1
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Zhang Y, Sharma D, Liang Y, Downs N, Dolman F, Thorne K, Black IM, Pereira JH, Adams P, Scheller HV, O’Neill M, Urbanowicz B, Mortimer JC. Putative rhamnogalacturonan-II glycosyltransferase identified through callus gene editing which bypasses embryo lethality. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 195:2551-2565. [PMID: 38739546 PMCID: PMC11288761 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiae259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) is a structurally complex and conserved domain of the pectin present in the primary cell walls of vascular plants. Borate cross-linking of RG-II is required for plants to grow and develop normally. Mutations that alter RG-II structure also affect cross-linking and are lethal or severely impair growth. Thus, few genes involved in RG-II synthesis have been identified. Here, we developed a method to generate viable loss-of-function Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) mutants in callus tissue via CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing. We combined this with a candidate gene approach to characterize the male gametophyte defective 2 (MGP2) gene that encodes a putative family GT29 glycosyltransferase. Plants homozygous for this mutation do not survive. We showed that in the callus mutant cell walls, RG-II does not cross-link normally because it lacks 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid (Kdo) and thus cannot form the α-L-Rhap-(1→5)-α-D-kdop-(1→sidechain). We suggest that MGP2 encodes an inverting RG-II CMP-β-Kdo transferase (RCKT1). Our discovery provides further insight into the role of sidechains in RG-II dimerization. Our method also provides a viable strategy for further identifying proteins involved in the biosynthesis of RG-II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhang
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Deepak Sharma
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Yan Liang
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Nick Downs
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Fleur Dolman
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Kristen Thorne
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Ian M Black
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Jose Henrique Pereira
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Paul Adams
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Henrik V Scheller
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Malcolm O’Neill
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Breeanna Urbanowicz
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Jenny C Mortimer
- Joint BioEnergy Institute, Emeryville, CA 94608, USA
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
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2
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Ramos JRD, Reyes-Hernández BJ, Alim K, Maizel A. Auxin-mediated stress relaxation in pericycle and endoderm remodeling drives lateral root initiation. Biophys J 2024:S0006-3495(24)00414-4. [PMID: 38902924 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2024.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Plant development relies on the precise coordination of cell growth, which is influenced by the mechanical constraints imposed by rigid cell walls. The hormone auxin plays a crucial role in regulating this growth by altering the mechanical properties of cell walls. During the postembryonic formation of lateral roots, pericycle cells deep within the main root are triggered by auxin to resume growth and divide to form a new root. This growth involves a complex interplay between auxin, growth, and the resolution of mechanical conflicts with the overlying endodermis. However, the exact mechanisms by which this coordination is achieved are still unknown. Here, we propose a model that integrates tissue mechanics and auxin transport, revealing a connection between the auxin-induced relaxation of mechanical stress in the pericycle and auxin signaling in the endodermis. We show that the endodermis initially limits the growth of pericycle cells, resulting in a modest initial expansion. However, the associated stress relaxation is sufficient to redirect auxin to the overlying endodermis, which then actively accommodates the growth, allowing for the subsequent development of the lateral root. Our model uncovers that increased pericycle turgor and decreased endodermal resistance license expansion of the pericycle and how the topology of the endodermis influences the formation of the new root. These findings highlight the interconnected relationship between mechanics and auxin flow during lateral root initiation, emphasizing the vital role of the endodermis in shaping root development through mechanotransduction and auxin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- João R D Ramos
- Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; TUM School of Natural Sciences, Department of Bioscience, Center for Protein Assemblies (CPA), Munich, Germany
| | | | - Karen Alim
- Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; TUM School of Natural Sciences, Department of Bioscience, Center for Protein Assemblies (CPA), Munich, Germany.
| | - Alexis Maizel
- Center for Organismal Studies (COS), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
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3
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Cosgrove DJ. Structure and growth of plant cell walls. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2024; 25:340-358. [PMID: 38102449 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-023-00691-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Plant cells build nanofibrillar walls that are central to plant growth, morphogenesis and mechanics. Starting from simple sugars, three groups of polysaccharides, namely, cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectins, with very different physical properties are assembled by the cell to make a strong yet extensible wall. This Review describes the physics of wall growth and its regulation by cellular processes such as cellulose production by cellulose synthase, modulation of wall pH by plasma membrane H+-ATPase, wall loosening by expansin and signalling by plant hormones such as auxin and brassinosteroid. In addition, this Review discusses the nuanced roles, properties and interactions of cellulose, matrix polysaccharides and cell wall proteins and describes how wall stress and wall loosening cooperatively result in cell wall growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
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4
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Laplaud V, Muller E, Demidova N, Drevensek S, Boudaoud A. Assessing the hydromechanical control of plant growth. J R Soc Interface 2024; 21:20240008. [PMID: 38715319 PMCID: PMC11077010 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2024.0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Multicellular organisms grow and acquire their shapes through the differential expansion and deformation of their cells. Recent research has addressed the role of cell and tissue mechanical properties in these processes. In plants, it is believed that growth rate is a function of the mechanical stress exerted on the cell wall, the thin polymeric layer surrounding cells, involving an effective viscosity. Nevertheless, recent studies have questioned this view, suggesting that cell wall elasticity sets the growth rate or that uptake of water is limiting for plant growth. To assess these issues, we developed a microfluidic device to quantify the growth rates, elastic properties and hydraulic conductivity of individual Marchantia polymorpha plants in a controlled environment with a high throughput. We characterized the effect of osmotic treatment and abscisic acid on growth and hydromechanical properties. Overall, the instantaneous growth rate of individuals is correlated with both bulk elastic modulus and hydraulic conductivity. Our results are consistent with a framework in which the growth rate is determined primarily by the elasticity of the wall and its remodelling, and secondarily by hydraulic conductivity. Accordingly, the coupling between the chemistry of the cell wall and the hydromechanics of the cell appears as key to set growth patterns during morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Laplaud
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Elise Muller
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Natalia Demidova
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
- Department of Chemical and Physical Sciences, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L1C6, Canada
| | - Stéphanie Drevensek
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- LadHyX, CNRS, Ecole polytechnique, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
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5
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Bente H, Köhler C. Molecular basis and evolutionary drivers of endosperm-based hybridization barriers. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 195:155-169. [PMID: 38298124 PMCID: PMC11060687 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiae050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
The endosperm, a transient seed tissue, plays a pivotal role in supporting embryo growth and germination. This unique feature sets flowering plants apart from gymnosperms, marking an evolutionary innovation in the world of seed-bearing plants. Nevertheless, the importance of the endosperm extends beyond its role in providing nutrients to the developing embryo by acting as a versatile protector, preventing hybridization events between distinct species and between individuals with different ploidy. This phenomenon centers on growth and differentiation of the endosperm and the speed at which both processes unfold. Emerging studies underscore the important role played by type I MADS-box transcription factors, including the paternally expressed gene PHERES1. These factors, along with downstream signaling pathways involving auxin and abscisic acid, are instrumental in regulating endosperm development and, consequently, the establishment of hybridization barriers. Moreover, mutations in various epigenetic regulators mitigate these barriers, unveiling a complex interplay of pathways involved in their formation. In this review, we discuss the molecular underpinnings of endosperm-based hybridization barriers and their evolutionary drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heinrich Bente
- Department of Plant Reproductive Biology and Epigenetics, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Claudia Köhler
- Department of Plant Reproductive Biology and Epigenetics, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam 14476, Germany
- Department of Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Uppsala 75007, Sweden
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6
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Yadav AS, Hong L, Klees PM, Kiss A, Petit M, He X, Barrios IM, Heeney M, Galang AMD, Smith RS, Boudaoud A, Roeder AH. Growth directions and stiffness across cell layers determine whether tissues stay smooth or buckle. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.07.22.549953. [PMID: 37546730 PMCID: PMC10401922 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.22.549953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
From smooth to buckled, nature exhibits organs of various shapes and forms. How cellular growth patterns produce smooth organ shapes such as leaves and sepals remains unclear. Here we show that unidirectional growth and comparable stiffness across both epidermal layers of Arabidopsis sepals are essential for smoothness. We identified a mutant with ectopic ASYMMETRIC LEAVES 2 (AS2) expression on the outer epidermis. Our analysis reveals that ectopic AS2 expression causes outer epidermal buckling at early stages of sepal development, due to conflicting growth directions and unequal epidermal stiffnesses. Aligning growth direction and increasing stiffness of the outer epidermis restores smoothness. Furthermore, buckling influences auxin efflux transporter protein PIN-FORMED 1 polarity to generate outgrowth in the later stages, suggesting that buckling is sufficient to initiate outgrowths. Our findings suggest that in addition to molecular cues influencing tissue mechanics, tissue mechanics can also modulate molecular signals, giving rise to well-defined shapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avilash S. Yadav
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Lilan Hong
- Institute of Nuclear Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Nuclear Agricultural Sciences of Ministry of Agriculture and Zhejiang Province, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Patrick M. Klees
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Annamaria Kiss
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon1, CNRS, INRAE, INRIA, F-69342 Lyon, France
| | - Manuel Petit
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Univ Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon1, CNRS, INRAE, INRIA, F-69342 Lyon, France
| | - Xi He
- Institute of Nuclear Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Nuclear Agricultural Sciences of Ministry of Agriculture and Zhejiang Province, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Iselle M. Barrios
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Michelle Heeney
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Anabella Maria D. Galang
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Arezki Boudaoud
- LadHyX, Ecole Polytechnique, CNRS, IP Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Adrienne H.K. Roeder
- Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology and Section of Plant Biology, School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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7
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Sénéchal F, Robinson S, Van Schaik E, Trévisan M, Saxena P, Reinhardt D, Fankhauser C. Pectin methylesterification state and cell wall mechanical properties contribute to neighbor proximity-induced hypocotyl growth in Arabidopsis. PLANT DIRECT 2024; 8:e584. [PMID: 38646567 PMCID: PMC11033045 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Plants growing with neighbors compete for light and consequently increase the growth of their vegetative organs to enhance access to sunlight. This response, called shade avoidance syndrome (SAS), involves photoreceptors such as phytochromes as well as phytochrome interacting factors (PIFs), which regulate the expression of growth-mediating genes. Numerous cell wall-related genes belong to the putative targets of PIFs, and the importance of cell wall modifications for enabling growth was extensively shown in developmental models such as dark-grown hypocotyl. However, the contribution of the cell wall in the growth of de-etiolated seedlings regulated by shade cues remains poorly established. Through analyses of mechanical and biochemical properties of the cell wall coupled with transcriptomic analysis of cell wall-related genes from previously published data, we provide evidence suggesting that cell wall modifications are important for neighbor proximity-induced elongation. Further analysis using loss-of-function mutants impaired in the synthesis and remodeling of the main cell wall polymers corroborated this. We focused on the cgr2cgr3 double mutant that is defective in methylesterification of homogalacturonan (HG)-type pectins. By following hypocotyl growth kinetically and spatially and analyzing the mechanical and biochemical properties of cell walls, we found that methylesterification of HG-type pectins was required to enable global cell wall modifications underlying neighbor proximity-induced hypocotyl growth. Collectively, our work suggests that plant competition for light induces changes in the expression of numerous cell wall genes to enable modifications in biochemical and mechanical properties of cell walls that contribute to neighbor proximity-induced growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Sénéchal
- Centre for Integrative Genomics, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, Génopode BuildingUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
- Present address:
UMR INRAE 1158 BioEcoAgro, Plant Biology and InnovationUniversity of Picardie Jules VerneAmiensFrance
| | - Sarah Robinson
- Institute of Plant SciencesUniversity of BernBernSwitzerland
- Present address:
The Sainsbury LaboratoryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Evert Van Schaik
- Department of BiologyUniversity of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
- Present address:
University of Applied Sciences LeidenLeidenNetherlands
| | - Martine Trévisan
- Centre for Integrative Genomics, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, Génopode BuildingUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Prashant Saxena
- Centre for Integrative Genomics, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, Génopode BuildingUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
- Present address:
James Watt School of EngineeringUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | | | - Christian Fankhauser
- Centre for Integrative Genomics, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, Génopode BuildingUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
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8
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Jose-Santhi J, Sheikh FR, Kalia D, Sood R, Kumar R, Acharya V, Singh RK. Transcriptional dynamics in source-sink tissues identifies molecular factors regulating the corm development process in saffron (Crocus sativus L.). PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2024; 176:e14285. [PMID: 38606764 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.14285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
AIMS Geophytic plants have evolved to develop underground storage organs (USO) in the active growing season to withstand harsh environments as well as to coordinate growth and reproduction when conditions are favourable. Saffron is an autumn flowering geophyte and an expensive spice crop restricted to certain geographical locations in the world. Saffron, being sterile, does not produce seeds and thus propagates only through corms, the quality of which determines its yield. Corm development in saffron is unexplored and the underlying molecular mechanism is still elusive. In this study, we performed an extensive characterisation of the transcriptional dynamics in the source (leaf) and sink (corm) tissues during corm development in saffron. KEY RESULTS Via morphological and transcriptome studies, we identified molecular factors regulating corm development process in saffron, which defined corm development into three stages: the initiation stage demonstrates enhanced vegetative growth aboveground and swelling of shoot base belowground due to active cell division & carbohydrate storage; the bulking stage comprises of increased source and sink strength, active photosynthesis, circadian gating and starch accumulation; the maturation stage represents reduced source and sink strength, lowered photosynthesis, sugar transport, starch synthesis and cell cycle arrest. UTILITY The global view of transcriptional changes in source and sink identifies similar and new molecular factors involved in the saffron corm development process compared to USO formation in other geophytes and provides a valuable resource for dissecting the molecular network underlying the corm development. We propose a hypothetical model based on data analysis, of how molecular factors via environmental cues can regulate the corm development process in saffron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Jose-Santhi
- Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, H.P, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Firdous Rasool Sheikh
- Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, H.P, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Diksha Kalia
- Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, H.P, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Riya Sood
- Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, H.P, India
| | - Ravi Kumar
- Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, H.P, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Vishal Acharya
- Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, H.P, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar Singh
- Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, H.P, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
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9
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Quinn O, Kumar M, Turner S. The role of lipid-modified proteins in cell wall synthesis and signaling. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 194:51-66. [PMID: 37682865 PMCID: PMC10756762 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a complex and dynamic extracellular matrix. Plant primary cell walls are the first line of defense against pathogens and regulate cell expansion. Specialized cells deposit a secondary cell wall that provides support and permits water transport. The composition and organization of the cell wall varies between cell types and species, contributing to the extensibility, stiffness, and hydrophobicity required for its proper function. Recently, many of the proteins involved in the biosynthesis, maintenance, and remodeling of the cell wall have been identified as being post-translationally modified with lipids. These modifications exhibit diverse structures and attach to proteins at different sites, which defines the specific role played by each lipid modification. The introduction of relatively hydrophobic lipid moieties promotes the interaction of proteins with membranes and can act as sorting signals, allowing targeted delivery to the plasma membrane regions and secretion into the apoplast. Disruption of lipid modification results in aberrant deposition of cell wall components and defective cell wall remodeling in response to stresses, demonstrating the essential nature of these modifications. Although much is known about which proteins bear lipid modifications, many questions remain regarding the contribution of lipid-driven membrane domain localization and lipid heterogeneity to protein function in cell wall metabolism. In this update, we highlight the contribution of lipid modifications to proteins involved in the formation and maintenance of plant cell walls, with a focus on the addition of glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors, N-myristoylation, prenylation, and S-acylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Quinn
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Dover Street, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Dover Street, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Simon Turner
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Michael Smith Building, Dover Street, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
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10
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Jobert F, Yadav S, Robert S. Auxin as an architect of the pectin matrix. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2023; 74:6933-6949. [PMID: 37166384 PMCID: PMC10690733 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Auxin is a versatile plant growth regulator that triggers multiple signalling pathways at different spatial and temporal resolutions. A plant cell is surrounded by the cell wall, a complex and dynamic network of polysaccharides. The cell wall needs to be rigid to provide mechanical support and protection and highly flexible to allow cell growth and shape acquisition. The modification of the pectin components, among other processes, is a mechanism by which auxin activity alters the mechanical properties of the cell wall. Auxin signalling precisely controls the transcriptional output of several genes encoding pectin remodelling enzymes, their local activity, pectin deposition, and modulation in different developmental contexts. This review examines the mechanism of auxin activity in regulating pectin chemistry at organ, cellular, and subcellular levels across diverse plant species. Moreover, we ask questions that remain to be addressed to fully understand the interplay between auxin and pectin in plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Jobert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183, Umeå, Sweden
- CRRBM, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 80000, Amiens, France
| | - Sandeep Yadav
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 90183, Umeå, Sweden
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11
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Alonso Baez L, Bacete L. Cell wall dynamics: novel tools and research questions. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2023; 74:6448-6467. [PMID: 37539735 PMCID: PMC10662238 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erad310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Years ago, a classic textbook would define plant cell walls based on passive features. For instance, a sort of plant exoskeleton of invariable polysaccharide composition, and probably painted in green. However, currently, this view has been expanded to consider plant cell walls as active, heterogeneous, and dynamic structures with a high degree of complexity. However, what do we mean when we refer to a cell wall as a dynamic structure? How can we investigate the different implications of this dynamism? While the first question has been the subject of several recent publications, defining the ideal strategies and tools needed to address the second question has proven to be challenging due to the myriad of techniques available. In this review, we will describe the capacities of several methodologies to study cell wall composition, structure, and other aspects developed or optimized in recent years. Keeping in mind cell wall dynamism and plasticity, the advantages of performing long-term non-invasive live-imaging methods will be emphasized. We specifically focus on techniques developed for Arabidopsis thaliana primary cell walls, but the techniques could be applied to both secondary cell walls and other plant species. We believe this toolset will help researchers in expanding knowledge of these dynamic/evolving structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Alonso Baez
- Institute for Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 5 Høgskoleringen, Trondheim, 7491, Norway
| | - Laura Bacete
- Institute for Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 5 Høgskoleringen, Trondheim, 7491, Norway
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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12
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Neher WR, Rasmussen CG, Braybrook SA, Lažetić V, Stowers CE, Mooney PT, Sylvester AW, Springer PS. The maize preligule band is subdivided into distinct domains with contrasting cellular properties prior to ligule outgrowth. Development 2023; 150:dev201608. [PMID: 37539661 PMCID: PMC10629682 DOI: 10.1242/dev.201608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
The maize ligule is an epidermis-derived structure that arises from the preligule band (PLB) at a boundary between the blade and sheath. A hinge-like auricle also develops immediately distal to the ligule and contributes to blade angle. Here, we characterize the stages of PLB and early ligule development in terms of topography, cell area, division orientation, cell wall rigidity and auxin response dynamics. Differential thickening of epidermal cells and localized periclinal divisions contributed to the formation of a ridge within the PLB, which ultimately produces the ligule fringe. Patterns in cell wall rigidity were consistent with the subdivision of the PLB into two regions along a distinct line positioned at the nascent ridge. The proximal region produces the ligule, while the distal region contributes to one epidermal face of the auricles. Although the auxin transporter PIN1 accumulated in the PLB, observed differential auxin transcriptional response did not underlie the partitioning of the PLB. Our data demonstrate that two zones with contrasting cellular properties, the preligule and preauricle, are specified within the ligular region before ligule outgrowth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley R. Neher
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, Center for Plant Cell Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Carolyn G. Rasmussen
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, Center for Plant Cell Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Siobhan A. Braybrook
- Department of Molecular, Cell, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Vladimir Lažetić
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Claire E. Stowers
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Paul T. Mooney
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Anne W. Sylvester
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
| | - Patricia S. Springer
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, Center for Plant Cell Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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13
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Bonfanti A, Smithers ET, Bourdon M, Guyon A, Carella P, Carter R, Wightman R, Schornack S, Jönsson H, Robinson S. Stiffness transitions in new walls post-cell division differ between Marchantia polymorpha gemmae and Arabidopsis thaliana leaves. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2302985120. [PMID: 37782806 PMCID: PMC10576037 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2302985120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant morphogenesis is governed by the mechanics of the cell wall-a stiff and thin polymeric box that encloses the cells. The cell wall is a highly dynamic composite material. New cell walls are added during cell division. As the cells continue to grow, the properties of cell walls are modulated to undergo significant changes in shape and size without breakage. Spatial and temporal variations in cell wall mechanical properties have been observed. However, how they relate to cell division remains an outstanding question. Here, we combine time-lapse imaging with local mechanical measurements via atomic force microscopy to systematically map the cell wall's age and growth, with their stiffness. We make use of two systems, Marchantia polymorpha gemmae, and Arabidopsis thaliana leaves. We first characterize the growth and cell division of M. polymorpha gemmae. We then demonstrate that cell division in M. polymorpha gemmae results in the generation of a temporary stiffer and slower-growing new wall. In contrast, this transient phenomenon is absent in A. thaliana leaves. We provide evidence that this different temporal behavior has a direct impact on the local cell geometry via changes in the junction angle. These results are expected to pave the way for developing more realistic plant morphogenetic models and to advance the study into the impact of cell division on tissue growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Bonfanti
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan20133, Italy
| | | | - Matthieu Bourdon
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
| | - Alex Guyon
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
| | - Philip Carella
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
- Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, NorwichNR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Ross Carter
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
| | - Raymond Wightman
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
| | | | - Henrik Jönsson
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB3 0WA, United Kingdom
- Department of Astronomy and Theoretical Physics, Computational Biology and Biological Physics, Lund University, Lund223 62, Sweden
| | - Sarah Robinson
- Sainsbury Laboratory Cambridge University, CambridgeCB2 1LR, United Kingdom
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14
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Zheng L, Chen Y, Ding L, Zhou Y, Xue S, Li B, Wei J, Wang H. The transcription factor MYB156 controls the polar stiffening of guard cell walls in poplar. THE PLANT CELL 2023; 35:3757-3781. [PMID: 37437118 PMCID: PMC10533337 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koad198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
The mechanical properties of guard cells have major effects on stomatal functioning. Reinforced stiffness in the stomatal polar regions was recently proposed to play an important role in stomatal function, but the underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we used genetic and biochemical approaches in poplar (Populus spp.) to show that the transcription factor MYB156 controls pectic homogalacturonan-based polar stiffening through the downregulation of the gene encoding pectin methylesterase 6 (PME6). Loss of MYB156 increased the polar stiffness of stomata, thereby enhancing stomatal dynamics and response speed to various stimuli. In contrast, overexpression of MYB156 resulted in decreased polar stiffness and impaired stomatal dynamics, accompanied by smaller leaves. Polar stiffening functions in guard cell dynamics in response to changing environmental conditions by maintaining normal stomatal morphology during stomatal movement. Our study revealed the structure-function relationship of the cell wall of guard cells in stomatal dynamics, providing an important means for improving the stomatal performance and drought tolerance of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zheng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Yajuan Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Liping Ding
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Ying Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Shanshan Xue
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Biying Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Jianhua Wei
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Hongzhi Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetic Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
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15
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Wang Y, Jiao Y. Cell signaling in the shoot apical meristem. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 193:70-82. [PMID: 37224874 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Distinct from animals, plants maintain organogenesis from specialized tissues termed meristems throughout life. In the shoot apex, the shoot apical meristem (SAM) produces all aerial organs, such as leaves, from its periphery. For this, the SAM needs to precisely balance stem cell renewal and differentiation, which is achieved through dynamic zonation of the SAM, and cell signaling within functional domains is key for SAM functions. The WUSCHEL-CLAVATA feedback loop plays a key role in SAM homeostasis, and recent studies have uncovered new components, expanding our understanding of the spatial expression and signaling mechanism. Advances in polar auxin transport and signaling have contributed to knowledge of the multifaceted roles of auxin in the SAM and organogenesis. Finally, single-cell techniques have expanded our understanding of the cellular functions within the shoot apex at single-cell resolution. In this review, we summarize the most up-to-date understanding of cell signaling in the SAM and focus on the multiple levels of regulation of SAM formation and maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuling Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Center for Quantitative Biology, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Peking University Institute of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Agricultural Sciences in Weifang, Weifang, Shandong 261325, China
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16
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Šípošová K, Labancová E, Hačkuličová D, Kollárová K, Vivodová Z. The changes in the maize root cell walls after exogenous application of auxin in the presence of cadmium. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:87102-87117. [PMID: 37418187 PMCID: PMC10406670 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28029-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is a transition metal and hazardous pollutant that has many toxic effects on plants. This heavy metal poses a health risk for both humans and animals. The cell wall is the first structure of a plant cell that is in contact with Cd; therefore, it can change its composition and/or ratio of wall components accordingly. This paper investigates the changes in the anatomy and cell wall architecture of maize (Zea mays L.) roots grown for 10 days in the presence of auxin indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and Cd. The application of IBA in the concentration 10-9 M delayed the development of apoplastic barriers, decreased the content of lignin in the cell wall, increased the content of Ca2+ and phenols, and influenced the composition of monosaccharides in polysaccharide fractions when compared to the Cd treatment. Application of IBA improved the Cd2+ fixation to the cell wall and increased the endogenous concentration of auxin depleted by Cd treatment. The proposed scheme from obtained results may explain the possible mechanisms of the exogenously applied IBA and its effects on the changes in the binding of Cd2+ within the cell wall, and on the stimulation of growth that resulted in the amelioration of Cd stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristína Šípošová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 38, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Eva Labancová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 38, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Diana Hačkuličová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 38, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Karin Kollárová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 38, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Vivodová
- Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 38, Bratislava, Slovakia.
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17
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Morphogenesis of leaves: from initiation to the production of diverse shapes. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:513-525. [PMID: 36876869 DOI: 10.1042/bst20220678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
The manner by which plant organs gain their shape is a longstanding question in developmental biology. Leaves, as typical lateral organs, are initiated from the shoot apical meristem that harbors stem cells. Leaf morphogenesis is accompanied by cell proliferation and specification to form the specific 3D shapes, with flattened lamina being the most common. Here, we briefly review the mechanisms controlling leaf initiation and morphogenesis, from periodic initiation in the shoot apex to the formation of conserved thin-blade and divergent leaf shapes. We introduce both regulatory gene patterning and biomechanical regulation involved in leaf morphogenesis. How phenotype is determined by genotype remains largely unanswered. Together, these new insights into leaf morphogenesis resolve molecular chains of events to better aid our understanding.
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18
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Goldy C, Barrera V, Taylor I, Buchensky C, Vena R, Benfey PN, De Veylder L, Rodriguez RE. SCARECROW-LIKE28 modulates organ growth in Arabidopsis by controlling mitotic cell cycle exit, endoreplication, and cell expansion dynamics. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 237:1652-1666. [PMID: 36451535 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The processes that contribute to plant organ morphogenesis are spatial-temporally organized. Within the meristem, mitosis produces new cells that subsequently engage in cell expansion and differentiation programs. The latter is frequently accompanied by endoreplication, being an alternative cell cycle that replicates the DNA without nuclear division, causing a stepwise increase in somatic ploidy. Here, we show that the Arabidopsis SCL28 transcription factor promotes organ growth by modulating cell expansion dynamics in both root and leaf cells. Gene expression studies indicated that SCL28 regulates members of the SIAMESE/SIAMESE-RELATED (SIM/SMR) family, encoding cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors with a role in promoting mitotic cell cycle (MCC) exit and endoreplication, both in response to developmental and environmental cues. Consistent with this role, mutants in SCL28 displayed reduced endoreplication, both in roots and leaves. We also found evidence indicating that SCL28 co-expresses with and regulates genes related to the biogenesis, assembly, and remodeling of the cytoskeleton and cell wall. Our results suggest that SCL28 controls, not only cell proliferation as reported previously but also cell expansion and differentiation by promoting MCC exit and endoreplication and by modulating aspects of the biogenesis, assembly, and remodeling of the cytoskeleton and cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Goldy
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), CONICET and Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, 2000, Argentina
| | - Virginia Barrera
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), CONICET and Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, 2000, Argentina
| | - Isaiah Taylor
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Celeste Buchensky
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), CONICET and Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, 2000, Argentina
| | - Rodrigo Vena
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), CONICET and Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, 2000, Argentina
| | - Philip N Benfey
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Lieven De Veylder
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
- Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
| | - Ramiro E Rodriguez
- IBR (Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario), CONICET and Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, 2000, Argentina
- Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, 2000, Argentina
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19
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Abstract
Understanding the mechanism by which patterned gene activity leads to mechanical deformation of cells and tissues to create complex forms is a major challenge for developmental biology. Plants offer advantages for addressing this problem because their cells do not migrate or rearrange during morphogenesis, which simplifies analysis. We synthesize results from experimental analysis and computational modeling to show how mechanical interactions between cellulose fibers translate through wall, cell, and tissue levels to generate complex plant tissue shapes. Genes can modify mechanical properties and stresses at each level, though the values and pattern of stresses differ from one level to the next. The dynamic cellulose network provides elastic resistance to deformation while allowing growth through fiber sliding, which enables morphogenesis while maintaining mechanical strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Coen
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16870, USA
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20
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Colin L, Ruhnow F, Zhu JK, Zhao C, Zhao Y, Persson S. The cell biology of primary cell walls during salt stress. THE PLANT CELL 2023; 35:201-217. [PMID: 36149287 PMCID: PMC9806596 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Salt stress simultaneously causes ionic toxicity, osmotic stress, and oxidative stress, which directly impact plant growth and development. Plants have developed numerous strategies to adapt to saline environments. Whereas some of these strategies have been investigated and exploited for crop improvement, much remains to be understood, including how salt stress is perceived by plants and how plants coordinate effective responses to the stress. It is, however, clear that the plant cell wall is the first contact point between external salt and the plant. In this context, significant advances in our understanding of halotropism, cell wall synthesis, and integrity surveillance, as well as salt-related cytoskeletal rearrangements, have been achieved. Indeed, molecular mechanisms underpinning some of these processes have recently been elucidated. In this review, we aim to provide insights into how plants respond and adapt to salt stress, with a special focus on primary cell wall biology in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leia Colin
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Felix Ruhnow
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Jian-Kang Zhu
- School of Life Sciences, Institute of Advanced Biotechnology, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Chunzhao Zhao
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yang Zhao
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
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21
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Jonsson K, Ma Y, Routier-Kierzkowska AL, Bhalerao RP. Multiple mechanisms behind plant bending. NATURE PLANTS 2023; 9:13-21. [PMID: 36581759 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-022-01310-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
To survive, plants constantly adapt their body shape to their environment. This often involves remarkably rapid bending of their organs such as stems, leaves and roots. Since plant cells are enclosed by stiff cell walls, they use various strategies for bending their organs, which differ from bending mechanisms of soft animal tissues and involve larger physical forces. Here we attempt to summarize and link different viewpoints on bending mechanisms: genes and signalling, mathematical modelling and biomechanics. We argue that quantifying cell growth and physical forces could open a new level in our understanding of bending and resolve some of its paradoxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristoffer Jonsson
- IRBV, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Yuan Ma
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Rishikesh P Bhalerao
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden.
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22
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Teh OK, Singh P, Ren J, Huang LT, Ariyarathne M, Salamon BP, Wang Y, Kotake T, Fujita T. Surface-localized glycoproteins act through class C ARFs to fine-tune gametophore initiation in Physcomitrium patens. Development 2022; 149:282110. [PMID: 36520083 DOI: 10.1242/dev.200370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Arabinogalactan proteins are functionally diverse cell wall structural glycoproteins that have been implicated in cell wall remodeling, although the mechanistic actions remain elusive. Here, we identify and characterize two AGP glycoproteins, SLEEPING BEAUTY (SB) and SB-like (SBL), that negatively regulate the gametophore bud initiation in Physcomitrium patens by dampening cell wall loosening/softening. Disruption of SB and SBL led to accelerated gametophore formation and altered cell wall compositions. The function of SB is glycosylation dependent and genetically connected with the class C auxin response factor (ARF) transcription factors PpARFC1B and PpARFC2. Transcriptomics profiling showed that SB upregulates PpARFC2, which in turn suppresses a range of cell wall-modifying genes that are required for cell wall loosening/softening. We further show that PpARFC2 binds directly to multiple AuxRE motifs on the cis-regulatory sequences of PECTIN METHYLESTERASE to suppress its expression. Hence, our results demonstrate a mechanism by which the SB modulates the strength of intracellular auxin signaling output, which is necessary to fine-tune the timing of gametophore initials formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ooi Kock Teh
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2, Academia Rd., Nankang, Taipei 11529, Taiwan.,Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Kita 10 Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Prerna Singh
- Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Kita 10 Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Junling Ren
- Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Kita 10 Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
| | - Lin Tzu Huang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2, Academia Rd., Nankang, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Menaka Ariyarathne
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2, Academia Rd., Nankang, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Benjamin Prethiviraj Salamon
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2, Academia Rd., Nankang, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Yu Wang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, 128 Sec.2, Academia Rd., Nankang, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
| | - Toshihisa Kotake
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 225 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama 338-8570, Japan
| | - Tomomichi Fujita
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Kita 10 Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
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23
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Jobert F, Soriano A, Brottier L, Casset C, Divol F, Safran J, Lefebvre V, Pelloux J, Robert S, Péret B. Auxin triggers pectin modification during rootlet emergence in white lupin. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 112:1127-1140. [PMID: 36178138 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Emergence of secondary roots through parental tissue is a highly controlled developmental process. Although the model plant Arabidopsis has been useful to uncover the predominant role of auxin in this process, its simple root structure is not representative of how emergence takes place in most plants, which display more complex root anatomy. White lupin is a legume crop producing structures called cluster roots, where closely spaced rootlets emerge synchronously. Rootlet primordia push their way through several cortical cell layers while maintaining the parent root integrity, reflecting more generally the lateral root emergence process in most multilayered species. In this study, we showed that lupin rootlet emergence is associated with an upregulation of cell wall pectin modifying and degrading genes under the active control of auxin. Among them, we identified LaPG3, a polygalacturonase gene typically expressed in cells surrounding the rootlet primordium and we showed that its downregulation delays emergence. Immunolabeling of pectin epitopes and their quantification uncovered a gradual pectin demethylesterification in the emergence zone, which was further enhanced by auxin treatment, revealing a direct hormonal control of cell wall properties. We also report rhamnogalacturonan-I modifications affecting cortical cells that undergo separation as a consequence of primordium outgrowth. In conclusion, we describe a model of how external tissues in front of rootlet primordia display cell wall modifications to allow for the passage of newly formed rootlets.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Jobert
- IPSiM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, INRAE, Supagro, 34060, Montpellier, France
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Alexandre Soriano
- IPSiM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, INRAE, Supagro, 34060, Montpellier, France
| | - Laurent Brottier
- IPSiM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, INRAE, Supagro, 34060, Montpellier, France
| | - Célia Casset
- IPSiM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, INRAE, Supagro, 34060, Montpellier, France
| | - Fanchon Divol
- IPSiM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, INRAE, Supagro, 34060, Montpellier, France
| | - Josip Safran
- UMR INRAE 1158 BioEcoAgro, BIOPI Biologie des Plantes et Innovation, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Picardie, 80039, Amiens, France
| | - Valérie Lefebvre
- UMR INRAE 1158 BioEcoAgro, BIOPI Biologie des Plantes et Innovation, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Picardie, 80039, Amiens, France
| | - Jérôme Pelloux
- UMR INRAE 1158 BioEcoAgro, BIOPI Biologie des Plantes et Innovation, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Picardie, 80039, Amiens, France
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre (UPSC), Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Benjamin Péret
- IPSiM, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, INRAE, Supagro, 34060, Montpellier, France
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24
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Canher B, Lanssens F, Zhang A, Bisht A, Mazumdar S, Heyman J, Wolf S, Melnyk CW, De Veylder L. The regeneration factors ERF114 and ERF115 regulate auxin-mediated lateral root development in response to mechanical cues. MOLECULAR PLANT 2022; 15:1543-1557. [PMID: 36030378 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2022.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Plants show an unparalleled regenerative capacity, allowing them to survive severe stress conditions, such as injury, herbivory attack, and harsh weather conditions. This potential not only replenishes tissues and restores damaged organs but can also give rise to whole plant bodies. Despite the intertwined nature of development and regeneration, common upstream cues and signaling mechanisms are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that in addition to being activators of regeneration, ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR 114 (ERF114) and ERF115 govern developmental growth in the absence of wounding or injury. Increased ERF114 and ERF115 activity enhances auxin sensitivity, which is correlated with enhanced xylem maturation and lateral root formation, whereas their knockout results in a decrease in lateral roots. Moreover, we provide evidence that mechanical cues contribute to ERF114 and ERF115 expression in correlation with BZR1-mediated brassinosteroid signaling under both regenerative and developmental conditions. Antagonistically, cell wall integrity surveillance via mechanosensory FERONIA signaling suppresses their expression under both conditions. Taken together, our data suggest a molecular framework in which cell wall signals and mechanical strains regulate organ development and regenerative responses via ERF114- and ERF115-mediated auxin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balkan Canher
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent B-9052, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Fien Lanssens
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent B-9052, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Ai Zhang
- Department of Plant Biology, Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Almas allé 5, 756 51 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anchal Bisht
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent B-9052, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Shamik Mazumdar
- Department of Plant Biology, Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Almas allé 5, 756 51 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jefri Heyman
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent B-9052, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Ghent B-9052, Belgium
| | - Sebastian Wolf
- Department of Plant Biochemistry, Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Charles W Melnyk
- Department of Plant Biology, Linnean Center for Plant Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Almas allé 5, 756 51 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lieven De Veylder
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent B-9052, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, Ghent B-9052, Belgium.
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25
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Root angle is controlled by EGT1 in cereal crops employing an antigravitropic mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2201350119. [PMID: 35881796 PMCID: PMC9351459 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2201350119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The growth angle roots adopt are critical for capturing soil resources, such as nutrients and water. Despite its agronomic importance, few regulatory genes have been identified in crops. Here we identify the root angle regulatory gene ENHANCED GRAVITROPISM 1 (EGT1) in barley. Strikingly, mutants lacking EGT1 exhibit a steeper angle in every root class. EGT1 appears to function as a component of an antigravitropic offset mechanism that regulates tissue stiffness, which impacts final root growth angle. EGT1 is a hot spot for selection as natural allelic variation within a conserved Tubby domain that is linked with steeper root angle. Analogous EGT1-dependent regulation of root angle in wheat demonstrates broad significance of EGT1 for trait improvement in cereal crops. Root angle in crops represents a key trait for efficient capture of soil resources. Root angle is determined by competing gravitropic versus antigravitropic offset (AGO) mechanisms. Here we report a root angle regulatory gene termed ENHANCED GRAVITROPISM1 (EGT1) that encodes a putative AGO component, whose loss-of-function enhances root gravitropism. Mutations in barley and wheat EGT1 genes confer a striking root phenotype, where every root class adopts a steeper growth angle. EGT1 encodes an F-box and Tubby domain-containing protein that is highly conserved across plant species. Haplotype analysis found that natural allelic variation at the barley EGT1 locus impacts root angle. Gravitropic assays indicated that Hvegt1 roots bend more rapidly than wild-type. Transcript profiling revealed Hvegt1 roots deregulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis and cell wall-loosening enzymes and cofactors. ROS imaging shows that Hvegt1 root basal meristem and elongation zone tissues have reduced levels. Atomic force microscopy measurements detected elongating Hvegt1 root cortical cell walls are significantly less stiff than wild-type. In situ analysis identified HvEGT1 is expressed in elongating cortical and stele tissues, which are distinct from known root gravitropic perception and response tissues in the columella and epidermis, respectively. We propose that EGT1 controls root angle by regulating cell wall stiffness in elongating root cortical tissue, counteracting the gravitropic machinery’s known ability to bend the root via its outermost tissues. We conclude that root angle is controlled by EGT1 in cereal crops employing an antigravitropic mechanism.
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26
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Guo K, Huang C, Miao Y, Cosgrove DJ, Hsia KJ. Leaf morphogenesis: The multifaceted roles of mechanics. MOLECULAR PLANT 2022; 15:1098-1119. [PMID: 35662674 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2022.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Plants produce a rich diversity of biological forms, and the diversity of leaves is especially notable. Mechanisms of leaf morphogenesis have been studied in the past two decades, with a growing focus on the interactive roles of mechanics in recent years. Growth of plant organs involves feedback by mechanical stress: growth induces stress, and stress affects growth and morphogenesis. Although much attention has been given to potential stress-sensing mechanisms and cellular responses, the mechanical principles guiding morphogenesis have not been well understood. Here we synthesize the overarching roles of mechanics and mechanical stress in multilevel and multiple stages of leaf morphogenesis, encompassing leaf primordium initiation, phyllotaxis and venation patterning, and the establishment of complex mature leaf shapes. Moreover, the roles of mechanics at multiscale levels, from subcellular cytoskeletal molecules to single cells to tissues at the organ scale, are articulated. By highlighting the role of mechanical buckling in the formation of three-dimensional leaf shapes, this review integrates the perspectives of mechanics and biology to provide broader insights into the mechanobiology of leaf morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexin Guo
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Changjin Huang
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Yansong Miao
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - K Jimmy Hsia
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore; School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637459, Singapore.
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27
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Zhang Q, Deng A, Xiang M, Lan Q, Li X, Yuan S, Gou X, Hao S, Du J, Xiao C. The Root Hair Development of Pectin Polygalacturonase PGX2 Activation Tagging Line in Response to Phosphate Deficiency. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:862171. [PMID: 35586221 PMCID: PMC9108675 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.862171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose constitute the primary cell wall in eudicots and function in multiple developmental processes in plants. Root hairs are outgrowths of specialized epidermal cells that absorb water and nutrients from the soil. Cell wall architecture influences root hair development, but how cell wall remodeling might enable enhanced root hair formation in response to phosphate (P) deficiency remains relatively unclear. Here, we found that POLYGALACTURONASE INVOLVED IN EXPANSION 2 (PGX2) functions in conditional root hair development. Under low P conditions, a PGX2 activation tagged line (PGX2AT ) displays bubble-like root hairs and abnormal callose deposition and superoxide accumulation in roots. We found that the polar localization and trafficking of PIN2 are altered in PGX2AT roots in response to P deficiency. We also found that actin filaments were less compact but more stable in PGX2AT root hair cells and that actin filament skewness in PGX2AT root hairs was recovered by treatment with 1-N-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA), an auxin transport inhibitor. These results demonstrate that activation tagging of PGX2 affects cell wall remodeling, auxin signaling, and actin microfilament orientation, which may cooperatively regulate root hair development in response to P starvation.
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28
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Nicolas WJ, Fäßler F, Dutka P, Schur FKM, Jensen G, Meyerowitz E. Cryo-electron tomography of the onion cell wall shows bimodally oriented cellulose fibers and reticulated homogalacturonan networks. Curr Biol 2022; 32:2375-2389.e6. [PMID: 35508170 PMCID: PMC9240970 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
One hallmark of plant cells is their cell wall. They protect cells against the environment and high turgor and mediate morphogenesis through the dynamics of their mechanical and chemical properties. The walls are a complex polysaccharidic structure. Although their biochemical composition is well known, how the different components organize in the volume of the cell wall and interact with each other is not well understood and yet is key to the wall's mechanical properties. To investigate the ultrastructure of the plant cell wall, we imaged the walls of onion (Allium cepa) bulbs in a near-native state via cryo-focused ion beam milling (cryo-FIB milling) and cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET). This allowed the high-resolution visualization of cellulose fibers in situ. We reveal the coexistence of dense fiber fields bathed in a reticulated matrix we termed "meshing," which is more abundant at the inner surface of the cell wall. The fibers adopted a regular bimodal angular distribution at all depths in the cell wall and bundled according to their orientation, creating layers within the cell wall. Concomitantly, employing homogalacturonan (HG)-specific enzymatic digestion, we observed changes in the meshing, suggesting that it is-at least in part-composed of HG pectins. We propose the following model for the construction of the abaxial epidermal primary cell wall: the cell deposits successive layers of cellulose fibers at -45° and +45° relative to the cell's long axis and secretes the surrounding HG-rich meshing proximal to the plasma membrane, which then migrates to more distal regions of the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Nicolas
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 4000 Jones Bridge Road, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Florian Fäßler
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Przemysław Dutka
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Florian K M Schur
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA), Am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Grant Jensen
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA
| | - Elliot Meyerowitz
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 California Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 4000 Jones Bridge Road, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA.
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29
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Petrova A, Sibgatullina G, Gorshkova T, Kozlova L. Dynamics of cell wall polysaccharides during the elongation growth of rye primary roots. PLANTA 2022; 255:108. [PMID: 35449484 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-022-03887-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In cells of growing rye roots, xyloglucans and homogalacturonans demonstrate developmental stage specificity, while different xylans have tissue specificity. Mannans, arabinans and galactans are also detected within the protoplast. Mannans form films on sections of fresh material. The primary cell walls of plants represent supramolecular exocellular structures that are mainly composed of polysaccharides. Cell wall properties and architecture differ between species and across tissues within a species. We revised the distribution of cell wall polysaccharides and their dynamics during elongation growth and histogenesis in rye roots using nonfixed material and the spectrum of antibodies. Rye is a member of the Poaceae family and thus has so-called type II primary cell walls, which are supposed to be low in pectins and xyloglucans and instead have arabinoxylans and mixed-linkage glucans. However, rye cell walls at the earliest stages of cell development were enriched with the epitopes of xyloglucans and homogalacturonans. Mixed-linkage glucan, which is often considered an elongation growth-specific polysaccharide in plants with type II cell walls, did not display such dynamics in rye roots. The cessation of elongation growth and even the emergence of root hairs were not accompanied by the disappearance of mixed-linkage glucans from cell walls. The diversity of xylan motifs recognized by different antibodies was minimal in the meristem zone of rye roots, but this diversity increased and showed tissue specificity during root growth. Antibodies specific for xyloglucans, galactans, arabinans and mannans bound the cell content. When rye root cells were cut, the epitopes of xyloglucans, galactans and arabinans remained within the cell content, while mannans developed net-like or film-like structures on the surface of sections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Petrova
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Growth Mechanisms, Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Lobachevsky str., 2/31, 420111, Kazan, Russia
| | - Gusel Sibgatullina
- The Laboratory of Biophysics of Synaptic Processes, Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Lobachevsky str., 2/31, 420111, Kazan, Russia
| | - Tatyana Gorshkova
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Growth Mechanisms, Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Lobachevsky str., 2/31, 420111, Kazan, Russia
| | - Liudmila Kozlova
- Laboratory of Plant Cell Growth Mechanisms, Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Lobachevsky str., 2/31, 420111, Kazan, Russia.
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30
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Du J, Anderson CT, Xiao C. Dynamics of pectic homogalacturonan in cellular morphogenesis and adhesion, wall integrity sensing and plant development. NATURE PLANTS 2022; 8:332-340. [PMID: 35411046 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-022-01120-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Homogalacturonan (HG) is the most abundant pectin subtype in plant cell walls. Although it is a linear homopolymer, its modification states allow for complex molecular encoding. HG metabolism affects its structure, chemical properties, mobility and binding capacity, allowing it to interact dynamically with other polymers during wall assembly and remodelling and to facilitate anisotropic cell growth, cell adhesion and separation, and organ morphogenesis. HGs have also recently been found to function as signalling molecules that transmit information about wall integrity to the cell. Here we highlight recent advances in our understanding of the dual functions of HG as a dynamic structural component of the cell wall and an initiator of intrinsic and environmental signalling. We also predict how HG might interconnect the cell wall, plasma membrane and intracellular components with transcriptional networks to regulate plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Du
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Chaowen Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment of Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
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31
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Yin X, Tsukaya H. Fibonacci spirals may not need the Golden Angle. QUANTITATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 3:e13. [PMID: 37077968 PMCID: PMC10095852 DOI: 10.1017/qpb.2022.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Phyllotaxis, the regular arrangement of plant lateral organs, is an important aspect of quantitative plant biology. Some models relying on the geometric relationship of the shoot apex and organ primordia focus mainly on spiral phyllotaxis, a common phyllotaxis mode. While these models often predict the dependency of Fibonacci spirals on the Golden Angle, other models do not emphasise such a relation. Phyllotactic patterning in Asteraceae is one such example. Recently, it was revealed that auxin dynamics and the expansion and contraction of the active ring of the capitulum (head) are the key processes to guide Fibonacci spirals in gerbera (Gerbera hybrida). In this Insights paper, we discuss the importance of auxin dynamics, distinct phases of phyllotactic patterning, and the transition of phyllotaxis modes. These findings signify the local interaction among primordia in phyllotactic patterning and the notion that Fibonacci spirals may not need the Golden Angle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Yin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
- Author for correspondence: X. Yin, E-mail:
| | - Hirokazu Tsukaya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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32
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Mirabet V, Dubrulle N, Rambaud L, Beauzamy L, Dumond M, Long Y, Milani P, Boudaoud A. NanoIndentation, an ImageJ Plugin for the Quantification of Cell Mechanics. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2395:97-106. [PMID: 34822151 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1816-5_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Growth and morphogenesis in plants depend on cell wall mechanics and on turgor pressure. Nanoindentation methods, such as atomic force microscopy (AFM), enable measurements of mechanical properties of a tissue at subcellular resolution, while confocal microscopy of tissues expressing fluorescent reporters indicates cell identity. Associating mechanical data with specific cells is essential to reveal the links between cell identity and cell mechanics. Here we describe an image analysis protocol that allows us to segment AFM scans containing information on tissue topography and/or mechanics, to stitch several scans in order to reconstitute an entire region of the tissue investigated, to segment the scans and label cells, and to associate labeled cells to the projection of confocal images. Thus all mechanical data can be mapped to the corresponding cells and to their identity. This protocol is implemented using NanoIndentation, a plugin that we are developing in the Fiji distribution of ImageJ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Mirabet
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Nelly Dubrulle
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Léa Rambaud
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Léna Beauzamy
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Mathilde Dumond
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Yuchen Long
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Pascale Milani
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Arezki Boudaoud
- Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, INRAE, Lyon Cedex 07, France.
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33
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Guyomarc'h S, Lucas M, Laplaze L. Postembryonic Organogenesis in Plants: Experimental Induction of New Shoot and Root Organs. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2395:79-95. [PMID: 34822150 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1816-5_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Postembryonic organogenesis is a critical component in plant root and shoot development and its adaptation to the environment. Decades of scientific analyses have yielded a wealth of experimental data about the cellular and molecular processes orchestrating the postembryonic formation of new shoot and root organs. Among these, distribution and signaling of the plant hormone auxin play a prominent role. Systems biology approaches are now particularly interesting to study the emerging properties of such complex and dynamic regulatory networks. To fully explore the precise kinetics of these organogenesis processes, efficient protocols for the synchronized induction of shoot and root organogenesis are extremely valuable. Two protocols for shoot and root organ induction are detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mikaël Lucas
- DIADE, Univ Montpellier, IRD, CIRAD, Montpellier, France
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34
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Veerman F, Mercker M, Marciniak-Czochra A. Beyond Turing: far-from-equilibrium patterns and mechano-chemical feedback. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2021; 379:20200278. [PMID: 34743599 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Turing patterns are commonly understood as specific instabilities of a spatially homogeneous steady state, resulting from activator-inhibitor interaction destabilized by diffusion. We argue that this view is restrictive and its agreement with biological observations is problematic. We present two alternatives to the classical Turing analysis of patterns. First, we employ the abstract framework of evolution equations to enable the study of far-from-equilibrium patterns. Second, we introduce a mechano-chemical model, with the surface on which the pattern forms being dynamic and playing an active role in the pattern formation, effectively replacing the inhibitor. We highlight the advantages of these two alternatives vis-à-vis the classical Turing analysis, and give an overview of recent results and future challenges for both approaches. This article is part of the theme issue 'Recent progress and open frontiers in Turing's theory of morphogenesis'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frits Veerman
- University of Leiden, Mathematical Institute, Niels Bohrweg 1, Leiden 2333 CA, The Netherlands
| | - Moritz Mercker
- Institute for Applied Mathematics and Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 205, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
| | - Anna Marciniak-Czochra
- Institute for Applied Mathematics and Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 205, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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35
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Heisler MG. Integration of Core Mechanisms Underlying Plant Aerial Architecture. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:786338. [PMID: 34868186 PMCID: PMC8637408 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.786338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade or so important progress has been made in identifying and understanding a set of patterning mechanisms that have the potential to explain many aspects of plant morphology. These include the feedback loop between mechanical stresses and interphase microtubules, the regulation of plant cell polarity and the role of adaxial and abaxial cell type boundaries. What is perhaps most intriguing is how these mechanisms integrate in a combinatorial manner that provides a means to generate a large variety of commonly seen plant morphologies. Here, I review our current understanding of these mechanisms and discuss the links between them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus G. Heisler
- School of Life and Environmental Science, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
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36
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Marconi M, Gallemi M, Benkova E, Wabnik K. A coupled mechano-biochemical model for cell polarity guided anisotropic root growth. eLife 2021; 10:72132. [PMID: 34723798 PMCID: PMC8716106 DOI: 10.7554/elife.72132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants develop new organs to adjust their bodies to dynamic changes in the environment. How independent organs achieve anisotropic shapes and polarities is poorly understood. To address this question, we constructed a mechano-biochemical model for Arabidopsis root meristem growth that integrates biologically plausible principles. Computer model simulations demonstrate how differential growth of neighboring tissues results in the initial symmetry-breaking leading to anisotropic root growth. Furthermore, the root growth feeds back on a polar transport network of the growth regulator auxin. Model, predictions are in close agreement with in vivo patterns of anisotropic growth, auxin distribution, and cell polarity, as well as several root phenotypes caused by chemical, mechanical, or genetic perturbations. Our study demonstrates that the combination of tissue mechanics and polar auxin transport organizes anisotropic root growth and cell polarities during organ outgrowth. Therefore, a mobile auxin signal transported through immobile cells drives polarity and growth mechanics to coordinate complex organ development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Marconi
- CBGP Centro de Biotecnologia y Genomica de Plantas UPM-INIA, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Spain
| | - Marcal Gallemi
- Institute of Science and Technology (IST), Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Eva Benkova
- Institute of Science and Technology (IST), Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Krzysztof Wabnik
- CBGP Centro de Biotecnologia y Genomica de Plantas UPM-INIA, Pozuelo de Alarcón, Spain
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37
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Kumar R, Gyawali A, Morrison GD, Saski CA, Robertson DJ, Cook DD, Tharayil N, Schaefer RJ, Beissinger TM, Sekhon RS. Genetic Architecture of Maize Rind Strength Revealed by the Analysis of Divergently Selected Populations. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 62:1199-1214. [PMID: 34015110 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcab059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The strength of the stalk rind, measured as rind penetrometer resistance (RPR), is an important contributor to stalk lodging resistance. To enhance the genetic architecture of RPR, we combined selection mapping on populations developed by 15 cycles of divergent selection for high and low RPR with time-course transcriptomic and metabolic analyses of the stalks. Divergent selection significantly altered allele frequencies of 3,656 and 3,412 single- nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the high and low RPR populations, respectively. Surprisingly, only 110 (1.56%) SNPs under selection were common in both populations, while the majority (98.4%) were unique to each population. This result indicated that high and low RPR phenotypes are produced by biologically distinct mechanisms. Remarkably, regions harboring lignin and polysaccharide genes were preferentially selected in high and low RPR populations, respectively. The preferential selection was manifested as higher lignification and increased saccharification of the high and low RPR stalks, respectively. The evolution of distinct gene classes according to the direction of selection was unexpected in the context of parallel evolution and demonstrated that selection for a trait, albeit in different directions, does not necessarily act on the same genes. Tricin, a grass-specific monolignol that initiates the incorporation of lignin in the cell walls, emerged as a key determinant of RPR. Integration of selection mapping and transcriptomic analyses with published genetic studies of RPR identified several candidate genes including ZmMYB31, ZmNAC25, ZmMADS1, ZmEXPA2, ZmIAA41 and hk5. These findings provide a foundation for an enhanced understanding of RPR and the improvement of stalk lodging resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Kumar
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Abiskar Gyawali
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, 105 Tucker Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Ginnie D Morrison
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, 105 Tucker Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Christopher A Saski
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Daniel J Robertson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
| | - Douglas D Cook
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA
| | - Nishanth Tharayil
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | | | - Timothy M Beissinger
- Department of Plant Breeding Methodology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen 37075, Germany
- Center for Integrated Breeding Research, University of Göttingen, Göttingen 37075, Germany
| | - Rajandeep S Sekhon
- Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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Shin Y, Chane A, Jung M, Lee Y. Recent Advances in Understanding the Roles of Pectin as an Active Participant in Plant Signaling Networks. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1712. [PMID: 34451757 PMCID: PMC8399534 DOI: 10.3390/plants10081712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Pectin is an abundant cell wall polysaccharide with essential roles in various biological processes. The structural diversity of pectins, along with the numerous combinations of the enzymes responsible for pectin biosynthesis and modification, plays key roles in ensuring the specificity and plasticity of cell wall remodeling in different cell types and under different environmental conditions. This review focuses on recent progress in understanding various aspects of pectin, from its biosynthetic and modification processes to its biological roles in different cell types. In particular, we describe recent findings that cell wall modifications serve not only as final outputs of internally determined pathways, but also as key components of intercellular communication, with pectin as a major contributor to this process. The comprehensive view of the diverse roles of pectin presented here provides an important basis for understanding how cell wall-enclosed plant cells develop, differentiate, and interact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yesol Shin
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (Y.S.); (A.C.); (M.J.)
| | - Andrea Chane
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (Y.S.); (A.C.); (M.J.)
| | - Minjung Jung
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (Y.S.); (A.C.); (M.J.)
| | - Yuree Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (Y.S.); (A.C.); (M.J.)
- Research Center for Plant Plasticity, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
- Plant Genomics and Breeding Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
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Seyfferth C, Wessels BA, Vahala J, Kangasjärvi J, Delhomme N, Hvidsten TR, Tuominen H, Lundberg-Felten J. PopulusPtERF85 Balances Xylem Cell Expansion and Secondary Cell Wall Formation in Hybrid Aspen. Cells 2021; 10:cells10081971. [PMID: 34440740 PMCID: PMC8393460 DOI: 10.3390/cells10081971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Secondary growth relies on precise and specialized transcriptional networks that determine cell division, differentiation, and maturation of xylem cells. We identified a novel role for the ethylene-induced Populus Ethylene Response Factor PtERF85 (Potri.015G023200) in balancing xylem cell expansion and secondary cell wall (SCW) formation in hybrid aspen (Populus tremula x tremuloides). Expression of PtERF85 is high in phloem and cambium cells and during the expansion of xylem cells, while it is low in maturing xylem tissue. Extending PtERF85 expression into SCW forming zones of woody tissues through ectopic expression reduced wood density and SCW thickness of xylem fibers but increased fiber diameter. Xylem transcriptomes from the transgenic trees revealed transcriptional induction of genes involved in cell expansion, translation, and growth. The expression of genes associated with plant vascular development and the biosynthesis of SCW chemical components such as xylan and lignin, was down-regulated in the transgenic trees. Our results suggest that PtERF85 activates genes related to xylem cell expansion, while preventing transcriptional activation of genes related to SCW formation. The importance of precise spatial expression of PtERF85 during wood development together with the observed phenotypes in response to ectopic PtERF85 expression suggests that PtERF85 contributes to the transition of fiber cells from elongation to secondary cell wall deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin Seyfferth
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden; (C.S.); (B.A.W.); (T.R.H.)
| | - Bernard A. Wessels
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden; (C.S.); (B.A.W.); (T.R.H.)
| | - Jorma Vahala
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland; (J.V.); (J.K.)
| | - Jaakko Kangasjärvi
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland; (J.V.); (J.K.)
| | - Nicolas Delhomme
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90184 Umeå, Sweden; (N.D.); (H.T.)
| | - Torgeir R. Hvidsten
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden; (C.S.); (B.A.W.); (T.R.H.)
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 1433 Ås, Norway
| | - Hannele Tuominen
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90184 Umeå, Sweden; (N.D.); (H.T.)
| | - Judith Lundberg-Felten
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-90184 Umeå, Sweden; (N.D.); (H.T.)
- Correspondence:
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Wang H, Kong F, Zhou C. From genes to networks: The genetic control of leaf development. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 63:1181-1196. [PMID: 33615731 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Substantial diversity exists for both the size and shape of the leaf, the main photosynthetic organ of flowering plants. The two major forms of leaf are simple leaves, in which the leaf blade is undivided, and compound leaves, which comprise several leaflets. Leaves form at the shoot apical meristem from a group of undifferentiated cells, which first establish polarity, then grow and differentiate. Each of these processes is controlled by a combination of transcriptional regulators, microRNAs and phytohormones. The present review documents recent advances in our understanding of how these various factors modulate the development of both simple leaves (focusing mainly on the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana) and compound leaves (focusing mainly on the model legume species Medicago truncatula).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongfeng Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266101, China
- Innovative Center of Molecular Genetics and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Fanjiang Kong
- Innovative Center of Molecular Genetics and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Chuanen Zhou
- The Key Laboratory of Plant Development and Environmental Adaptation Biology, Ministry of Education, School of Life Sciences, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266101, China
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Cruz-Valderrama JE, Bernal-Gallardo JJ, Herrera-Ubaldo H, de Folter S. Building a Flower: The Influence of Cell Wall Composition on Flower Development and Reproduction. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12070978. [PMID: 34206830 PMCID: PMC8304806 DOI: 10.3390/genes12070978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Floral patterning is a complex task. Various organs and tissues must be formed to fulfill reproductive functions. Flower development has been studied, mainly looking for master regulators. However, downstream changes such as the cell wall composition are relevant since they allow cells to divide, differentiate, and grow. In this review, we focus on the main components of the primary cell wall-cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins-to describe how enzymes involved in the biosynthesis, modifications, and degradation of cell wall components are related to the formation of the floral organs. Additionally, internal and external stimuli participate in the genetic regulation that modulates the activity of cell wall remodeling proteins.
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Inhibition of Carotenoid Biosynthesis by CRISPR/Cas9 Triggers Cell Wall Remodelling in Carrot. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126516. [PMID: 34204559 PMCID: PMC8234013 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent data indicate that modifications to carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in plants alter the expression of genes affecting chemical composition of the cell wall. Phytoene synthase (PSY) is a rate limiting factor of carotenoid biosynthesis and it may exhibit species-specific and organ-specific roles determined by the presence of psy paralogous genes, the importance of which often remains unrevealed. Thus, the aim of this work was to elaborate the roles of two psy paralogs in a model system and to reveal biochemical changes in the cell wall of psy knockout mutants. For this purpose, Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR associated (Cas9) proteins (CRISPR/Cas9) vectors were introduced to carotenoid-rich carrot (Daucus carota) callus cells in order to induce mutations in the psy1 and psy2 genes. Gene sequencing, expression analysis, and carotenoid content analysis revealed that the psy2 gene is critical for carotenoid biosynthesis in this model and its knockout blocks carotenogenesis. The psy2 knockout also decreased the expression of the psy1 paralog. Immunohistochemical staining of the psy2 mutant cells showed altered composition of arabinogalactan proteins, pectins, and extensins in the mutant cell walls. In particular, low-methylesterified pectins were abundantly present in the cell walls of carotenoid-rich callus in contrast to the carotenoid-free psy2 mutant. Transmission electron microscopy revealed altered plastid transition to amyloplasts instead of chromoplasts. The results demonstrate for the first time that the inhibited biosynthesis of carotenoids triggers the cell wall remodelling.
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Liu S, Jobert F, Rahneshan Z, Doyle SM, Robert S. Solving the Puzzle of Shape Regulation in Plant Epidermal Pavement Cells. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 72:525-550. [PMID: 34143651 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-080720-081920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The plant epidermis serves many essential functions, including interactions with the environment, protection, mechanical strength, and regulation of tissue and organ growth. To achieve these functions, specialized epidermal cells develop into particular shapes. These include the intriguing interdigitated jigsaw puzzle shape of cotyledon and leaf pavement cells seen in many species, the precise functions of which remain rather obscure. Although pavement cell shape regulation is complex and still a long way from being fully understood, the roles of the cell wall, mechanical stresses, cytoskeleton, cytoskeletal regulatory proteins, and phytohormones are becoming clearer. Here, we provide a review of this current knowledge of pavement cell morphogenesis, generated from a wealth of experimental evidence and assisted by computational modeling approaches. We also discuss the evolution and potential functions of pavement cell interdigitation. Throughout the review, we highlight some of the thought-provoking controversies and creative theories surrounding the formation of the curious puzzle shape of these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijia Liu
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - François Jobert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - Zahra Rahneshan
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - Siamsa M Doyle
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
| | - Stéphanie Robert
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 90183 Umeå, Sweden; ,
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44
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Xiong Y, Wu B, Du F, Guo X, Tian C, Hu J, Lü S, Long M, Zhang L, Wang Y, Jiao Y. A crosstalk between auxin and brassinosteroid regulates leaf shape by modulating growth anisotropy. MOLECULAR PLANT 2021; 14:949-962. [PMID: 33722761 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2021.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Leaf shape is highly variable within and among plant species, ranging from slender to oval shaped. This is largely determined by the proximodistal axis of growth. However, little is known about how proximal-distal growth is controlled to determine leaf shape. Here, we show that Arabidopsis leaf and sepal proximodistal growth is tuned by two phytohormones. Two class A AUXIN RESPONSE FACTORs (ARFs), ARF6 and ARF8, activate the transcription of DWARF4, which encodes a key brassinosteroid (BR) biosynthetic enzyme. At the cellular level, the phytohormones promote more directional cell expansion along the proximodistal axis, as well as final cell sizes. BRs promote the demethyl-esterification of cell wall pectins, leading to isotropic in-plane cell wall loosening. Notably, numerical simulation showed that isotropic cell wall loosening could lead to directional cell and organ growth along the proximodistal axis. Taken together, we show that auxin acts through biosynthesis of BRs to determine cell wall mechanics and directional cell growth to generate leaves of variable roundness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, the Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Binbin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, the Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Fei Du
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, the Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xiaolu Guo
- Beijing International Center for Mathematical Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Caihuan Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, the Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jinrong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shouqin Lü
- Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Mian Long
- Key Laboratory of Microgravity (National Microgravity Laboratory), Center of Biomechanics and Bioengineering, and Beijing Key Laboratory of Engineered Construction and Mechanobiology, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Beijing International Center for Mathematical Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Ying Wang
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Yuling Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics and National Center for Plant Gene Research (Beijing), Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, the Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Vernoux T, Besnard F, Godin C. What shoots can teach about theories of plant form. NATURE PLANTS 2021; 7:716-724. [PMID: 34099903 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-021-00930-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Plants generate a large variety of shoot forms with regular geometries. These forms emerge primarily from the activity of a stem cell niche at the shoot tip. Recent efforts have established a theoretical framework of form emergence at the shoot tip, which has empowered the use of modelling in conjunction with biological approaches to begin to disentangle the biochemical and physical mechanisms controlling form development at the shoot tip. Here, we discuss how these advances get us closer to identifying the construction principles of plant shoot tips. Considering the current limits of our knowledge, we propose a roadmap for developing a general theory of form development at the shoot tip.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teva Vernoux
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, INRIA, Lyon, France.
| | - Fabrice Besnard
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, INRIA, Lyon, France
| | - Christophe Godin
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, Université de Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRAE, INRIA, Lyon, France
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Abstract
The plant cell wall is an extracellular matrix that envelopes cells, gives them structure and shape, constitutes the interface with symbionts, and defends plants against external biotic and abiotic stress factors. The assembly of this matrix is regulated and mediated by the cytoskeleton. Cytoskeletal elements define where new cell wall material is added and how fibrillar macromolecules are oriented in the wall. Inversely, the cytoskeleton is also key in the perception of mechanical cues generated by structural changes in the cell wall as well as the mediation of intracellular responses. We review the delivery processes of the cell wall precursors that are required for the cell wall assembly process and the structural continuity between the inside and the outside of the cell. We provide an overview of the different morphogenetic processes for which cell wall assembly is a crucial element and elaborate on relevant feedback mechanisms.
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47
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Yin X. Phyllotaxis: from classical knowledge to molecular genetics. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2021; 134:373-401. [PMID: 33550488 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-020-01247-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Plant organs are repetitively generated at the shoot apical meristem (SAM) in recognizable patterns. This phenomenon, known as phyllotaxis, has long fascinated scientists from different disciplines. While we have an enriched body of knowledge on phyllotactic patterns, parameters, and transitions, only in the past 20 years, however, have we started to identify genes and elucidate genetic pathways that involved in phyllotaxis. In this review, I first summarize the classical knowledge of phyllotaxis from a morphological perspective. I then discuss recent advances in the regulation of phyllotaxis, from a molecular genetics perspective. I show that the morphological beauty of phyllotaxis we appreciate is the manifestation of many regulators, in addition to the critical role of auxin as a patterning signal, exerting their respective effects in a coordinated fashion either directly or indirectly in the SAM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Yin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.
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Haas KT, Peaucelle A. From monocots to dicots: the multifold aspect of cell wall expansion. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:1511-1513. [PMID: 33649766 PMCID: PMC7921297 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This article comments on: Petrova AA, Gorshkova TA, Kozlova LV. 2021. Gradients of cell wall nano-mechanical properties along and across elongating primary roots of maize. Journal of Experimental Botany 72, 1764–1781.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalina T Haas
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
| | - Alexis Peaucelle
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, Versailles, France
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49
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Petrova A, Gorshkova T, Kozlova L. Gradients of cell wall nano-mechanical properties along and across elongating primary roots of maize. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:1764-1781. [PMID: 33247728 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
To test the hypothesis that particular tissues can control root growth, we analysed the mechanical properties of cell walls belonging to different tissues of the apical part of the maize root using atomic force microscopy. The dynamics of properties during elongation growth were characterized in four consecutive zones of the root. Extensive immunochemical characterization and quantification were used to establish the polysaccharide motif(s) related to changes in cell wall mechanics. Cell transition from division to elongation was coupled to the decrease in the elastic modulus in all root tissues. Low values of moduli were retained in the elongation zone and increased in the late elongation zone. No relationship between the immunolabelling pattern and mechanical properties of the cell walls was revealed. When measured values of elastic moduli and turgor pressure were used in the computational simulation, this resulted in an elastic response of the modelled root and the distribution of stress and strain similar to those observed in vivo. In all analysed root zones, cell walls of the inner cortex displayed moduli of elasticity that were maximal or comparable with the maximal values among all tissues. Thus, we propose that the inner cortex serves as a growth-limiting tissue in maize roots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Petrova
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Kazan, Russia
| | - Tatyana Gorshkova
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Kazan, Russia
| | - Liudmila Kozlova
- Kazan Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, FRC Kazan Scientific Center of RAS, Kazan, Russia
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50
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Tribble CM, Martínez-Gómez J, Alzate-Guarín F, Rothfels CJ, Specht CD. Comparative transcriptomics of a monocotyledonous geophyte reveals shared molecular mechanisms of underground storage organ formation. Evol Dev 2021; 23:155-173. [PMID: 33465278 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Many species from across the vascular plant tree-of-life have modified standard plant tissues into tubers, bulbs, corms, and other underground storage organs (USOs), unique innovations which allow these plants to retreat underground. Our ability to understand the developmental and evolutionary forces that shape these morphologies is limited by a lack of studies on certain USOs and plant clades. We take a comparative transcriptomics approach to characterizing the molecular mechanisms of tuberous root formation in Bomarea multiflora (Alstroemeriaceae) and compare these mechanisms to those identified in other USOs across diverse plant lineages; B. multiflora fills a key gap in our understanding of USO molecular development as the first monocot with tuberous roots to be the focus of this kind of research. We sequenced transcriptomes from the growing tip of four tissue types (aerial shoot, rhizome, fibrous root, and root tuber) of three individuals of B. multiflora. We identified differentially expressed isoforms between tuberous and non-tuberous roots and tested the expression of a priori candidate genes implicated in underground storage in other taxa. We identify 271 genes that are differentially expressed in root tubers versus non-tuberous roots, including genes implicated in cell wall modification, defense response, and starch biosynthesis. We also identify a phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein, which has been implicated in tuberization signalling in other taxa and, through gene-tree analysis, place this copy in a phylogenetic context. These findings suggest that some similar molecular processes underlie the formation of USOs across flowering plants despite the long evolutionary distances among taxa and non-homologous morphologies (e.g., bulbs vs. tubers). (Plant development, tuberous roots, comparative transcriptomics, geophytes).
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie M Tribble
- Department of Integrative Biology and, University Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Jesús Martínez-Gómez
- Department of Integrative Biology and, University Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA.,School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Section of Plant Biology and the L.H. Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Fernando Alzate-Guarín
- Grupo de Estudios Botánicos (GEOBOTA) and Herbario Universidad de Antioquia (HUA), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Carl J Rothfels
- Department of Integrative Biology and, University Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Chelsea D Specht
- School of Integrative Plant Sciences, Section of Plant Biology and the L.H. Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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