enriched with additional active substances, developed and validated. A complementary GC-EI-QqQ-MS method was also exploited for the same scope covering pyrethroid compounds. Both methods monitored more than 150 active substances and metabolites and presented acceptable linearity over the ranges assayed. The calculated recoveries ranged from 65 to 120% for the three concentration levels, while the precision (RSD%) values ranged between 4 and 15%. Therefore, this approach proved sufficient to act as a monitoring tool for the determination of pesticide residues in cases of suspected honeybee poisoning incidents. From the analysis of 320 samples, the presence of 70 active substances and metabolites was confirmed with concentrations varying from 1.4 ng/g to 166 μg/g. Predominant detections were the acaricide coumaphos, several neonicotinoids exemplified by clothianidin, organophosporous compounds dimethoate and chlorpyrifos, and some pyrethroids. Metabolites of imidacloprid, chlorpyrifos, coumaphos, acetamiprid, fenthion and amitraz were also identified. Concerning Nosema and Varroa they were identified in 27 and 22% of samples examined, respectively, verifying their prevalence and coexistence with pesticides and their metabolites in honeybees.

Consumption of field-realistic doses of a widely used mito-toxic fungicide reduces thorax mass but does not negatively impact flight capacities of the honey bee (Apis mellifera)

Commercial beekeepers in many locations are experiencing increased annual colony losses of honey bees (Apis mellifera), but the causes, including the role of agrochemicals in colony losses, remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the effects of chronic consumption of pollen containing a widely-used fungicide (Pristine®), known to inhibit bee mitochondria in vitro, which has recently been shown to reduce honey bee worker lifespan when field-colonies are provided with pollen containing field-realistic levels of Pristine®. We fed field colonies pollen with a field-realistic concentration of Pristine® (2.3 ppm) and a concentration two orders of magnitude higher (230 ppm). To challenge flight behavior and elicit near-maximal metabolic rate, we measured flight quality and metabolic rates of bees in two lower-than-normal air densities. Chronic consumption of 230 but not 2.3 ppm Pristine® reduced maximal flight performance and metabolic rates, suggesting that the observed decrease in lifespans of workers reared on field-realistic doses of Pristine®-laced pollen is not due to inhibition of flight muscle mitochondria. However, consumption of either the 230 or 2.3 ppm dose reduced thorax mass (but not body mass), providing the first evidence of morphological effects of Pristine®, and supporting the hypothesis that Pristine® reduces forager longevity by negatively impacting digestive or nutritional processes.

Neonicotinoids in the agroecosystem: In-field long-term assessment on honeybee colony strength and microbiome

Bees can be severely affected by various plant protection products (PPP). Among these, neonicotinoid insecticides are of concern as they have been shown to be responsible for extensive honeybee colonies death when released into the environment. Also, sublethal neonicotinoid doses contaminating single honeybees and their colonies (e.g. through contaminated pollen) are responsible for honeybees physiological alterations with probable implication also on microbiome functionality. Honeybees show symbiotic interactions with specific gut bacteria that can enhance the adult host performances. Among the known mechanisms, the modulation of the immune system, the degradation of recalcitrant secondary plant metabolites, pollen digestion, and hormonal signaling, are the most important functional benefits for the host honeybee. To date, few research efforts have aimed at revealing the impact of PPP on the gut microbial community of managed and wild honeybees. The majority of the existing literature relays on cage or semifield tests of short duration for research investigating neonicotinoids-gut microbiome interactions. This research wanted to unravel the impact of two neonicotinoids (i.e. imidacloprid and thiacloprid) in natural field conditions up to 5 weeks of exposure. A long-term impact of neonicotinoids on gut microbial community of honeybees was observed. The alterations affected several microbial genera and species such as Frischella spp., lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, whose shifting is implicated in intestinal dysbiosis. Long-term impact leading to dysbiosis was detected in case of exposure to imidacloprid, whereas thiacloprid exposure stimulated temporary dysbiosis. Moreover, the microbial diversity was significantly reduced in neonicotinoid-treated groups. Overall, the reported results support a compromised functionality of the gut microbial community, that might reflect a lower efficiency in the ecosystemic functionality of honeybees.

Potential of Fumagillin and Agaricus blazei Mushroom Extract to Reduce Nosema ceranae in Honey Bees

Depending on the infection level and colony strength, Nosema ceranae, a microsporidian endoparasite of the honey bee may have significant consequences on the health, reproduction and productivity of bee colonies. Despite exerting some side effects, fumagillin is most often used for Nosema control. In this study, in a cage experiment, N. ceranae infected bees were treated with fumagillin or the extract of Agaricus blazei mushroom, a possible alternative for Nosema control. Bee survival, Nosema spore loads, the expression levels of immune-related genes and parameters of oxidative stress were observed. Fumagillin treatment showed a negative effect on monitored parameters when applied preventively to non-infected bees, while a noticeable anti-Nosema effect and protection from Nosema-induced immunosuppression and oxidative stress were proven in Nosema-infected bees. However, a protective effect of the natural A. blazei extract was detected, without any side effects but with immunostimulatory activity in the preventive application. The results of this research suggest the potential of A. blazei extract for Nosema control, which needs to be further investigated.

Exposure to low doses of pesticides induces an immune response and the production of nitric oxide in honeybees

Honeybees are essential pollinators of many agricultural crops and wild plants. However, the number of managed bee colonies has declined in some regions of the world over the last few decades, probably caused by a combination of factors including parasites, pathogens and pesticides. Exposure to these diverse biotic and abiotic stressors is likely to trigger immune responses and stress pathways that affect the health of individual honeybees and hence their contribution to colony survival. We therefore investigated the effects of an orally administered bacterial pathogen (Pseudomonas entomophila) and low-dose xenobiotic pesticides on honeybee survival and intestinal immune responses. We observed stressor-dependent effects on the mean lifespan, along with the induction of genes encoding the antimicrobial peptide abaecin and the detoxification factor cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP9E2. The pesticides also triggered the immediate induction of a nitric oxide synthase gene followed by the delayed upregulation of catalase, which was not observed in response to the pathogen. Honeybees therefore appear to produce nitric oxide as a specific defense response when exposed to xenobiotic stimuli. The immunity-related and stress-response genes we tested may provide useful stressor-dependent markers for ecotoxicological assessment in honeybee colonies.

An international inter-laboratory study on Nosema spp. spore detection and quantification through microscopic examination of crushed honey bee abdomens

Nosemosis is a microsporidian disease causing mortality and weakening of honey bee colonies, especially in the event of co-exposure to other sources of stress. As a result, the disease is regulated in some countries. Reliable and harmonised diagnosis is crucial to ensure the quality of surveillance and research results. For this reason, the first European Interlaboratory Comparison (ILC) was organised in 2017 in order to assess both the methods and the results obtained by National Reference Laboratories (NRLs) in counting Nosema spp. spores by microscopy. Implementing their own routine conditions of analysis, the 23 participants were asked to perform an assay on a panel of ten positive and negative samples of crushed honey bee abdomens. They were asked to report results from a qualitative and quantitative standpoint. The assessment covered specificity, sensitivity, trueness and precision. Quantitative results were analysed in compliance with international standards NF ISO 13528 (2015) and NF ISO 5725-2 (1994). Three results showed a lack of precision and five a lack of trueness. However, overall results indicated a global specificity of 98% and a global sensitivity of 100%, thus demonstrating the advanced performance of the microscopic methods applied to Nosema spores by the NRLs. Therefore, the study concluded that using microscopy to detect and quantify spores of Nosema spp. was reliable and valid.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry biotyping, an approach for deciphering and assessing the identity of the honeybee pathogen Nosema

RATIONALE

The microsporidia are obligate intracellular pathogenic fungi that parasitize a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate hosts and have important impacts on health, food security and the economy. In this paper, we focus on Nosema ceranae and N. apis, which chronically infect the digestive tract of honeybees, altering their physiology and lifespan.

METHODS

We applied matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) for rapid molecular profiling of extracts of Nosema spores in order to identify the species and the geographical origin, and assess the viability status of Nosema microsporidia in conjunction with a flow cytometric approach. Pure solutions of spores were prepared for flow cytometric analysis and MALDI-MS profiling. A mechanical extraction of viable or heat-killed Nosema spores was conducted to obtain mass fingerprints of peptides/proteins for samples of microsporidia from different geographical origins (MBO.NC01, MBO.NC02 and MBO.NA01).

RESULTS

A distinction in the peptide/protein profiles between two isolates with different geographical origins was observed. Mass fingerprints of viable and experimentally killed spores were also clearly distinguishable, regardless of Nosema species. Finally, using our computational models on the different Nosema species, we were able to classify five independent isolates of Nosema microsporidia.

CONCLUSIONS

We have shown that MALDI-MS is a rapid, cost-effective and simple method for identifying Nosema species. We demonstrated that MALDI Biotyping could represent a valuable surveillance tool of nosemosis in apiaries for sanitary services and beekeepers.

Review on Sublethal Effects of Environmental Contaminants in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera), Knowledge Gaps and Future Perspectives

Honey bees and the pollination services they provide are fundamental for agriculture and biodiversity. Agrochemical products and other classes of contaminants, such as trace elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, contribute to the general decline of bees' populations. For this reason, effects, and particularly sublethal effects of contaminants need to be investigated. We conducted a review of the existing literature regarding the type of effects evaluated in Apis mellifera, collecting information about regions, methodological approaches, the type of contaminants, and honey bees' life stages. Europe and North America are the regions in which A. mellifera biological responses were mostly studied and the most investigated compounds are insecticides. A. mellifera was studied more in the laboratory than in field conditions. Through the observation of the different responses examined, we found that there were several knowledge gaps that should be addressed, particularly within enzymatic and molecular responses, such as those regarding the immune system and genotoxicity. The importance of developing an integrated approach that combines responses at different levels, from molecular to organism and population, needs to be highlighted in order to evaluate the impact of anthropogenic contamination on this pollinator species.

The novel insecticides flupyradifurone and sulfoxaflor do not act synergistically with viral pathogens in reducing honey bee (Apis mellifera) survival but sulfoxaflor modulates host immunocompetence

The decline of insect pollinators threatens global food security. A major potential cause of decline is considered to be the interaction between environmental stressors, particularly between exposure to pesticides and pathogens. To explore pesticide-pathogen interactions in an important pollinator insect, the honey bee, we used two new nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist insecticides (nACHRs), flupyradifurone (FPF) and sulfoxaflor (SULF), at sublethal and field-realistic doses in a fully crossed experimental design with three common viral honey bee pathogens, Black queen cell virus (BQCV) and Deformed wing virus (DWV) genotypes A and B. Through laboratory experiments in which treatments were administered singly or in combination to individual insects, we recorded harmful effects of FPF and pathogens on honey bee survival and immune gene expression. Though we found no evidence of synergistic interactions among stressors on either honey bee survival or viral load, the combined treatment SULF and DWV-B led to a synergistic upregulation of dicer-like gene expression. We conclude that common viral pathogens pose a major threat to honey bees, while co-exposure to these novel nACHR insecticides does not significantly exacerbate viral impacts on host survival in the laboratory.

Proteomics of Anatomical Sections of the Gut of Nosema-Infected Western Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Reveals Different Early Responses to Nosema spp. Isolates

Honeybees play an important role in pollinating native plants and agricultural crops and produce valuable hive products. Within the last decade, honeybee colonies have been reported to be in decline, due to both biotic and abiotic stress factors including pathogens and pesticides. This study evaluated the impact of different isolates of Nosema spp. [Nosema apis spores (NA), Nosema ceranae from Apis mellifera from France (NF), N. ceranae from Apis cerana from Thailand (NC1), and N. ceranae from A. mellifera from Thailand (NC2)] on the different gut sections of newly emerged adult A. mellifera bees. With an attempt to decipher the early impact of Nosema spp. on the first barrier against Nosema infection, we used off-gel bottom-up proteomics on the different anatomical sections of the gut four days post inoculation. A total of 2185 identified proteins in the esophagus, 2095 in the crop, 1571 in the midgut, 2552 in the ileum, and 3173 in the rectum were obtained. Using label-free quantification, we observed that the response of the host varies according to the Nosema spp. (N. apis versus N. ceranae) and the geographical origin of Nosema. The proteins in the midgut of A. mellifera, orally inoculated with spores of N. ceranae isolated from France, were the most altered, when compared with controls, exhibiting 50 proteins down-regulated and 16 up-regulated. We thereby established the first mass-spectrometry-based proteomics of different anatomical sections of the gut tissue of Nosema-infected A. mellifera four days post inoculation, following infection by different isolates of Nosema spp. that provoked differential host responses. We reported an alteration of proteins involved in the metabolic pathways and specifically eight proteins of the oxidative phosphorylation pathway. More importantly, we propose that the collagen IV NC1 domain-containing protein may represent an early prognostic marker of the impact of Nosema spores on the A. mellifera health status. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with the identifier PXD021848.

Effects of Synthetic Acaricides and Nosema ceranae (Microsporidia: Nosematidae) on Molecules Associated with Chemical Communication and Recognition in Honey Bees

Acaricides and the gut parasite Nosema ceranae are commonly present in most productive hives. Those stressors could be affecting key semiochemicals, which act as homeostasis regulators in Apis mellifera colonies, such as cuticular hydrocarbons (CHC) involved in social recognition and ethyl oleate (EO) which plays a role as primer pheromone in honey bees. Here we test the effect of amitraz, coumaphos, tau-fluvalinate and flumethrin, commonly applied to treat varroosis, on honey bee survival time, rate of food consumption, CHC profiles and EO production on N. ceranae-infected and non-infected honey bees. Different sublethal concentrations of amitraz, coumaphos, tau-fluvalinate and flumethrin were administered chronically in a syrup-based diet. After treatment, purified hole-body extracts were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. While N. ceranae infection was also shown to decrease EO production affecting survival rates, acaricides showed no significant effect on this pheromone. As for the CHC, we found no changes in relation to the health status or consumption of acaricides. This absence of alteration in EO or CHC as response to acaricides ingestion or in combination with N. ceranae, suggests that worker honey bees exposed to those highly ubiquitous drugs are hardly differentiated by nest-mates. Having determined a synergic effect on mortality in worker bees exposed to coumaphos and Nosema infection but also, alterations in EO production as a response to N. ceranae infection it is an interesting clue to deeper understand the effects of parasite-host-pesticide interaction on colony functioning.

Investigation of pesticides on honey bee carbonic anhydrase inhibition

Carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) plays crucial physiological roles in many different organisms, such as in pH regulation, ion transport, and metabolic processes. CA was isolated from the European bee Apis mellifera (AmCA) spermatheca and inhibitory effects of pesticides belonging to various classes, such as carbamates, thiophosphates, and pyrethroids, were investigated herein. The inhibitory effects of methomyl, oxamyl, deltamethrin, cypermethrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and diazinon on AmCA were analysed. These pesticides showed effective in vitro inhibition of the enzyme, at sub-micromolar levels. The IC50 values for these pesticides ranged between of 0.0023 and 0.0385 μM. The CA inhibition mechanism with these compounds is unknown at the moment, but most of them contain ester functionalities which may be hydrolysed by the enzyme with the formation of intermediates that can either react with amino acid residues or bid to the zinc ion from the active site.

Metabolite Support of Long-Term Storage of Sperm in the Spermatheca of Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Queens

The polyandrous mating system of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) has garnered widespread attention. Long-lived honeybee queens only mate early in maturation, and the sperm obtained from the aerial mating is stored in the spermatheca. The maintenance of sperm viability in the spermatheca is an intriguing and complex process. However, the key physiological and biochemical adaptations underlying the long-term storage of sperm remain unclear. Analysis of the metabolite profile could help better understand the biology of the spermatheca and offer insights into the breeding and conservation of honeybees and even pest control strategies. Here, the changes in metabolites in the spermatheca were quantified between virgin queens and new-laying queens (with stored sperm) via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Compared with virgin queens, changes occurred in lipids and lipid-like molecules, including fatty acyls and glycerophospholipids (GPL), prenol lipids, and sterol lipids, during storage of sperm in new-laying honeybee queens. Furthermore, the metabolic pathways that were enriched with the differentially expressed metabolites were identified and included GPL metabolism, biosynthesis of amino acids, and the mTOR signaling pathway. The likely roles of the pathways in the maintenance and protection of sperm are discussed. The study identifies key metabolites and pathways in the complex interplay of substances that contribute to the long-term storage of sperm and ultimately reproductive success of honeybee queens.