Monitoring the mind: the neurocognitive correlates of metamemory

What Guides the Judgment of Learning: Memory or Heuristics? An Event-Related Potential Study

Memory monitoring ability is essential for the effectiveness of learning processes. Judgment of Learning (JOL), a metacognitive judgment, is commonly used to measure this ability. An ongoing debate questions whether JOL is an outcome of an inferential or recollective experience, as suggested by different hypotheses regarding the underlying cognitive mechanisms of this judgment. To address this question through a neuroscientific perspective, we aimed to investigate the temporal dynamic of JOL adopting event-related potential (ERP) methodology. Seventy-two young adults participated in an episodic memory task involving word-pairs as stimuli. Their JOLs were obtained through categorical choices in a delayed condition. Additionally, their memory performance was tested in the recognition phase. ERP components were compared for different JOL levels, as well as for the hit responses in the recognition test according to their JOL levels. The analyses showed that JOL processes are observable within an early time window after stimulus presentation, as evidenced by elicitation of the P100, N100, P200, N200, and P300 components across all JOL levels. However, only the amplitude of the N100 varied among these levels. A negative ERP component with 330-500 ms latency was also evident for all JOL levels in the central and parietal electrodes, which did not differ in amplitude. The analyses of the recognition phase ERPs showed that the hit responses did not exhibit a significant difference in the familiarity-related mid-frontal old/new effect (FN400) amplitude; however, those with high level of JOL elicited recollection-related parietal old-new effect with a smaller amplitude. These findings support both hypotheses suggesting that JOL is influenced by heuristics and the retrievability of information.

Elucidating the underlying components of metacognitive systematic bias in the human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior parietal cortex

Metacognitive systematic bias impairs human learning efficiency, which is characterized by the inconsistency between predicted and actual memory performance. However, the underlying mechanism of metacognitive systematic bias remains unclear in existing studies. In this study, we utilized judgments of learning task in human participants to compare the neural mechanism difference in metacognitive systematic bias. Participants encoded words in fMRI sessions that would be tested later. Immediately after encoding each item, participants predicted how likely they would remember it. Multivariate analyses on fMRI data demonstrated that working memory and uncertainty decisions are represented in patterns of neural activity in metacognitive systematic bias. The available information participants used led to overestimated bias and underestimated bias. Effective connectivity analyses further indicate that information about the metacognitive systematic bias is represented in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and inferior parietal cortex. Different neural patterns were found underlying overestimated bias and underestimated bias. Specifically, connectivity regions with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and supramarginal gyrus form overestimated bias, while less regional connectivity forms underestimated bias. These findings provide a mechanistic account for the construction of metacognitive systematic bias.

Investigating Retrospective and Prospective Metamemory Judgments During Episodic Memory in Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

It is clear evidence that individuals diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) lack confidence in their memory and have low metamemory performance (judgment and accuracy). However, it is still unclear whether low metamemory performance is specific to first, domain general or domain specific, and second, to stimulus domain. To address these issues, we compared individuals diagnosed with OCD and healthy controls (HCs) on recognition, retrospective (judgments of learning [JOL]) and prospective (feeling of knowing [FOK]) metamemory judgments and under three different episodic memory tasks, which consisted of symptom-free, familiar and unfamiliar stimuli (word, scene, and face photo). OCD patients showed lower recognition performance, JOL and FOK judgments, and accuracy in all tasks than HCs. Also, OCD patients were slower than HCs during all cognitive performances. In both groups, metamemory performances were lower in familiar items than unfamiliar items. However, recognition performances were not affected by stimulus type. Our results support the idea of general episodic memory and a metamemory deficit in OCD. Moreover, metamemory deficits in OCD are domain general.

Lower cognitive function attenuates the convergence between self-ratings and observer ratings of depressive symptoms in late-life cognitive impairment

OBJECTIVES

Assessment of depressive symptoms in older adults is challenging especially in the presence of risks in cognitive impairment. We aimed to examine whether the convergence between two measures of depressive symptoms (self-report and observer ratings) is affected by varying levels of cognitive function in older adults.

METHODS

Self-reported scale of depression, informant-based rating of affective symptoms, and global cognitive function were assessed in 2533 older adults with no impairment, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer's disease. The strength of rank-order correlation between the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and behavioral ratings of the Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI) was examined as the metric of convergent validity.

RESULTS

The results showed that the strength of convergence between the two measurements gradually decreased as a function of lowered cognitive function. Overall tendency showed that diagnoses of cognitive impairment and lower levels of cognitive function were associated with lower correspondence between the two depression measurements. The loss of convergent validity is especially evident in the behavioral symptom of apathy.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilizing self-report scales of depression in older adults requires a cautious approach even with minimal or mild levels of cognitive impairment.

Comparing event-related potentials of retrospective and prospective metacognitive judgments during episodic and semantic memory

It is unclear whether metacognitive judgments are made on the basis of domain-generality or domain-specificity. In the current study, we compared both behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) correlates of retrospective (retrospective confidence judgments: RCJs), and prospective (feeling of knowing: FOK) metacognitive judgments during episodic and semantic memory tasks in 82 participants. Behavioral results indicated that FOK judgments reflect a domain-specific process, while RCJ reflect a domain-general process. RCJ and FOK judgments produced similar ERP waveforms within the memory tasks, but with different temporal dynamics; thus supporting the hypothesis that retrospective and prospective metacognitive judgments are distinct processes. Our ERP results also suggest that metacognitive judgments are linked to distributed neural substrates, rather than purely frontal lobe functioning. Furthermore, the role of intra-subject and inter-subject differences in metacognitive judgments across and within the memory tasks are highlighted.

Judgments of learning reveal conscious access to stimulus memorability

Despite the massive capacity of visual long-term memory, individuals do not successfully encode all visual information they wish to remember. This variability in encoding success has been traditionally ascribed to fluctuations in individuals' cognitive states (e.g., sustained attention) and differences in memory encoding processes (e.g., depth of encoding). However, recent work has shown that a considerable amount of variability in encoding success stems from intrinsic stimulus properties that determine the ease of encoding across individuals. While researchers have identified several perceptual and semantic properties that contribute to stimulus memorability, much remains unknown, including whether individuals are aware of the memorability of stimuli they encounter. In the present study, we investigated whether individuals have conscious access to the memorability of real-world stimuli while forming self-referential judgments of learning (JOL) during explicit memory encoding (Experiments 1A-B) and when asked about the perceived memorability of a stimulus in the absence of attempted encoding (Experiments 2A-B). We found that JOLs and perceived memorability estimates (PME) were consistent across individuals and predictive of memorability, confirming that individuals can access memorability with or without stimulus encoding. At the same time, access to memorability was not comprehensive. We found that individuals unexpectedly remembered and forgot consistent sets of stimuli as well. When we compared access to memorability between JOLs and PMEs, we found that individuals had more access during JOLs. Thus, our findings demonstrate that individuals have partial access to stimulus memorability and that explicit encoding increases the amount of access that is available.

Is there more to metamemory? An argument for two specialized monitoring abilities

Metamemory is the process of monitoring and controlling one's beliefs, knowledge, and mental processes of memory. One fundamental question is whether the monitoring component of this theory should be considered as only one ability or an umbrella of more specialized abilities. In the current study, we aimed to understand the structure of metamemory monitoring by testing unitary versus specialized measurement models of metamemory. Monitoring accuracy and mean ratings from four common monitoring judgments across different stimulus presentation pairs were calculated to create latent factors for each judgment using structural equation modeling. Our results suggest that although each of the monitoring judgments was correlated with one another, monitoring may be composed of two distinct abilities: one occurring during initial presentation and one occurring at retrieval. These results can help explain prior behavioral and brain dissociations between predictions at encoding and retrieval in terms of experimental and material manipulations. We caution against the conceptualization and use of metamemory monitoring as a unitary construct.

Linking L2 proficiency and patterns of functional connectivity during L1 word retrieval

Second language (L2) learners differ greatly in language proficiency, which is partially explained by variability in native language (L1) skills. The present fMRI study explored the neural underpinnings of the L1-L2 link. Twenty L2 learners completed a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) task that required retrieving words in L1. Low-proficiency L2 learners showed greater functional connectivity for correct and TOT responses between the left inferior frontal gyrus and right-sided homologues of the temporoparietal regions that support phonological processing (e.g., supramarginal gyrus), possibly reflecting difficulty with phonological retrieval. High-proficiency L2 learners showed greater connectivity for erroneous responses (TOT in particular) between the left inferior frontal gyrus and regions of left medial temporal lobe (e.g., hippocampus), associated with implicit learning processes. The difference between low- and high-proficiency L2 learners in functional connectivity, which is evident even during L1 processing, may affect L2 learning processes and outcomes.

Delayed Judgments of Learning Are Associated With Activation of Information From Past Experiences: A Neurobiological Examination

Research in metacognition suggests that the information people use to predict their memory performance can vary depending on the contexts in which they make their predictions. For example, if people judge their memories after a delay from initial encoding, they may be more likely to use retrieved information about the past encoding experience than if they judged memories immediately after encoding. Although this seems intuitive, past behavioral and neuroimaging work has not tested whether delayed memory judgments are more strongly coupled with information about past experiences than immediate memory judgments. We scanned participants using functional MRI while they encoded paired associates and made predictions about their future memory performance either immediately after encoding or after a delay. Consistent with the hypothesis that people use retrieved information about past experiences to inform delayed memory judgments, our results showed that activation patterns associated with past experience were more strongly coupled with delayed memory judgments than with immediate ones.

Toward a Neurocognitive Understanding of the Algorithms That Underlie Metamemory Judgments

Abstract. Neurocognitive research on metamemory thus far has mostly focused on localizing brain regions that track metacognitive judgments and distinguishing metacognitive processing from primary cognition. With much known about the localization of metamemory in the brain, there is a growing opportunity to develop a more algorithmic characterization of the brain processes underlying metamemory. We briefly review some current neurocognitive metamemory research, including relevant brain regions and theories about their role in metamemory. We review some computational neuroimaging approaches and, as an illustrative example, describe their use in studies on the delayed-JOL (judgments of learning) effect. Finally, we discuss how researchers might apply computational approaches to several unresolved questions in the behavioral metamemory literature. Such research could provide a bridge between cognitive and neurocognitive research on metamemory and provide novel insights into the algorithms underlying metamemory judgments, thus informing theory and methodology in both areas.

Functional and Pathological Correlates of Judgments of Learning in Cognitively Unimpaired Older Adults

Judgments of learning (JOL) pertain to introspective metamemory processes evaluating how well information is learned. Using a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task, we investigated the neural substrates of JOL predictions in a group of 105 cognitively unimpaired older adults from the Harvard Aging Brain Study. Associations of JOL performance and its neural correlates with amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau pathology, two proteinopathies associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and aging, were also examined. We found that trials judged as learned well relative to trials judged as learned less well (high JOL > low JOL) engaged the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and precuneus, among other midline regions, in addition to bilateral hippocampi. In this cohort of older adults, greater levels of entorhinal tau deposition were associated with overestimation of memory performance and with lower fMRI signal in midline regions during predicted memory success. No associations with Aβ were found. The findings suggest that tau pathology in unimpaired older adults may play a role in altered metamemory processes. We discuss our findings in light of the hypothesis that JOLs are partially dependent on a process involving attempts to retrieve a correct answer from memory, as well as implications for clinical research investigating unawareness of memory performance (i.e., anosognosia) in patients with AD dementia.

Comparing electrophysiological correlates of judgment of learning and feeling of knowing during face-name recognition

We investigated the event-related potential (ERP) correlates of two metacognitive judgments, namely judgment of learning (JOL) and feeling of knowing (FOK) induced by a face-name recognition (FNR) task in 60 participants. The FNR produced N170 and P100 components at posterior, and an N100 component at anterior electrodes. Posterior P200, anterior N200 components were recorded during JOL and FOK judgments. Our data showed that ERP correlates of JOL and FOK emerge as rapidly as 200 ms following stimulus presentation, and these two metacognitive judgments are based on both perceptual fluency and conflict processes. However, these ERP components affected by the degree of JOL and FOK judgments. Thus, we concluded that even though JOL and FOK judgments produced similar ERP wave forms temporal dynamics of these two judgments are different. Also, our results support the hypothesis that metacognitive judgments are linked to distributed neural substrates rather than strictly to frontal lobe function.

How influenceable is our metamemory for pictorial material? The impact of framing and emotionality on metamemory judgments

Metamemory refers to the ability to monitor and control one´s own memory processes which plays an important role in everyday life when accuracy of memory is required. The present study intends to give new insights into the complex relationship between confidence in memory and accuracy of metamemory judgments for negative emotional and neutral pictorial stimuli. Judgments of learning (JOLs) were investigated in order to provide important theoretical information for practical applications in everyday life. A balanced 2×2 factorial experimental design was used to explore the impact of framing in terms of remembering or forgetting as well as emotionality on JOLs. With respect to the already known complex relationship of confidence in memory and accuracy of confidence statements, the present results emphasize this complexity by showing that there is no interaction between the factors framing and emotionality but significant main effects of these two factors with respect to JOLs. Furthermore, accuracy of JOLs is not influenced by framing in terms of remembering and forgetting. Both framing conditions lead to overconfident judgments, regardless of whether confidence in memory is influenced by framing. Emotionality, on the other hand, enhances memory accuracy regardless of whether the subjective feeling of remembering influences confidence in memory or not. The present findings highlight the need to strengthen the collective consciousness about the influenceability of confidence in memory and the fact that a high confidence in memory is not inevitably accompanied by accurate memories.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation over the Prefrontal Cortex Alters Encoding and Judgments of Learning Based on Fluency

Past research has shown that judgments of learning (JOLs), subjective confidence judgments made at study about later memorability, are inferential in nature and based on cues available during encoding. Participants tend to use fluency as a cue and give higher JOLs to more fluently encoded items, despite having better recognition memory for disfluently encoded items, which leads to poor JOL accuracy. Research has implicated the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and anterior prefrontal cortex (aPFC) in JOL and encoding processes, but no studies to date have tested how the roles of these regions vary with the information on which JOLs are based. We used high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation to test the causal roles of DLPFC and aPFC in encoding success, JOL ratings, and JOL accuracy. Participants studied and made JOLs about words that varied in fluency (i.e., frequency and orientation). High-definition transcranial direct current stimulation over the DLPFC impaired encoding, as evidenced by an increase in subsequent false alarms. For words that were less fluently encoded, aPFC stimulation improved JOL accuracy, perhaps making participants more aware of encoding failures under conditions of disfluency. Conversely, DLPFC and aPFC stimulation decreased JOL accuracy for high-frequency words, suggesting the roles of these regions in JOLs vary with the cognitive bases of the judgments. These results contribute to our understanding of the causal roles of prefrontal regions in objective and subjective memory processes and how their contributions to metamemory accuracy vary with information on which subjective assessments are based.

Neurobiological basis of feeling of knowing in episodic memory

Feeling of knowing (FOK) is a metacognitive process which allows individuals to predict the likelihood that they will be able to remember, in the future, information which they currently cannot recall. Although FOK provides evidence for the mechanisms of metacognitive systems, the neurobiological basis of FOK is still unclear. We investigated the neural correlates of FOK induced by an episodic memory task in 77 younger adult participants. Data were gathered using event-related potentials (ERPs). ERP components during high, low, extremely high and extremely low FOK judgments were analyzed. Stimulus-locked ERP analyses indicated that FOK judgment was associated with greater positivity for P200 component at frontal, central, and parietal electrode zones and greater negativity for the N200 component at parietal electrode zones. Furthermore, results revealed that amplitude of the ERP components for FOK judgments were affected by the level of FOK judgment. Results suggest that ERP components of FOK judgment observed within a 200 ms time window support the perceptual fluency-based model.

Memory monitoring and memory control in chronic stroke patients Dissociated processes

Memory problems are common in stroke patients, although little is known about how accurately chronic stroke patients can monitor and control memory processes.

Objective

The performance of memory and metamemory in stroke patients and healthy controls were investigated, as well as dissociation between performances.

Methods

10 adults with right hemisphere lesion (mean [M] age=53.2 [SD=9.7]), 10 with left hemisphere lesion (M age=60.4 [SD=6.6]) and 20 healthy participants (M age=56.5 [SD=9.3] with no neurological disease, matched for sex, age and years of education participated in a multiple-case design study. Participants completed a metamemory experimental paradigm, as well as immediate and delayed word recall and recognition tasks.

Results

Data indicated that 10 out of the 20 patients presented significantly lower scores compared to controls, two of which had global deficits (functional association). Functional dissociations between memory monitoring (judgments of learning, JOL), control (allocation of study time) and capacity (cued-recall task) among patients were found for eight cases, suggesting these processes are independent.

Conclusion

These findings reveal stroke patients may have specific metamemory impairment and can contribute to the understanding of cognitive models of metamemory processing.

Brain structural changes after multi-strategic metamemory training in older adults with subjective memory complaints: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Metamemory is the process of monitoring and controlling one's memory. Improving metamemory may reduce the memory problem in old age. We hypothesized that metamemory training (MMT) would improve cognition in older adults with subjective memory complaints and change the brain region related to metacognition.

METHOD

We recruited and randomized older adults to the multi-strategic memory training of 10 weekly 90-min sessions, based on the metamemory concept or usual care. Cognitive tests including the Elderly Verbal Learning Test, Simple Rey Figure Test, Digit Span, Spatial Span, Categorical Fluency, and the Boston Naming Test were done in 201 participants, together with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 49 participants before and after training.

RESULTS

A total of 112 in the training group and 89 in the control group participated. The training group had a significant increase in long-term delayed free recall, categorical fluency, and the Boston Naming test. In MRI, the mean diffusivity of the bundles of axon tracts passing from the frontal lobe to the posterior end of the lateral sulcus decreased in the training group.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that the MMT program has a positive impact on enhancing older people' cognitive performance. Improved white matter integrity in the anterior and posterior cerebrum and increased cortical thickness of prefrontal regions, which related to metacognition, possibly suggest that the effects of the MMT would be induced via the enhancement of cognitive control.

Dysexecutive disorders and their diagnosis: A position paper

Although executive function disorders are among the most prevalent cognitive impairments a consensus on diagnostic criteria has yet to be reached. With a view to harmonizing these criteria, the present position paper (i) focuses on the main dysexecutive disorders, (ii) examines recent approaches in both the behavioral and cognitive domains, (iii) defines diagnostic boundaries for frontal syndrome, (iv) reports on the frequency and profile of the executive function disorders observed in the main brain diseases, and (v) proposes an operationalization of diagnostic criteria. Future work must define the executive processes involved in human adaptive behavior, characterize their impairment in brain diseases, and improve the management of these conditions (including remediation strategies and rehabilitation).

Impairment of perceptual metacognitive accuracy and reduced prefrontal grey matter volume in first-episode psychosis

INTRODUCTION

Metacognition, or "thinking about thinking", is a higher-order thought process that allows for the evaluation of perceptual processes for accuracy. Metacognitive accuracy is associated with the grey matter volume (GMV) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), an area also impacted in schizophrenia. The present study set out to investigate whether deficits in metacognitive accuracy are present in the early stages of psychosis.

METHODS

Metacognitive accuracy in first-episode psychosis (FEP) was assessed on a perceptual decision-making task and their performance compared to matched healthy control participants (N = 18). A novel signal detection theory approach was used to model metacognitive sensitivity independently from objective perceptual performance. A voxel-based morphometry investigation was also conducted on GMV.

RESULTS

We found that the FEP group demonstrated significantly worse metacognitive accuracy compared to controls (p = .039). Importantly, GMV deficits were also observed in the superior frontal gyrus. The findings suggest a specific deficit in this processing domain to exist at first episode; however, no relationship was found between GMV and metacognitive accuracy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the notion that an inability to accurately scrutinise perception may underpin functional deficits observed in later schizophrenia; however, the exact neural basis of metacognitive deficits in FEP remains elusive.

Individual Differences in the Accuracy of Judgments of Learning Are Related to the Gray Matter Volume and Functional Connectivity of the Left Mid-Insula

The judgment of learning (JOL) is an important form of prospective metamemory judgment, and the biological basis of the JOL process is an important topic in metamemory research. Although previous task-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have examined the brain regions underlying the JOL process, the neural correlates of individual differences in JOL accuracy require further investigation. This study used structural and resting-state functional MRI to investigate whether individual differences in JOL accuracy are related to the gray matter (GM) volume and functional connectivity of the bilateral insula and medial Brodmann area (BA) 11, which are assumed to be related to JOL accuracy. We found that individual differences in JOL accuracy were related to the GM volume of the left mid-insula and to the functional connectivity between the left mid-insula and various other regions, including the left superior parietal lobule/precuneus, bilateral inferior parietal lobule/intraparietal sulcus, right frontal pole and left parahippocampal gyrus/fusiform gyrus/cerebellum. Further analyses indicated that the functional connectivity related to individual differences in JOL accuracy could be divided into two factors and might support information integration and selective attention processes underlying accurate JOLs. In addition, individual differences in JOL accuracy were not related to the GM volume or functional connectivity of the medial BA 11. Our findings provide novel evidence for the role of the left mid-insula and its functional connectivity in the JOL process.

The Importance of Metamemory Functioning to the Pathogenesis of Psychosis

Many studies up to date have implied that biases in the metacognition of memory, so called metamemory, contribute to the development and maintenance of positive symptoms in schizophrenia. However, no study exists which has longitudinally followed patients experiencing positive symptoms. The present article therefore reviews cross-sectional studies on retrospective metamemory abilities in participants within different stages of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, with heterogeneous symptom severities, creating a pseudo-longitudinal overview. Summarized, a deterioration of these abilities correlating with psychosis development can be inferred. The reviewed publications indicate that metamemory biases can already be found in patients with an at-risk mental state for psychosis (ARMS). Patients in their first episode of psychosis (FEP) seem to be more severely impaired than ARMS-patients but similarly affected compared to chronic patients. The contribution of these biases to the pathogenesis of psychosis is discussed, giving consideration to relations with other cognitive- and metacognitive functions, neurochemical processes and neural correlates. It is hypothesized that the biases represent early cognitive markers of the beginning and persisting psychotic state. An early treatment program could help patients to ameliorate the general course of illness or even to prevent the risk of a transition to psychosis.

Reality Monitoring and Metamemory in Adults with Autism Spectrum Conditions

Studies of reality monitoring (RM) often implicate medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in distinguishing internal and external information, a region linked to autism-related deficits in social and self-referential information processing, executive function, and memory. This study used two RM conditions (self-other; perceived-imagined) to investigate RM and metamemory in adults with autism. The autism group showed a deficit in RM, which did not differ across source conditions, and both groups exhibited a self-encoding benefit on recognition and source memory. Metamemory for perceived-imagined information, but not for self-other information, was significantly lower in the autism group. Therefore, reality monitoring and metamemory, sensitive to mPFC function, appear impaired in autism, highlighting a difficulty in remembering and monitoring internal and external details of past events.

Neural change following different memory training approaches in very preterm born children - A pilot study

OBJECTIVE

There is mixed evidence regarding neural change following cognitive training. Brain activation increase, decrease, or a combination of both may occur. We investigated training-induced neural change using two different memory training approaches.

METHODS

Very preterm born children (aged 7-12 years) were randomly allocated to a memory strategy training, an intensive working memory practice or a waiting control group. Before and immediately after the trainings and the waiting period, brain activation during a visual working memory task was measured using fMRI and cognitive performance was assessed.

RESULTS

Following both memory trainings, there was a significant decrease of fronto-parietal brain activation and a significant increase of memory performance. In the control group, no neural or performance change occurred after the waiting period.

CONCLUSION

These pilot data point towards a training-related decrease of brain activation, independent of the training approach. Our data highlight the high training-induced plasticity of the child's brain during development.

Neural correlates of judgments of learning - An ERP study on metacognition

Metacognitive assessment of performance has been revealed to be one of the most powerful predictors of human learning success and academic achievement. Yet, little is known about the functional nature of cognitive processes supporting judgments of learning (JOLs). The present study investigated the neural underpinnings of JOLs, using event-related brain potentials. Participants were presented with picture pairs and instructed to learn these pairs. After each pair, participants received a task cue, which instructed them to make a JOL (the likelihood of remembering the target when only presented with the cue) or to make a control judgment. Results revealed that JOLs were accompanied by a positive slow wave over medial frontal areas and a bilateral negative slow wave over occipital areas between 350ms and 700ms following the task cue. The results are discussed with respect to recent accounts on the neural correlates of judgments of learning.

Judgment of Learning Accuracy in High-functioning Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder

This study explored whether adults and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) demonstrate difficulties making metacognitive judgments, specifically judgments of learning. Across two experiments, the study examined whether individuals with ASD could accurately judge whether they had learnt a piece of information (in this case word pairs). In Experiment 1, adults with ASD demonstrated typical accuracy on a standard ‘cue-alone’ judgment of learning (JOL) task, compared to age- and IQ-matched neurotypical adults. Additionally, in Experiment 2, adolescents with ASD demonstrated typical accuracy on both a standard ‘cue-alone’ JOL task, and a ‘cue-target’ JOL task. These results suggest that JOL accuracy is unimpaired in ASD. These results have important implications for both theories of metacognition in ASD and educational practise.

tDCS over the prefrontal cortex alters objective but not subjective encoding

Previous research has implicated the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in successful associative encoding and subjective awareness of one's memory performance. We tested the causal role of the PFC in these processes by applying transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) during a verbal associative encoding and judgment-of-learning (JOL) task. tDCS over the PFC impaired associative encoding compared to sham and parietal tDCS, as shown by fewer hits on a subsequent associative recognition test. There were no effects of tDCS on the magnitude or accuracy of JOLs. These results suggest the PFC plays a causal role in objective measures of encoding, and that objective and subjective aspects of associative encoding are separable.

Reverse inference of memory retrieval processes underlying metacognitive monitoring of learning using multivariate pattern analysis

Monitoring of learning is only accurate at some time after learning. It is thought that immediate monitoring is based on working memory, whereas later monitoring requires re-activation of stored items, yielding accurate judgements. Such interpretations are difficult to test because they require reverse inference, which presupposes specificity of brain activity for the hidden cognitive processes. We investigated whether multivariate pattern classification can provide this specificity. We used a word recall task to create single trial examples of immediate and long term retrieval and trained a learning algorithm to discriminate them. Next, participants performed a similar task involving monitoring instead of recall. The recall-trained classifier recognized the retrieval patterns underlying immediate and long term monitoring and classified delayed monitoring examples as long-term retrieval. This result demonstrates the feasibility of decoding cognitive processes, instead of their content.

Is retrieval the key? Metamemory judgment and testing as learning strategies

Re-reading is the most common learning strategy, albeit not a very efficient one. Testing is highly efficient, but not perceived by students as a learning strategy. Prospective judgment-of-learning (JOL) reflect the learner's impression of subsequently being able to retrieve the ongoing learning in a cued-recall task. Estimating JOL involves attempting to retrieve the information, as in testing. The few studies that have explored the potential mnemonic benefit of JOL have yielded contradictory results. Our aim was to compare JOL and testing with re-study and to examine the impact of these strategies according to the relative difficulty of the material (cue-target association strength) in two experiments. After a first encoding phase, participants re-studied, provided JOL, or took a test. Forty-eight hours later, they participated in a final cued-recall test, during which their confidence level judgments were collected. The main result was that delayed JOL behaved in the same way as testing, and both yielded better performances than re-study when material was of moderate difficulty. The easy or very difficult material revealed no differences between these strategies. JOL is proposed as an alternative to testing when faced with difficult material.

Emotional Meta-Memories: A Review

Emotional meta-memory can be defined as the knowledge people have about the strategies and monitoring processes that they can use to remember their emotionally charged memories. Although meta-memory per se has been studied in many cognitive laboratories for many years, fewer studies have explicitly focused on meta-memory for emotionally charged or valenced information. In this brief review, we analyzed a series of behavioral and neuroimaging studies that used different meta-memory tasks with valenced information in order to foster new research in this direction, especially in terms of commonalities/peculiarities of the emotion and meta-memory interaction. In addition, results further support meta-cognitive models that take emotional factors into account when defining meta-memory per se.

Differential Neural Correlates Underlie Judgment of Learning and Subsequent Memory Performance

Judgment of learning (JOL) plays a pivotal role in self-regulated learning. Although the JOLs are in general accurate, important deviations from memory performance are often reported, especially when the JOLs are made immediately after learning. Nevertheless, existing studies have not clearly dissociated the neural processes underlying subjective JOL and objective memory. In the present study, participants were asked to study a list of words that would be tested 1 day later. Immediately after learning an item, participants predicted how likely they would remember that item. Critically, the JOL was performed on only half of the studied items to avoid its contamination on subsequent memory. We found that during encoding, compared to items later judged as "will be forgotten," those judged as "will be remembered" showed stronger activities in the default-mode network, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (PFC) and posterior cingulate cortex, as well as weaker functional connectivity between the left dorsolateral PFC and the visual cortex. The exact opposite pattern was found when comparing items that were actually remembered with those that were later forgotten. These important neural dissociations between JOL and memory performance shed light on the neural mechanisms of human metamemory bias.

Younger and older adults weigh multiple cues in a similar manner to generate judgments of learning

One's memory for past test performance (MPT) is a key piece of information individuals use when deciding how to restudy material. We used a multi-trial recognition memory task to examine adult age differences in the influence of MPT (measured by actual Trial 1 memory accuracy and subjective confidence judgments, CJs) along with Trial 1 judgments of learning (JOLs), objective and participant-estimated recognition fluencies, and Trial 2 study time on Trial 2 JOLs. We found evidence of simultaneous and independent influences of multiple objective and subjective (i.e., metacognitive) cues on Trial 2 JOLs, and these relationships were highly similar for younger and older adults. Individual differences in Trial 1 recognition accuracy and CJs on Trial 2 JOLs indicate that individuals may vary in the degree to which they rely on each MPT cue when assessing subsequent memory confidence. Aging appears to spare the ability to access multiple cues when making JOLs.

Education level predicts retrospective metamemory accuracy in healthy aging and Alzheimer's disease

The current study investigated the effect of education on retrospective metamemory accuracy in 143 healthy older adults and 143 early to moderate Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, using retrospective measures of confidence in the accuracy of retrieval responses in an episodic odor recognition memory task. Relative confidence accuracy was computed as the difference between confidence judgments for correct and incorrect responses. In both AD patients and controls, individuals reporting 17 years of education or more had significantly more accurate levels of confidence than individuals with 12 years or less. Thus, education was a significant predictor of retrospective metamemory accuracy in healthy aging and AD.