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Boehm E, Summermatter K, Kaiser L. Orthopox viruses: is the threat growing? Clin Microbiol Infect 2024; 30:883-887. [PMID: 38387500 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2024.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Smallpox was a major cause of human mortality until its eradication, but the threat of orthopox viruses has not disappeared. Since the eradication of smallpox and the cessation of the related vaccination campaigns, the threat has been growing, as evidenced by the currently ongoing worldwide Mpox outbreak. In addition to threats of an evolving Mpox, we must also be aware of a myriad of other threats that remain. Many countries still lack biosecurity regulations reflecting the recent technological advances, and the threat of bioterrorism remains ever present. Reconstruction of smallpox is a distinct possibility, as are other scenarios whereby other orthopox viruses may be made more fit for transmission in humans. OBJECTIVES To outline and discuss potential biosafety and biosecurity threats posed by orthopox viruses. SOURCES Published scientific literature, news articles, and international agreements. CONTENT AND IMPLICATIONS It would be wise to take steps to mitigate these threats now. Vaccination campaigns should be considered in areas with frequent orthopox outbreaks, and more efforts must be made to put a final end to the Mpox outbreak. In many countries, national biosafety and biosecurity regulations may need to be revised and strengthened to better reflect the threats posed by new technologies, including controls on synthesis of smallpox sequences. Furthermore, more international cooperation and aid is needed. The present global Mpox outbreak could likely have been prevented had areas where Mpox is endemic not been neglected. Future outbreaks could be much worse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Boehm
- Centre for Emerging Viral Diseases, Division of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | | | - Laurent Kaiser
- Centre for Emerging Viral Diseases, Division of Infectious Diseases, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland
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2
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Souza ARV, Brinkmann A, Esparza J, Nitsche A, Damaso CR. Gene duplication, gene loss, and recombination events with variola virus shaped the complex evolutionary path of historical American horsepox-based smallpox vaccines. mBio 2023; 14:e0188723. [PMID: 37729584 PMCID: PMC10653919 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01887-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Modern smallpox vaccines, such as those used against mpox, are made from vaccinia viruses, but it is still unknown whether cowpox, horsepox, or vaccinia viruses were used in the early 20th century or earlier. The mystery began to be solved when the genomes of six historical smallpox vaccines used in the United States from 1850 to 1902 were determined. Our work analyzed in detail the genomes of these six historical vaccines, revealing a complex genomic structure. Historical vaccines are highly similar to horsepox in the core of their genomes, but some are closer to the structure of vaccinia virus at the ends of the genome. One of the vaccines is a recombinant virus with parts of variola virus recombined into its genome. Our data add valuable information for understanding the evolutionary path of current smallpox vaccines and the genetic makeup of the potentially extinct group of horsepox viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline R. V. Souza
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Annika Brinkmann
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 – Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - José Esparza
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 – Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Clarissa R. Damaso
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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3
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Otter AD, Jones S, Hicks B, Bailey D, Callaby H, Houlihan C, Rampling T, Gordon NC, Selman H, Satheshkumar PS, Townsend M, Mehta R, Pond M, Jones R, Wright D, Oeser C, Tonge S, Linley E, Hemingway G, Coleman T, Millward S, Lloyd A, Damon I, Brooks T, Vipond R, Rowe C, Hallis B. Monkeypox virus-infected individuals mount comparable humoral immune responses as Smallpox-vaccinated individuals. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5948. [PMID: 37741831 PMCID: PMC10517934 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41587-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In early 2022, a cluster of monkeypox virus (MPXV) infection (mpox) cases were identified within the UK with no prior travel history to MPXV-endemic regions. Subsequently, case numbers exceeding 80,000 were reported worldwide, primarily affecting gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM). Public health agencies worldwide have offered the IMVANEX Smallpox vaccination to these individuals at high-risk to provide protection and limit the spread of MPXV. We have developed a comprehensive array of ELISAs to study poxvirus-induced antibodies, utilising 24 MPXV and 3 Vaccinia virus (VACV) recombinant antigens. Panels of serum samples from individuals with differing Smallpox-vaccine doses and those with prior MPXV infection were tested on these assays, where we observed that one dose of Smallpox vaccination induces a low number of antibodies to a limited number of MPXV antigens but increasing with further vaccination doses. MPXV infection induced similar antibody responses to diverse poxvirus antigens observed in Smallpox-vaccinated individuals. We identify MPXV A27 as a serological marker of MPXV-infection, whilst MPXV M1 (VACV L1) is likely IMVANEX-specific. Here, we demonstrate analogous humoral antigen recognition between both MPXV-infected or Smallpox-vaccinated individuals, with binding to diverse yet core set of poxvirus antigens, providing opportunities for future vaccine (e.g., mRNA) and therapeutic (e.g., mAbs) design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley D Otter
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK.
| | - Scott Jones
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Bethany Hicks
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Daniel Bailey
- Rare and Imported Pathogens Laboratory, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Helen Callaby
- Rare and Imported Pathogens Laboratory, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Catherine Houlihan
- Rare and Imported Pathogens Laboratory, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
- Department of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK
| | - Tommy Rampling
- Rare and Imported Pathogens Laboratory, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, University College London Hospital, London, UK
- NIHR University College London Hospitals BRC, London, UK
| | - Nicola Claire Gordon
- Rare and Imported Pathogens Laboratory, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Hannah Selman
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | | | - Michael Townsend
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ravi Mehta
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Marcus Pond
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Rachael Jones
- Chelsea and Westminster Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Deborah Wright
- Research and Development, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Clarissa Oeser
- Immunisation and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Division, UK Health Security Agency, Colindale, London, UK
| | - Simon Tonge
- Seroepidemiology Unit, UK Health Security Agency, Manchester, UK
| | - Ezra Linley
- Seroepidemiology Unit, UK Health Security Agency, Manchester, UK
| | - Georgia Hemingway
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Tom Coleman
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Sebastian Millward
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Aaron Lloyd
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Inger Damon
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Tim Brooks
- Rare and Imported Pathogens Laboratory, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Richard Vipond
- Research and Development, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Cathy Rowe
- Emerging Pathogen Serology group, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Bassam Hallis
- Research and Development, UK Health Security Agency, Porton Down, Wiltshire, UK
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4
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Cowpox Viruses: A Zoo Full of Viral Diversity and Lurking Threats. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020325. [PMID: 36830694 PMCID: PMC9953750 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) exhibit the broadest known host range among the Poxviridae family and have caused lethal outbreaks in various zoo animals and pets across 12 Eurasian countries, as well as an increasing number of human cases. Herein, we review the history of how the cowpox name has evolved since the 1700s up to modern times. Despite early documentation of the different properties of CPXV isolates, only modern genetic analyses and phylogenies have revealed the existence of multiple Orthopoxvirus species that are currently constrained under the CPXV designation. We further chronicle modern outbreaks in zoos, domesticated animals, and humans, and describe animal models of experimental CPXV infections and how these can help shaping CPXV species distinctions. We also describe the pathogenesis of modern CPXV infections in animals and humans, the geographic range of CPXVs, and discuss CPXV-host interactions at the molecular level and their effects on pathogenicity and host range. Finally, we discuss the potential threat of these viruses and the future of CPXV research to provide a comprehensive review of CPXVs.
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5
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Lim CK, Roberts J, Moso M, Liew KC, Taouk ML, Williams E, Tran T, Steinig E, Caly L, Williamson DA. Mpox diagnostics: Review of current and emerging technologies. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28429. [PMID: 36571266 PMCID: PMC10108241 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Mpox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV) from the Orthopoxvirus genus. Unprecedented transmission events have led to more than 70 000 cases reported worldwide by October 2022. The change in mpox epidemiology has raised concerns of its ability to establish endemicity beyond its traditional geographical locations. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of mpox virology and viral dynamics that are relevant to mpox diagnostics. A synopsis of the traditional and emerging laboratory technologies useful for MPXV detection and in guiding "elimination" strategies is outlined in this review. Importantly, development in MPXV genomics has rapidly advanced our understanding of the role of viral evolution and adaptation in the current outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Kok Lim
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jason Roberts
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michael Moso
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kwee Chin Liew
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mona L Taouk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Eloise Williams
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thomas Tran
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Eike Steinig
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Leon Caly
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Deborah Ann Williamson
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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6
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Genomic Sequencing and Phylogenomics of Cowpox Virus. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102134. [PMID: 36298689 PMCID: PMC9611595 DOI: 10.3390/v14102134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV; genus Orthopoxvirus; family Poxviridae) is the causative agent of cowpox, a self-limiting zoonotic infection. CPXV is endemic in Eurasia, and human CPXV infections are associated with exposure to infected animals. In the Fennoscandian region, five CPXVs isolated from cats and humans were collected and used in this study. We report the complete sequence of their genomes, which ranged in size from 220–222 kbp, containing between 215 and 219 open reading frames. The phylogenetic analysis of 87 orthopoxvirus strains, including the Fennoscandian CPXV isolates, confirmed the division of CPXV strains into at least five distinct major clusters (CPXV-like 1, CPXV-like 2, VACV-like, VARV-like and ECTV-Abatino-like) and can be further divided into eighteen sub-species based on the genetic and patristic distances. Bayesian time-scaled evolutionary history of CPXV was reconstructed employing concatenated 62 non-recombinant conserved genes of 55 CPXV. The CPXV evolution rate was calculated to be 1.65 × 10−5 substitution/site/year. Our findings confirmed that CPXV is not a single species but a polyphyletic assemblage of several species and thus, a reclassification is warranted.
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7
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Diaz-Cánova D, Moens UL, Brinkmann A, Nitsche A, Okeke MI. Genomic Sequencing and Analysis of a Novel Human Cowpox Virus With Mosaic Sequences From North America and Old World Orthopoxvirus. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:868887. [PMID: 35592007 PMCID: PMC9112427 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.868887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses (OPXVs) not only infect their natural hosts, but some OPXVs can also cause disease in humans. Previously, we partially characterized an OPXV isolated from an 18-year-old male living in Northern Norway. Restriction enzyme analysis and partial genome sequencing characterized this virus as an atypical cowpox virus (CPXV), which we named CPXV-No-H2. In this study, we determined the complete genome sequence of CPXV-No-H2 using Illumina and Nanopore sequencing. Our results showed that the whole CPXV-No-H2 genome is 220,276 base pairs (bp) in length, with inverted terminal repeat regions of approximately 7 kbp, containing 217 predicted genes. Seventeen predicted CPXV-No-H2 proteins were most similar to OPXV proteins from the Old World, including Ectromelia virus (ECTV) and Vaccinia virus, and North America, Alaskapox virus (AKPV). CPXV-No-H2 has a mosaic genome with genes most similar to other OPXV genes, and seven potential recombination events were identified. The phylogenetic analysis showed that CPXV-No-H2 formed a separate clade with the German CPXV isolates CPXV_GerMygEK938_17 and CPXV_Ger2010_MKY, sharing 96.4 and 96.3% nucleotide identity, respectively, and this clade clustered closely with the ECTV-OPXV Abatino clade. CPXV-No-H2 is a mosaic virus that may have arisen out of several recombination events between OPXVs, and its phylogenetic clustering suggests that ECTV-Abatino-like cowpox viruses form a distinct, new clade of cowpox viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Diaz-Cánova
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ugo L Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Annika Brinkmann
- Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Malachy Ifeanyi Okeke
- Section of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
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8
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Park C, Peng C, Rahman MJ, Haller SL, Tazi L, Brennan G, Rothenburg S. Orthopoxvirus K3 orthologs show virus- and host-specific inhibition of the antiviral protein kinase PKR. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009183. [PMID: 33444388 PMCID: PMC7840043 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The antiviral protein kinase R (PKR) is an important host restriction factor, which poxviruses must overcome to productively infect host cells. To inhibit PKR, many poxviruses encode a pseudosubstrate mimic of the alpha subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2), designated K3 in vaccinia virus. Although the interaction between PKR and eIF2α is highly conserved, some K3 orthologs from host-restricted poxviruses were previously shown to inhibit PKR in a species-specific manner. To better define this host range function, we compared the sensitivity of PKR from 17 mammals to inhibition by K3 orthologs from closely related orthopoxviruses, a genus with a generally broader host range. The K3 orthologs showed species-specific inhibition of PKR and exhibited three distinct inhibition profiles. In some cases, PKR from closely related species showed dramatic differences in their sensitivity to K3 orthologs. Vaccinia virus expressing the camelpox virus K3 ortholog replicated more than three orders of magnitude better in human and sheep cells than a virus expressing vaccinia virus K3, but both viruses replicated comparably well in cow cells. Strikingly, in site-directed mutagenesis experiments between the variola virus and camelpox virus K3 orthologs, we found that different amino acid combinations were necessary to mediate improved or diminished inhibition of PKR derived from different host species. Because there is likely a limited number of possible variations in PKR that affect K3-interactions but still maintain PKR/eIF2α interactions, it is possible that by chance PKR from some potential new hosts may be susceptible to K3-mediated inhibition from a virus it has never previously encountered. We conclude that neither the sensitivity of host proteins to virus inhibition nor the effectiveness of viral immune antagonists can be inferred from their phylogenetic relatedness but must be experimentally determined. Most virus families are composed of large numbers of virus species. However, in general, only a few prototypic viruses are experimentally studied in-depth, and it is often assumed that the obtained results are representative of other viruses in the same family. In order to test this assumption, we compared the sensitivity of the antiviral protein kinase PKR from various mammals to inhibition by multiple orthologs of K3, a PKR inhibitor expressed by several closely related orthopoxviruses. We found strong differences in PKR inhibition by the K3 orthologs, demonstrating that sensitivity to a specific inhibitor was not indicative of broad sensitivity to orthologs of these inhibitors from closely related viruses. We also show that PKR from even closely related species displayed markedly different sensitivities to these poxvirus inhibitors. Furthermore, we identified amino acid residues in these K3 orthologs that are critical for enhanced or decreased PKR inhibition and found that distinct amino acid combinations affected PKRs from various species differently. Our study shows that even closely related inhibitors of an antiviral protein can vary dramatically in their inhibitory potential, and cautions that results from host-virus interaction studies of a prototypic virus genus member cannot necessarily be extrapolated to other viruses in the same genus without experimental verification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chorong Park
- School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Department of Medial Microbiology and Immunology, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Chen Peng
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Laboratory of Viral Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - M. Julhasur Rahman
- School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Department of Medial Microbiology and Immunology, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Sherry L. Haller
- University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Loubna Tazi
- School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Department of Medial Microbiology and Immunology, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Greg Brennan
- School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Department of Medial Microbiology and Immunology, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Stefan Rothenburg
- School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Department of Medial Microbiology and Immunology, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Ferrari G, Neukamm J, Baalsrud HT, Breidenstein AM, Ravinet M, Phillips C, Rühli F, Bouwman A, Schuenemann VJ. Variola virus genome sequenced from an eighteenth-century museum specimen supports the recent origin of smallpox. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190572. [PMID: 33012235 PMCID: PMC7702794 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Smallpox, caused by the variola virus (VARV), was a highly virulent disease with high mortality rates causing a major threat for global human health until its successful eradication in 1980. Despite previously published historic and modern VARV genomes, its past dissemination and diversity remain debated. To understand the evolutionary history of VARV with respect to historic and modern VARV genetic variation in Europe, we sequenced a VARV genome from a well-described eighteenth-century case from England (specimen P328). In our phylogenetic analysis, the new genome falls between the modern strains and another historic strain from Lithuania, supporting previous claims of larger diversity in early modern Europe compared to the twentieth century. Our analyses also resolve a previous controversy regarding the common ancestor between modern and historic strains by confirming a later date around the seventeenth century. Overall, our results point to the benefit of historic genomes for better resolution of past VARV diversity and highlight the value of such historic genomes from around the world to further understand the evolutionary history of smallpox as well as related diseases. This article is part of the theme issue 'Insights into health and disease from ancient biomolecules'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giada Ferrari
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Judith Neukamm
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, University of Tübingen, Sand 14, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Helle T. Baalsrud
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Abagail M. Breidenstein
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mark Ravinet
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, 0316, Oslo, Norway
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Carina Phillips
- The Royal College of Surgeons of England, 35-43 Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3PE, UK
| | - Frank Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Abigail Bouwman
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Verena J. Schuenemann
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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10
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Khalafalla AI, Al Hosani MA, Ishag HZA, Al Muhairi SS. More cell culture passaged Camelpox virus sequences found resembling those of vaccinia virus. Open Vet J 2020; 10:144-156. [PMID: 32821659 PMCID: PMC7419068 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v10i2.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Camelpox is the most infectious and economically important disease of camelids that causes significant morbidity and mortality rates. Several live attenuated vaccines against Camelpox virus (CMLV) are produced worldwide by passaging field isolates in cell culture. Sequence of a high passage Saudi isolate of CMLV was previously found closely resembled Vaccinia virus (VACV). AIM To determine whether other high cell culture passage CMLV isolates are genetically resemble VACV and further to explore the possible mechanism of the resemblance. METHODS We performed polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequence analysis of A-type inclusion body protein (ATIP), L1R, and open reading frame (ORF) 185 genes on different cell culture passage levels of a field isolate, two high passage vaccines, wild-type, and reference strains of CMLV. RESULTS We demonstrate that additional two high passage attenuated vaccine candidate from Sudan and UAE likewise contain sequences resembling VACV more than CMLV. Furthermore, sequence analysis of the ATIP gene of selected virus passages in cell culture revealed that the shift to VACV-like occurred between passage 11 and 20 and up to the 10th passage the genome still resembles wild-type virus. This observation was further confirmed by recombination analysis which indicated recombination events at ATIP and ORF185 genes occurred at higher passages. CONCLUSION We confirmed that the cell culture passage CMLV turns to resemble VACV after cell culture passage and concluded that the resemblance may not be a result of contamination or misidentification as previously thought but could be due to recombination events that occurred during the passage process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelmalik I. Khalafalla
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, Khartoum North Sudan
- Corresponding Author: Abdelmalik Ibrahim Khalafalla. Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Mohamed A. Al Hosani
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Hassan Zackaria Ali Ishag
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Salama S. Al Muhairi
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
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11
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Esparza J, Lederman S, Nitsche A, Damaso CR. Early smallpox vaccine manufacturing in the United States: Introduction of the "animal vaccine" in 1870, establishment of "vaccine farms", and the beginnings of the vaccine industry. Vaccine 2020; 38:4773-4779. [PMID: 32473878 PMCID: PMC7294234 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
For the first 80-90 years after Jenner's discovery of vaccination in 1796, the main strategy used to disseminate and maintain the smallpox vaccine was arm-to-arm vaccination, also known as Jennerian or humanized vaccination. A major advance occurred after 1860 with the development of what was known as "animal vaccine", which referred to growing vaccine material from serial propagation in calves before use in humans. The use of "animal vaccine" had several advantages over arm-to-arm vaccination: it would not transmit syphilis or other human diseases, it ensured a supply of vaccine even in the absence of the spontaneous occurrence of cases of cowpox or horsepox, and it allowed the production of large amounts of vaccine. The "animal vaccine" concept was introduced in the United States in 1870 by Henry Austin Martin. Very rapidly a number of "vaccine farms" were established in the U.S. and produced large quantities of "animal vaccine". These "vaccine farms" were mostly established by medical doctors who saw an opportunity to respond to an increasing demand of smallpox vaccine from individuals and from health authorities, and to make a profit. The "vaccine farms" evolved from producing only smallpox "animal vaccine" to manufacturing several other biologics, including diphtheria- and other antitoxins. Two major incidents of tetanus contamination happened in 1901, which led to the promulgation of the Biologics Control Act of 1902. The US Secretary of the Treasury issued licenses to produce and sell biologicals, mainly vaccines and antitoxins. Through several mergers and acquisitions, the initial biologics licensees eventually evolved into some of the current major American industrial vaccine companies. An important aspect that was never clarified was the source of the vaccine stocks used to manufacture the smallpox "animal vaccines". Most likely, different smallpox vaccine stocks were repeatedly introduced from Europe, resulting in polyclonal vaccines that are now recognized as "variants" more appropriately than "strains". Further, clonal analysis of modern "animal vaccines" indicate that they are probably derived from complex recombinational events between different strains of vaccinia and horsepox. Modern sequencing technologies are now been used by us to study old smallpox vaccine specimens in an effort to better understand the origin and evolution of the vaccines that were used to eradicate the smallpox.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Esparza
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | | | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 - Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Clarissa R Damaso
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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12
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What a Difference a Gene Makes: Identification of Virulence Factors of Cowpox Virus. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01625-19. [PMID: 31645446 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01625-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) that causes spillover infections from its animal hosts to humans. In 2009, several human CPXV cases occurred through transmission from pet rats. An isolate from a diseased rat, RatPox09, exhibited significantly increased virulence in Wistar rats and caused high mortality compared to that caused by the mildly virulent laboratory strain Brighton Red (BR). The RatPox09 genome encodes four genes which are absent in the BR genome. We hypothesized that their gene products could be major factors influencing the high virulence of RatPox09. To address this hypothesis, we employed several BR-RatPox09 chimeric viruses. Using Red-mediated mutagenesis, we generated BR-based knock-in mutants with single or multiple insertions of the respective RatPox09 genes. High-throughput sequencing was used to verify the genomic integrity of all recombinant viruses, and transcriptomic analyses confirmed that the expression profiles of the genes that were adjacent to the modified ones were unaltered. While the in vitro growth kinetics were comparable to those of BR and RatPox09, we discovered that a knock-in BR mutant containing the four RatPox09-specific genes was as virulent as the RatPox09 isolate, causing death in over 75% of infected Wistar rats. Unexpectedly, the insertion of gCPXV0030 (g7tGP) alone into the BR genome resulted in significantly higher clinical scores and lower survival rates matching the rate for rats infected with RatPox09. The insertion of gCPXV0284, encoding the BTB (broad-complex, tramtrack, and bric-à-brac) domain protein D7L, also increased the virulence of BR, while the other two open reading frames failed to rescue virulence independently. In summary, our results confirmed our hypothesis that a relatively small set of four genes can contribute significantly to CPXV virulence in the natural rat animal model.IMPORTANCE With the cessation of vaccination against smallpox and its assumed cross-protectivity against other OPV infections, waning immunity could open up new niches for related poxviruses. Therefore, the identification of virulence mechanisms in CPXV is of general interest. Here, we aimed to identify virulence markers in an experimental rodent CPXV infection model using bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based virus recombineering. We focused our work on the recent zoonotic CPXV isolate RatPox09, which is highly pathogenic in Wistar rats, unlike the avirulent BR reference strain. In several animal studies, we were able to identify a novel set of CPXV virulence genes. Two of the identified virulence genes, encoding a putative BTB/POZ protein (CPXVD7L) and a B22R-family protein (CPXV7tGP), respectively, have not yet been described to be involved in CPXV virulence. Our results also show that single genes can significantly affect virulence, thus facilitating adaptation to other hosts.
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13
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Kaszab E, Doszpoly A, Lanave G, Verma A, Bányai K, Malik YS, Marton S. Metagenomics revealing new virus species in farm and pet animals and aquaculture. GENOMICS AND BIOTECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES IN VETERINARY, POULTRY, AND FISHERIES 2020. [PMCID: PMC7149329 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816352-8.00002-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Viral metagenomics is slowly taking over the traditional and widely used molecular techniques for the investigation of pathogenic viruses responsible for illness and inflicting great economic burden on the farm animal industry. Owing to the continued improvements in sequencing technologies and the dramatic reduction of per base costs of sequencing the use of next generation sequencing have been key factors in this progress. Discoveries linked to viral metagenomics are expected to be beneficial to the field of veterinary medicine starting from the development of better diagnostic assays to the design of new subunit vaccines with minimal investments. With these achievements the research has taken a giant leap even toward the better healthcare of animals and, as a result, the animal sector could be growing at an unprecedented pace.
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14
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Praest P, Liaci AM, Förster F, Wiertz EJ. New insights into the structure of the MHC class I peptide-loading complex and mechanisms of TAP inhibition by viral immune evasion proteins. Mol Immunol 2019; 113:103-114. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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15
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Andreani J, Arnault JP, Bou Khalil JY, Abrahão J, Tomei E, Vial E, Le Bideau M, Raoult D, La Scola B. Atypical Cowpox Virus Infection in Smallpox-Vaccinated Patient, France. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 25:212-219. [PMID: 30666929 PMCID: PMC6346447 DOI: 10.3201/eid2502.171433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a case of atypical cowpox virus infection in France in 2016. The patient sought care for thoracic lesions after injury from the sharp end of a metallic guardrail previously stored in the ground. We isolated a cowpox virus from the lesions and sequenced its whole genome. The patient reported that he had been previously vaccinated against smallpox. We describe an alternative route of cowpox virus infection and raise questions about the immunological status of smallpox-vaccinated patients for circulating orthopoxviruses.
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16
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Species-Specific Conservation of Linear Antigenic Sites on Vaccinia Virus A27 Protein Homologs of Orthopoxviruses. Viruses 2019; 11:v11060493. [PMID: 31146446 PMCID: PMC6631127 DOI: 10.3390/v11060493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The vaccinia virus (VACV) A27 protein and its homologs, which are found in a large number of members of the genus Orthopoxvirus (OPXV), are targets of viral neutralization by host antibodies. We have mapped six binding sites (epitopes #1A: aa 32–39, #1B: aa 28–33, #1C: aa 26–31, #1D: 28–34, #4: aa 9–14, and #5: aa 68–71) of A27 specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) using peptide arrays. MAbs recognizing epitopes #1A–D and #4 neutralized VACV Elstree in a complement dependent way (50% plaque-reduction: 12.5–200 µg/mL). Fusion of VACV at low pH was blocked through inhibition of epitope #1A. To determine the sequence variability of the six antigenic sites, 391 sequences of A27 protein homologs available were compared. Epitopes #4 and #5 were conserved among most of the OPXVs, while the sequential epitope complex #1A–D was more variable and, therefore, responsible for species-specific epitope characteristics. The accurate and reliable mapping of defined epitopes on immuno-protective proteins such as the A27 of VACV enables phylogenetic studies and insights into OPXV evolution as well as to pave the way to the development of safer vaccines and chemical or biological antivirals.
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17
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Antwerpen MH, Georgi E, Nikolic A, Zoeller G, Wohlsein P, Baumgärtner W, Peyrefitte C, Charrel R, Meyer H. Use of Next Generation Sequencing to study two cowpox virus outbreaks. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6561. [PMID: 30847261 PMCID: PMC6398431 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Between 2008 and 2011 about 40 cases of human cowpox were reported from Germany and France. Infections had been acquired via close contact to infected, young pet rats. An identical and unique sequence of the hemagglutinin gene was found in various cowpox virus (CPXV) isolates pointing to a common source of infection. In a second CPXV outbreak in cats in a small animal clinic in Germany in 2015, four out of five hospitalized cats showed identical hemagglutinin sequences and thus, a hospital-acquired transmission had been assumed. Next-Generation Sequencing was performed in order to re-investigate the outbreaks, as epidemiological data could not confirm all cases. Methods Homogenates of lesion material from rats, cats and humans were cultivated in cell culture. The genomes of four virus isolates, nine CPXVs from our strain collections and from DNA of three paraffin-embedded lesion materials were determined by Next Generation Sequencing (NGS). For phylogenetic analyses a MAFFT-alignment was generated. A distance matrix based on concatenated SNPs was calculated and plotted as dendrogram using Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic mean (UPGMA) for visualization. Results Aligning of about 200.000 nucleotides of 8 virus isolates associated with the pet rat outbreak revealed complete identity of six genomes, the remainder two genomes differed in as little as 3 SNPs. When comparing this dataset with four already published CPXV genomes also associated with the pet rat outbreak, again a maximum difference of 3 SNPs was found. The outbreak which lasted from 2008 till 2011 was indeed caused by a single strain which has maintained an extremely high level of clonality over 4 years. Aligning genomic sequences from four cases of feline cowpox revealed 3 identical sequences and one sequence which differed in 65 nucleotides. Although identical hemagglutinin sequences had been obtained from four hospitalized cats, genomic sequencing proved that a hospital-acquired transmission had occurred in only three cats. Conclusion Analyzing the rather short sequence of the hemagglutinin gene is not sufficient to conduct molecular trace back analyses. Instead, whole genome sequencing is the method of choice which can even be applied to paraffin-embedded specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Enrico Georgi
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany
| | | | | | - Peter Wohlsein
- Small Animal Clinic, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hanover, Germany
| | | | | | - Remi Charrel
- Unité des Virus Emergents, Aix Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Munich, Germany
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18
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Nuth M, Guan H, Xiao Y, Kulp JL, Parker MH, Strobel ED, Isaacs SN, Scott RW, Reitz AB, Ricciardi RP. Mutation and structure guided discovery of an antiviral small molecule that mimics an essential C-Terminal tripeptide of the vaccinia D4 processivity factor. Antiviral Res 2018; 162:178-185. [PMID: 30578797 PMCID: PMC10124107 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2018.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The smallpox virus (variola) remains a bioterrorism threat since a majority of the human population has never been vaccinated. In the event of an outbreak, at least two drugs against different targets of variola are critical to circumvent potential viral mutants that acquire resistance. Vaccinia virus (VACV) is the model virus used in the laboratory for studying smallpox. The VACV processivity factor D4 is an ideal therapeutic target since it is both essential and specific for poxvirus replication. Recently, we identified a tripeptide (Gly-Phe-Ile) motif at the C-terminus of D4 that is conserved among poxviruses and is necessary for maintaining protein function. In the current work, a virtual screening for small molecule mimics of the tripeptide identified a thiophene lead that effectively inhibited VACV, cowpox virus, and rabbitpox virus in cell culture (EC50 = 8.4-19.7 μM) and blocked in vitro processive DNA synthesis (IC50 = 13.4 μM). Compound-binding to D4 was demonstrated through various biophysical methods and a dose-dependent retardation of the proteolysis of D4 proteins. This study highlights an inhibitor design strategy that exploits a susceptible region of the protein and identifies a novel scaffold for a broad-spectrum poxvirus inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manunya Nuth
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dental Medicine and the Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hancheng Guan
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dental Medicine and the Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Yuhong Xiao
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John L Kulp
- Conifer Point Pharmaceuticals, Doylestown, PA, USA
| | | | - Eric D Strobel
- Fox Chase Chemical Diversity Center, Inc., Doylestown, PA, USA
| | - Stuart N Isaacs
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Richard W Scott
- Fox Chase Chemical Diversity Center, Inc., Doylestown, PA, USA
| | - Allen B Reitz
- Fox Chase Chemical Diversity Center, Inc., Doylestown, PA, USA
| | - Robert P Ricciardi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dental Medicine and the Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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19
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Wong PS, Sutejo R, Chen H, Ng SH, Sugrue RJ, Tan BH. A System Based-Approach to Examine Cytokine Response in Poxvirus-Infected Macrophages. Viruses 2018; 10:v10120692. [PMID: 30563103 PMCID: PMC6316232 DOI: 10.3390/v10120692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The poxviruses are large, linear, double-stranded DNA viruses about 130 to 230 kbp, that have an animal origin and evolved to infect a wide host range. Variola virus (VARV), the causative agent of smallpox, is a poxvirus that infects only humans, but other poxviruses such as monkey poxvirus and cowpox virus (CPXV) have crossed over from animals to infect humans. Therefore understanding the biology of poxviruses can devise antiviral strategies to prevent these human infections. In this study we used a system-based approach to examine the host responses to three orthopoxviruses, CPXV, vaccinia virus (VACV), and ectromelia virus (ECTV) in the murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cell line. Overall, we observed a significant down-regulation of gene expressions for pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and related receptors. There were also common and virus-specific changes in the immune-regulated gene expressions for each poxvirus-infected RAW cells. Collectively our results showed that the murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cell line is a suitable cell-based model system to study poxvirus host response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pui-San Wong
- Defence Medical and Environmental Research Institute, DSO National Labs, Singapore 117510, Singapore.
| | - Richard Sutejo
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore.
| | - Hui Chen
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore.
| | - Sock-Hoon Ng
- Defence Medical and Environmental Research Institute, DSO National Labs, Singapore 117510, Singapore.
| | - Richard J Sugrue
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637551, Singapore.
| | - Boon-Huan Tan
- Defence Medical and Environmental Research Institute, DSO National Labs, Singapore 117510, Singapore.
- Infection and Immunity, LKC School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 308232, Singapore.
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20
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Adam DC, Scotch M, MacIntyre CR. Bayesian Phylogeography and Pathogenic Characterization of Smallpox Based on HA, ATI, and CrmB Genes. Mol Biol Evol 2018; 35:2607-2617. [PMID: 30099520 PMCID: PMC6231489 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Variola virus is at risk of re-emergence either through accidental release, bioterrorism, or synthetic biology. The use of phylogenetics and phylogeography to support epidemic field response is expected to grow as sequencing technology becomes miniaturized, cheap, and ubiquitous. In this study, we aimed to explore the use of common VARV diagnostic targets hemagglutinin (HA), cytokine response modifier B (CrmB), and A-type inclusion protein (ATI) for phylogenetic characterization as well as the representativeness of modelling strategies in phylogeography to support epidemic response should smallpox re-emerge. We used Bayesian discrete-trait phylogeography using the most complete data set currently available of whole genome (n = 51) and partially sequenced (n = 20) VARV isolates. We show that multilocus models combining HA, ATI, and CrmB genes may represent a useful heuristic to differentiate between VARV Major and subclades of VARV Minor which have been associated with variable case-fatality rates. Where whole genome sequencing is unavailable, phylogeography models of HA, ATI, and CrmB may provide preliminary but uncertain estimates of transmission, while supplementing whole genome models with additional isolates sequenced only for HA can improve sample representativeness, maintaining similar support for transmission relative to whole genome models. We have also provided empirical evidence delineating historic international VARV transmission using phylogeography. Due to the persistent threat of re-emergence, our results provide important research for smallpox epidemic preparedness in the posteradication era as recommended by the World Health Organisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon C Adam
- Biosecurity Program, Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Matthew Scotch
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
| | - Chandini Raina MacIntyre
- Biosecurity Program, Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- College of Public Service and Community Solutions and College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
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21
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Gruber CEM, Giombini E, Selleri M, Tausch SH, Andrusch A, Tyshaieva A, Cardeti G, Lorenzetti R, De Marco L, Carletti F, Nitsche A, Capobianchi MR, Ippolito G, Autorino GL, Castilletti C. Whole Genome Characterization of Orthopoxvirus (OPV) Abatino, a Zoonotic Virus Representing a Putative Novel Clade of Old World Orthopoxviruses. Viruses 2018; 10:v10100546. [PMID: 30301229 PMCID: PMC6212904 DOI: 10.3390/v10100546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses (OPVs) are diffused over the complete Eurasian continent, but previously described strains are mostly from northern Europe, and few infections have been reported from Italy. Here we present the extended genomic characterization of OPV Abatino, a novel OPV isolated in Italy from an infected Tonkean macaque, with zoonotic potential. Phylogenetic analysis based on 102 conserved OPV genes (core gene set) showed that OPV Abatino is most closely related to the Ectromelia virus species (ECTV), although placed on a separate branch of the phylogenetic tree, bringing substantial support to the hypothesis that this strain may be part of a novel OPV clade. Extending the analysis to the entire set of genes (coding sequences, CDS) further substantiated this hypothesis. In fact the genome of OPV Abatino included more CDS than ECTV; most of the extra genes (mainly located in the terminal genome regions), showed the highest similarity with cowpox virus (CPXV); however vaccinia virus (VACV) and monkeypox virus (MPXV) were the closest OPV for certain CDS. These findings suggest that OPV Abatino could be the result of complex evolutionary events, diverging from any other previously described OPV, and may indicate that previously reported cases in Italy could represent the tip of the iceberg yet to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cesare E M Gruber
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Emanuela Giombini
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Marina Selleri
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Simon H Tausch
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Andreas Andrusch
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Alona Tyshaieva
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Giusy Cardeti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy.
| | - Raniero Lorenzetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy.
| | - Lorenzo De Marco
- Parco Faunistico Piano dell'Abatino, via Capo Farfa 50, 02030 Poggio San Lorenzo, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Carletti
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Maria R Capobianchi
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Ippolito
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
| | - Gian Luca Autorino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana M. Aleandri, via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy.
| | - Concetta Castilletti
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, via Portuense 292, 00149 Rome, Italy.
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22
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Gao J, Gigante C, Khmaladze E, Liu P, Tang S, Wilkins K, Zhao K, Davidson W, Nakazawa Y, Maghlakelidze G, Geleishvili M, Kokhreidze M, Carroll DS, Emerson G, Li Y. Genome Sequences of Akhmeta Virus, an Early Divergent Old World Orthopoxvirus. Viruses 2018; 10:v10050252. [PMID: 29757202 PMCID: PMC5977245 DOI: 10.3390/v10050252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Annotated whole genome sequences of three isolates of the Akhmeta virus (AKMV), a novel species of orthopoxvirus (OPXV), isolated from the Akhmeta and Vani regions of the country Georgia, are presented and discussed. The AKMV genome is similar in genomic content and structure to that of the cowpox virus (CPXV), but a lower sequence identity was found between AKMV and Old World OPXVs than between other known species of Old World OPXVs. Phylogenetic analysis showed that AKMV diverged prior to other Old World OPXV. AKMV isolates formed a monophyletic clade in the OPXV phylogeny, yet the sequence variability between AKMV isolates was higher than between the monkeypox virus strains in the Congo basin and West Africa. An AKMV isolate from Vani contained approximately six kb sequence in the left terminal region that shared a higher similarity with CPXV than with other AKMV isolates, whereas the rest of the genome was most similar to AKMV, suggesting recombination between AKMV and CPXV in a region containing several host range and virulence genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxin Gao
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Crystal Gigante
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Ekaterine Khmaladze
- Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology, National Center for Disease Control and Public Health of Georgia, 9 M. Asatiani Street, Tbilisi 0177, Georgia.
| | - Pengbo Liu
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Shiyuyun Tang
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Kimberly Wilkins
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Kun Zhao
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Whitni Davidson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yoshinori Nakazawa
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Giorgi Maghlakelidze
- Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Marika Geleishvili
- Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Maka Kokhreidze
- Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture of Georgia (LMA), Animal Disease Diagnostic Department, 49 Vaso Godziashvilis Street, Tbilisi 0159, Georgia.
| | - Darin S Carroll
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Ginny Emerson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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Atypical Cowpox Virus Infection in a Series of Cats. J Comp Pathol 2018; 158:71-76. [PMID: 29422319 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2017.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Within 4 weeks, five cats with skin lesions affecting the hindlimbs and mainly consisting of oedema, hyperaemia and plaque-like alterations were presented to the same veterinary clinic. The cats were suffering from lameness, trauma, renal insufficiency or complicated tail amputation. Although the lesions seemed unusual for a poxvirus infection, microscopical examination of biopsy samples or specimens taken during necropsy examination revealed ballooning degeneration of keratinocytes with eosinophilic, cytoplasmic inclusion bodies indicative of an orthopoxvirus infection. Cowpox virus infection was verified using immunohistochemistry and virus isolation. Molecular analysis revealed identical haemagglutinin gene sequences in four cases and spatiotemporal circumstances in some cases pointed to hospital-acquired transmission. Unusual manifestations of feline cowpox may have an unexpected risk for human infection.
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Cardeti G, Gruber CEM, Eleni C, Carletti F, Castilletti C, Manna G, Rosone F, Giombini E, Selleri M, Lapa D, Puro V, Di Caro A, Lorenzetti R, Scicluna MT, Grifoni G, Rizzoli A, Tagliapietra V, De Marco L, Capobianchi MR, Autorino GL. Fatal Outbreak in Tonkean Macaques Caused by Possibly Novel Orthopoxvirus, Italy, January 2015 1. Emerg Infect Dis 2017; 23:1941-1949. [PMID: 28975882 PMCID: PMC5708245 DOI: 10.3201/eid2312.162098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In January 2015, during a 3-week period, 12 captive Tonkean macacques at a sanctuary in Italy died. An orthopoxvirus infection was suspected because of negative-staining electron microscopy results. The diagnosis was confirmed by histology, virus isolation, and molecular analysis performed on different organs from all animals. An epidemiologic investigation was unable to define the infection source in the surrounding area. Trapped rodents were negative by virologic testing, but specific IgG was detected in 27.27% of small rodents and 14.28% of rats. An attenuated live vaccine was administered to the susceptible monkey population, and no adverse reactions were observed; a detectable humoral immune response was induced in most of the vaccinated animals. We performed molecular characterization of the orthopoxvirus isolate by next-generation sequencing. According to the phylogenetic analysis of the 9 conserved genes, the virus could be part of a novel clade, lying between cowpox and ectromelia viruses.
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25
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Dynamics of Pathological and Virological Findings During Experimental Calpox Virus Infection of Common Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Viruses 2017; 9:v9120363. [PMID: 29182537 PMCID: PMC5744138 DOI: 10.3390/v9120363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental intranasal infection of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with calpox virus results in fatal disease. Route and dose used for viral inoculation of the test animals mimics the natural transmission of smallpox, thus representing a suitable model to study pathogenesis and to evaluate new vaccines against orthopoxvirus infection. However, the pathogenic mechanisms leading to death are still unclear. Therefore, our study aimed at investigating the kinetics of pathological alterations to clarify the pathogenesis in calpox virus infection. Following intranasal inoculation with two different viral doses, common marmosets were sacrificed on days 3, 5, 7, 10 and 12 post inoculation. Collected tissue was screened using histopathology, immunohistochemistry, transmission electron microscopy, and virological assays. Our data suggest that primary replication took place in nasal and bronchial epithelia followed by secondary replication in submandibular lymph nodes and spleen. Parallel to viremia at day 7, virus was detectable in many organs, mainly located in epithelial cells and macrophages, as well as in endothelial cells. Based on the onset of clinical signs, the histological and ultrastructural lesions and the immunohistochemical distribution pattern of the virus, the incubation period was defined to last 11 days, which resembles human smallpox. In conclusion, the data indicate that the calpox model is highly suitable for studying orthopoxvirus-induced disease.
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26
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Esparza J, Schrick L, Damaso CR, Nitsche A. Equination (inoculation of horsepox): An early alternative to vaccination (inoculation of cowpox) and the potential role of horsepox virus in the origin of the smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 2017; 35:7222-7230. [PMID: 29137821 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
For almost 150 years after Edward Jenner had published the "Inquiry" in 1798, it was generally assumed that the cowpox virus was the vaccine against smallpox. It was not until 1939 when it was shown that vaccinia, the smallpox vaccine virus, was serologically related but different from the cowpox virus. In the absence of a known natural host, vaccinia has been considered to be a laboratory virus that may have originated from mutational or recombinational events involving cowpox virus, variola viruses or some unknown ancestral Orthopoxvirus. A favorite candidate for a vaccinia ancestor has been the horsepox virus. Edward Jenner himself suspected that cowpox derived from horsepox and he also believed that "matter" obtained from either disease could be used as preventative of smallpox. During the 19th century, inoculation with cowpox (vaccination) was used in Europe alongside with inoculation with horsepox (equination) to prevent smallpox. Vaccine-manufacturing practices during the 19th century may have resulted in the use of virus mixtures, leading to different genetic modifications that resulted in present-day vaccinia strains. Horsepox, a disease previously reported only in Europe, has been disappearing on that continent since the beginning of the 20th century and now seems to have become extinct, although the virus perhaps remains circulating in an unknown reservoir. Genomic sequencing of a horsepox virus isolated in Mongolia in 1976 indicated that, while closely related to vaccinia, this horsepox virus contained additional, potentially ancestral sequences absent in vaccinia. Recent genetic analyses of extant vaccinia viruses have revealed that some strains contain ancestral horsepox virus genes or are phylogenetically related to horsepox virus. We have recently reported that a commercially produced smallpox vaccine, manufactured in the United States in 1902, is genetically highly similar to horsepox virus, providing a missing link in this 200-year-old mystery.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Esparza
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Livia Schrick
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 - Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Clarissa R Damaso
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Virus, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 - Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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27
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Okeke MI, Okoli AS, Diaz D, Offor C, Oludotun TG, Tryland M, Bøhn T, Moens U. Hazard Characterization of Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Vector: What Are the Knowledge Gaps? Viruses 2017; 9:v9110318. [PMID: 29109380 PMCID: PMC5707525 DOI: 10.3390/v9110318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is the vector of choice for human and veterinary applications due to its strong safety profile and immunogenicity in vivo. The use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines against human and animal diseases must comply with regulatory requirements as they pertain to environmental risk assessment, particularly the characterization of potential adverse effects to humans, animals and the environment. MVA and recombinant MVA are widely believed to pose low or negligible risk to ecosystem health. However, key aspects of MVA biology require further research in order to provide data needed to evaluate the potential risks that may occur due to the use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines. The purpose of this paper is to identify knowledge gaps in the biology of MVA and recombinant MVA that are of relevance to its hazard characterization and discuss ongoing and future experiments aimed at providing data necessary to fill in the knowledge gaps. In addition, we presented arguments for the inclusion of uncertainty analysis and experimental investigation of verifiable worst-case scenarios in the environmental risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA. These will contribute to improved risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malachy I Okeke
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Arinze S Okoli
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Diana Diaz
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UiT)-The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Collins Offor
- Department of Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, IMC University of Applied Sciences Piaristengasse 1, A-3500 Krems, Austria.
| | - Taiwo G Oludotun
- Department of Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, IMC University of Applied Sciences Piaristengasse 1, A-3500 Krems, Austria.
| | - Morten Tryland
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
- Artic Infection Biology, Department of Artic and Marine Biology, UIT-The Artic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Thomas Bøhn
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UiT)-The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
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28
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Smithson C, Imbery J, Upton C. Re-Assembly and Analysis of an Ancient Variola Virus Genome. Viruses 2017; 9:v9090253. [PMID: 28885569 PMCID: PMC5618019 DOI: 10.3390/v9090253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a major improvement to the assembly of published short read sequencing data from an ancient variola virus (VARV) genome by the removal of contig-capping sequencing tags and manual searches for gap-spanning reads. The new assembly, together with camelpox and taterapox genomes, permitted new dates to be calculated for the last common ancestor of all VARV genomes. The analysis of recently sequenced VARV-like cowpox virus genomes showed that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and amino acid changes in the vaccinia virus (VACV)-Cop-O1L ortholog, predicted to be associated with VARV host specificity and virulence, were introduced into the lineage before the divergence of these viruses. A comparison of the ancient and modern VARV genome sequences also revealed a measurable drift towards adenine + thymine (A + T) richness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad Smithson
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada.
| | - Jacob Imbery
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada.
| | - Chris Upton
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8W 3P6, Canada.
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29
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Olson VA, Shchelkunov SN. Are We Prepared in Case of a Possible Smallpox-Like Disease Emergence? Viruses 2017; 9:E242. [PMID: 32962316 PMCID: PMC5618008 DOI: 10.3390/v9090242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Smallpox was the first human disease to be eradicated, through a concerted vaccination campaign led by the World Health Organization. Since its eradication, routine vaccination against smallpox has ceased, leaving the world population susceptible to disease caused by orthopoxviruses. In recent decades, reports of human disease from zoonotic orthopoxviruses have increased. Furthermore, multiple reports of newly identified poxviruses capable of causing human disease have occurred. These facts raise concerns regarding both the opportunity for these zoonotic orthopoxviruses to evolve and become a more severe public health issue, as well as the risk of Variola virus (the causative agent of smallpox) to be utilized as a bioterrorist weapon. The eradication of smallpox occurred prior to the development of the majority of modern virological and molecular biological techniques. Therefore, there is a considerable amount that is not understood regarding how this solely human pathogen interacts with its host. This paper briefly recounts the history and current status of diagnostic tools, vaccines, and anti-viral therapeutics for treatment of smallpox disease. The authors discuss the importance of further research to prepare the global community should a smallpox-like virus emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A. Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Sergei N. Shchelkunov
- Department of Genomic Research and Development of DNA Diagnostics of Poxviruses, State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Koltsovo, 630559 Novosibirsk Region, Russia
- Department of Molecular Biology, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
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30
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Damaso CR. Revisiting Jenner's mysteries, the role of the Beaugency lymph in the evolutionary path of ancient smallpox vaccines. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2017; 18:e55-e63. [PMID: 28827144 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(17)30445-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 06/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In 1796, Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine consisting of pustular material obtained from lesions on cows affected by so-called cow-pox. The disease, caused by cowpox virus, confers crossprotection against smallpox. However, historical evidence suggests that Jenner might have used vaccinia virus or even horsepox virus instead of cowpox virus. Mysteries surrounding the origin and nature of the smallpox vaccine persisted during the 19th century, a period of intense exchange of vaccine strains, including the Beaugency lymph. This lymph was obtained from spontaneous cases of cow-pox in France in 1866 and then distributed worldwide. A detailed Historical Review of the distribution of the Beaugency lymph supports recent genetic analyses of extant vaccine strains, suggesting the lymph was probably a vaccinia strain or a horsepox-like virus. This Review is a historical investigation that revisits the mysteries of the smallpox vaccine and reveals an intricate evolutionary relationship of extant vaccinia strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa R Damaso
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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31
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Classification of Cowpox Viruses into Several Distinct Clades and Identification of a Novel Lineage. Viruses 2017; 9:v9060142. [PMID: 28604604 PMCID: PMC5490819 DOI: 10.3390/v9060142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) was considered as uniform species within the genus Orthopoxvirus (OPV). Previous phylogenetic analysis indicated that CPXV is polyphyletic and isolates may cluster into different clades with two of these clades showing genetic similarities to either variola (VARV) or vaccinia viruses (VACV). Further analyses were initiated to assess both the genetic diversity and the evolutionary background of circulating CPXVs. Here we report the full-length sequences of 20 CPXV strains isolated from different animal species and humans in Germany. A phylogenetic analysis of altogether 83 full-length OPV genomes confirmed the polyphyletic character of the species CPXV and suggested at least four different clades. The German isolates from this study mainly clustered into two CPXV-like clades, and VARV- and VACV-like strains were not observed. A single strain, isolated from a cotton-top tamarin, clustered distantly from all other CPXVs and might represent a novel and unique evolutionary lineage. The classification of CPXV strains into clades roughly followed their geographic origin, with the highest clade diversity so far observed for Germany. Furthermore, we found evidence for recombination between OPV clades without significant disruption of the observed clustering. In conclusion, this analysis markedly expands the number of available CPXV full-length sequences and confirms the co-circulation of several CPXV clades in Germany, and provides the first data about a new evolutionary CPXV lineage.
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32
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Mauldin MR, Antwerpen M, Emerson GL, Li Y, Zoeller G, Carroll DS, Meyer H. Cowpox virus: What's in a Name? Viruses 2017; 9:E101. [PMID: 28486428 PMCID: PMC5454414 DOI: 10.3390/v9050101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditionally, virus taxonomy relied on phenotypic properties; however, a sequence-based virus taxonomy has become essential since the recent requirement of a species to exhibit monophyly. The species Cowpox virus has failed to meet this requirement, necessitating a reexamination of this species. Here, we report the genomic sequences of nine Cowpox viruses and, by combining them with the available data of 37 additional genomes, confirm polyphyly of Cowpox viruses and find statistical support based on genetic data for more than a dozen species. These results are discussed in light of the current International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses species definition, as well as immediate and future implications for poxvirus taxonomic classification schemes. Data support the recognition of five monophyletic clades of Cowpox viruses as valid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Mauldin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, P.O. Box 117, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA.
| | - Markus Antwerpen
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Ginny L Emerson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Gudrun Zoeller
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Darin S Carroll
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
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33
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Gelaye E, Mach L, Kolodziejek J, Grabherr R, Loitsch A, Achenbach JE, Nowotny N, Diallo A, Lamien CE. A novel HRM assay for the simultaneous detection and differentiation of eight poxviruses of medical and veterinary importance. Sci Rep 2017; 7:42892. [PMID: 28216667 PMCID: PMC5316968 DOI: 10.1038/srep42892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses belonging to the Orthopoxvirus, Capripoxvirus and Parapoxvirus genera share common host species and create a challenge for diagnosis. Here, we developed a novel multiplex PCR method for the simultaneous detection and differentiation of eight poxviruses, belonging to three genera: cowpox virus (CPXV) and camelpox virus (CMLV) [genus Orthopoxvirus]; goatpox virus (GTPV), sheeppox virus (SPPV) and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) [genus Capripoxvirus]; orf virus (ORFV), pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) and bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) [genus Parapoxvirus]. The assay is based on high-resolution melting curve analysis (HRMCA) of PCR amplicons produced using genus specific primer pairs and dsDNA binding dye. Differences in fragment size and GC content were used as discriminating power. The assay generated three well separated melting regions for each genus and provided additional intra-genus genotyping allowing the differentiation of the eight poxviruses based on amplicon melting temperature. Out of 271 poxviral DNA samples tested: seven CPXV, 25 CMLV, 42 GTPV, 20 SPPV, 120 LSDV, 33 ORFV, 20 PCPV and two BPSV were detected; two samples presented co-infection with CMLV and PCPV. The assay provides a rapid, sensitive, specific and cost-effective method for the detection of pox diseases in a broad range of animal species and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esayas Gelaye
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria
- Institute of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
- Research and Development Department, National Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 19, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
| | - Lukas Mach
- Institute of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 18, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jolanta Kolodziejek
- Viral Zoonoses, Emerging and Vector-Borne Infections Group, Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Reingard Grabherr
- Institute of Applied Microbiology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Muthgasse 11, A-1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Angelika Loitsch
- Institute for Veterinary Disease Control, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, Robert Koch-Gasse 17, A-2340 Mödling, Austria
| | - Jenna E. Achenbach
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria
| | - Norbert Nowotny
- Viral Zoonoses, Emerging and Vector-Borne Infections Group, Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinaerplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai Healthcare City, P.O. Box 505055, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Adama Diallo
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria
| | - Charles Euloge Lamien
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Strasse 5, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria
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34
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35
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Abstract
We investigated the first laboratory-confirmed human case of cowpox virus infection in Russia since 1991. Phylogenetic studies of haemagglutinin, TNF-α receptor-like protein and thymidine kinase regions showed significant differences with known orthopoxviruses, including unique amino-acid substitutions and deletions. The described cowpox virus strain, taking into account differences, is genetically closely related to strains isolated years ago in the same geographical region (European part of Russia and Finland), which suggests circulation of viral strains with common origin in wild rodents without spread over long distances and appearance in other parts of the world.
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36
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Fassbender P, Zange S, Ibrahim S, Zoeller G, Herbstreit F, Meyer H. Generalized Cowpox Virus Infection in a Patient with HIV, Germany, 2012. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22:553-5. [PMID: 26891134 PMCID: PMC4766888 DOI: 10.3201/eid2203.151158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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37
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Franke A, Kershaw O, Jenckel M, König L, Beer M, Hoffmann B, Hoffmann D. Fatal Cowpox Virus Infection in an Aborted Foal. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016; 16:431-3. [PMID: 27159333 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2015.1932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The article describes the isolation of a cowpox virus (CPXV) isolate originating from a horse. The skin of a foal, aborted in the third trimester, displayed numerous cutaneous papules. The histological examination showed A-type inclusion bodies within the lesion, typical for CPXV infections. This suspicion was confirmed by real-time PCR where various organs were analyzed. From skin samples, virus isolation was successfully performed. Afterwards, the whole genome of this new isolate "CPXV Amadeus" was sequenced by next-generation technology. Phylogenetic analysis clearly showed that "CPXV Amadeus" belongs to the "CPXV-like 1" clade. To our opinion, the study provides important additional information on rare accidental CPXV infections. From the natural hosts, the voles, species such as rats, cats, or different zoo animals are occasionally infected, but until now only two horse cases are described. In addition, there are new insights toward congenital CPXV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Franke
- 1 Institute of Diagnostic Virology , Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Olivia Kershaw
- 2 Department of Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Maria Jenckel
- 1 Institute of Diagnostic Virology , Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Lydia König
- 2 Department of Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- 1 Institute of Diagnostic Virology , Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Bernd Hoffmann
- 1 Institute of Diagnostic Virology , Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Donata Hoffmann
- 1 Institute of Diagnostic Virology , Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
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Ludwig L, Bohn J, Remy I, Haegeman A, Heimann M, Mauroy A, de Clercq K, Thiry E. Ulcerative pododermatitis and disseminated erosive lesions associated with cowpox virus infection in a domestic cat. VETERINARY RECORD CASE REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1136/vetreccr-2016-000331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Louisa Ludwig
- Faculty of Veterinary MedicineDepartment of Infectious and Parasitic DiseasesUniversity of LiegeFundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health Center (FARAH)LiègeBelgium
| | - Jéromine Bohn
- Faculty of Veterinary MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesUniversity of LiègeLiègeBelgium
| | - Isabelle Remy
- Faculty of Veterinary MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesUniversity of LiègeLiègeBelgium
| | - Andy Haegeman
- Anatomie pathologie vétérinaire pour animaux de compagnie (ANAPET sprl)Rue du Faubourg, 269B‐6110Montigny‐le‐TilleulBelgium
| | - Marianne Heimann
- Anatomie pathologie vétérinaire pour animaux de compagnie (ANAPET sprl)Rue du Faubourg, 269B‐6110Montigny‐le‐TilleulBelgium
| | - Axel Mauroy
- Faculty of Veterinary MedicineDepartment of Infectious and Parasitic DiseasesUniversity of LiegeFundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health Center (FARAH)LiègeBelgium
| | - Kris de Clercq
- Unit Vesicular and Exotic DiseasesOperational Direction Viral DiseasesVeterinary and Agrochemical Research Center – VAR – CODA – CERVABrusselsBelgium
| | - Etienne Thiry
- Faculty of Veterinary MedicineDepartment of Infectious and Parasitic DiseasesUniversity of LiegeFundamental and Applied Research for Animals and Health Center (FARAH)LiègeBelgium
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Scagliarini A, Casà G, Trentin B, Gallina L, Savini F, Morent M, Lavazza A, Puleio R, Buttaci C, Cannella V, Purpari G, Di Marco P, Piquemal D, Guercio A. Evidence of zoonotic Poxviridae coinfections in clinically diagnosed papillomas using a newly developed mini-array test. J Vet Diagn Invest 2015; 28:59-64. [PMID: 26699526 DOI: 10.1177/1040638715614604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Our study describes a newly developed mini-array test for the rapid detection of poxviruses in animals and humans. The method is based on detection that combines target nucleic acid amplification by polymerase chain reaction and specific hybridization, using enzyme-linked antibodies, allowing identification of zoonotic orthopoxviruses and parapoxviruses in animal and human biological samples. With 100% specificity, the test rules out the possibility of cross-reactions with viral agents causing look-alike diseases. The assay was employed in the field to investigate the causes of several outbreaks of a malignant proliferative skin disease that affected domestic ruminants in Sicily during 2011-2014. Due to specific aspects of the lesions, the animals were clinically diagnosed with papillomatosis. The mini-array test allowed the identification of coinfections caused by more than 1 viral species belonging to the Parapoxvirus and Orthopoxvirus genera, either in goats or in cattle. Our study suggests that the so-called "papillomatosis" can be the result of multiple infections with epitheliotropic viruses, including zoonotic poxviruses that cannot be properly identified with classical diagnostic techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Scagliarini
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Giovanni Casà
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Bernadette Trentin
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Laura Gallina
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Federica Savini
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Marine Morent
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Antonio Lavazza
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Roberto Puleio
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Calogera Buttaci
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Vincenza Cannella
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Giuseppa Purpari
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Patrizia Di Marco
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - David Piquemal
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
| | - Annalisa Guercio
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy (Scagliarini, Casà, Gallina, Savini)Acobiom, Biopôle Euromédecine II, Montpellier Cedex 4, France (Trentin, Morent, Piquemal)Department of Virology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna "Bruno Ubertini", Brescia, Italy (Lavazza)Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, Palermo, Italy (Puleio, Buttaci, Cannella, Purpari, Di Marco, Guercio)
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Doellinger J, Schaade L, Nitsche A. Comparison of the Cowpox Virus and Vaccinia Virus Mature Virion Proteome: Analysis of the Species- and Strain-Specific Proteome. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141527. [PMID: 26556597 PMCID: PMC4640714 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) causes most zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) infections in Europe and Northern as well as Central Asia. The virus has the broadest host range of OPV and is transmitted to humans from rodents and other wild or domestic animals. Increasing numbers of human CPXV infections in a population with declining immunity have raised concerns about the virus' zoonotic potential. While there have been reports on the proteome of other human-pathogenic OPV, namely vaccinia virus (VACV) and monkeypox virus (MPXV), the protein composition of the CPXV mature virion (MV) is unknown. This study focused on the comparative analysis of the VACV and CPXV MV proteome by label-free single-run proteomics using nano liquid chromatography and high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (nLC-MS/MS). The presented data reveal that the common VACV and CPXV MV proteome contains most of the known conserved and essential OPV proteins and is associated with cellular proteins known to be essential for viral replication. While the species-specific proteome could be linked mainly to less genetically-conserved gene products, the strain-specific protein abundance was found to be of high variance in proteins associated with entry, host-virus interaction and protein processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joerg Doellinger
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS1), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Lars Schaade
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS1), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS1), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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Out of the Reservoir: Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of a Novel Cowpox Virus Isolated from a Common Vole. J Virol 2015; 89:10959-69. [PMID: 26311891 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01195-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The incidence of human cowpox virus (CPXV) infections has increased significantly in recent years. Serological surveys have suggested wild rodents as the main CPXV reservoir. We characterized a CPXV isolated during a large-scale screening from a feral common vole. A comparison of the full-length DNA sequence of this CPXV strain with a highly virulent pet rat CPXV isolate showed a sequence identity of 96%, including a large additional open reading frame (ORF) of about 6,000 nucleotides which is absent in the reference CPXV strain Brighton Red. Electron microscopy analysis demonstrated that the vole isolate, in contrast to the rat strain, forms A-type inclusion (ATI) bodies with incorporated virions, consistent with the presence of complete ati and p4c genes. Experimental infections showed that the vole CPXV strain caused only mild clinical symptoms in its natural host, while all rats developed severe respiratory symptoms followed by a systemic rash. In contrast, common voles infected with a high dose of the rat CPXV showed severe signs of respiratory disease but no skin lesions, whereas infection with a low dose led to virus excretion with only mild clinical signs. We concluded that the common vole is susceptible to infection with different CPXV strains. The spectrum ranges from well-adapted viruses causing limited clinical symptoms to highly virulent strains causing severe respiratory symptoms. In addition, the low pathogenicity of the vole isolate in its eponymous host suggests a role of common voles as a major CPXV reservoir, and future research will focus on the correlation between viral genotype and phenotype/pathotype in accidental and reservoir species. IMPORTANCE We report on the first detection and isolation of CPXV from a putative reservoir host, which enables comparative analyses to understand the infection cycle of these zoonotic orthopox viruses and the relevant genes involved. In vitro studies, including whole-genome sequencing as well as in vivo experiments using the Wistar rat model and the vole reservoir host allowed us to establish links between genomic sequences and the in vivo properties (virulence) of the novel vole isolate in comparison to those of a recent zoonotic CPXV isolated from pet rats in 2009. Furthermore, the role of genes present only in a reservoir isolate can now be further analyzed. These studies therefore allow unique insights and conclusions about the role of the rodent reservoir in CPXV epidemiology and transmission and about the zoonotic threat that these viruses represent.
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Reynolds SE, Moss B. Characterization of a large, proteolytically processed cowpox virus membrane glycoprotein conserved in most chordopoxviruses. Virology 2015; 483:209-17. [PMID: 25980741 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Most poxvirus proteins are either highly conserved and essential for basic steps in replication or less conserved and involved in host interactions. Homologs of the CPXV219 protein, encoded by cowpox virus, are present in nearly all chordopoxvirus genera and some species have multiple copies. The CPXV219 homologs have estimated masses of greater than 200 kDa, making them the largest known poxvirus proteins. We showed that CPXV219 was expressed early in infection and cleaved into N- and C-terminal fragments that remained associated. The protein has a signal peptide and transited the secretory pathway where extensive glycosylation and proteolytic cleavage occurred. CPXV219 was located by immunofluorescence microscopy in association with the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane. In non-permeabilized cells, CPXV219 was accessible to external antibody and biotinylation. Mutants that did not express CPXV219 replicated normally in cell culture and retained virulence in a mouse respiratory infection model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E Reynolds
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Bernard Moss
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Weiss RA, Esparza J. The prevention and eradication of smallpox: a commentary on Sloane (1755) 'An account of inoculation'. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2015; 370:20140378. [PMID: 25750241 PMCID: PMC4360126 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Sir Hans Sloane's account of inoculation as a means to protect against smallpox followed several earlier articles published in Philosophical Transactions on this procedure. Inoculation (also called 'variolation') involved the introduction of small amounts of infectious material from smallpox vesicles into the skin of healthy subjects, with the goal of inducing mild symptoms that would result in protection against the more severe naturally acquired disease. It began to be practised in England in 1721 thanks to the efforts of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu who influenced Sloane to promote its use, including the inoculation of the royal family's children. When Edward Jenner's inoculation with the cow pox ('vaccination') followed 75 years later as a safer yet equally effective procedure, the scene was set for the eventual control of smallpox epidemics culminating in the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1977, officially proclaimed by WHO in 1980. Here, we discuss the significance of variolation and vaccination with respect to scientific, public health and ethical controversies concerning these 'weapons of mass protection'. This commentary was written to celebrate the 350th anniversary of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin A Weiss
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - José Esparza
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Vora NM, Li Y, Geleishvili M, Emerson GL, Khmaladze E, Maghlakelidze G, Navdarashvili A, Zakhashvili K, Kokhreidze M, Endeladze M, Mokverashvili G, Satheshkumar PS, Gallardo-Romero N, Goldsmith CS, Metcalfe MG, Damon I, Maes EF, Reynolds MG, Morgan J, Carroll DS. Human infection with a zoonotic orthopoxvirus in the country of Georgia. N Engl J Med 2015; 372:1223-30. [PMID: 25806914 PMCID: PMC4692157 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa1407647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
During 2013, cutaneous lesions developed in two men in the country of Georgia after they were exposed to ill cows. The men had never received vaccination against smallpox. Tests of lesion material with the use of a quantitative real-time polymerase-chain-reaction assay for non-variola virus orthopoxviruses were positive, and DNA sequence analysis implicated a novel orthopoxvirus species. During the ensuing epidemiologic investigation, no additional human cases were identified. However, serologic evidence of exposure to an orthopoxvirus was detected in cows in the patients' herd and in captured rodents and shrews. A third case of human infection that occurred in 2010 was diagnosed retrospectively during testing of archived specimens that were originally submitted for tests to detect anthrax. Orthopoxvirus infection should be considered in persons in whom cutaneous lesions develop after contact with animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil M Vora
- From the Epidemic Intelligence Service (N.M.V.), Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology (N.M.V., Y.L., G.L.E., P.S.S., N.G.-R., C.S.G., M.G.M., I.D., M.G.R., D.S.C.), and the Division of Global Health Protection (N.M.V., M.G., E.F.M., J.M.), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta; CDC Georgia Country Office (M.G., J.M.), National Center for Disease Control and Public Health (E.K., A.N., K.Z.), Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture (G. Maghlakelidze, M.K.), and Infectious Diseases, AIDS, and Clinical Immunology Research Center (M.E.), Tbilisi, and National Food Agency, Tianeti (G. Mokverashvili) - all in Georgia
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Babkin IV, Babkina IN. The origin of the variola virus. Viruses 2015; 7:1100-12. [PMID: 25763864 PMCID: PMC4379562 DOI: 10.3390/v7031100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Revised: 01/14/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The question of the origin of smallpox, one of the major menaces to humankind, is a constant concern for the scientific community. Smallpox is caused by the agent referred to as the variola virus (VARV), which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. In the last century, smallpox was declared eradicated from the human community; however, the mechanisms responsible for the emergence of new dangerous pathogens have yet to be unraveled. Evolutionary analyses of the molecular biological genomic data of various orthopoxviruses, involving a wide range of epidemiological and historical information about smallpox, have made it possible to date the emergence of VARV. Comparisons of the VARV genome to the genomes of the most closely related orthopoxviruses and the examination of the distribution their natural hosts' ranges suggest that VARV emerged 3000 to 4000 years ago in the east of the African continent. The VARV evolution rate has been estimated to be approximately 2 × 10-6 substitutions/site/year for the central conserved genomic region and 4 × 10-6 substitutions/site/year for the synonymous substitutions in the genome. Presumably, the introduction of camels to Africa and the concurrent changes to the climate were the particular factors that triggered the divergent evolution of a cowpox-like ancestral virus and thereby led to the emergence of VARV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor V Babkin
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia.
| | - Irina N Babkina
- Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia.
- JSC VECTOR-BEST, Novosibirsk 630559, Russia.
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Luteijn RD, Hoelen H, Kruse E, van Leeuwen WF, Grootens J, Horst D, Koorengevel M, Drijfhout JW, Kremmer E, Früh K, Neefjes JJ, Killian A, Lebbink RJ, Ressing ME, Wiertz EJHJ. Cowpox virus protein CPXV012 eludes CTLs by blocking ATP binding to TAP. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:1578-89. [PMID: 25024387 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
CD8(+) CTLs detect virus-infected cells through recognition of virus-derived peptides presented at the cell surface by MHC class I molecules. The cowpox virus protein CPXV012 deprives the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen of peptides for loading onto newly synthesized MHC class I molecules by inhibiting the transporter associated with Ag processing (TAP). This evasion strategy allows the virus to avoid detection by the immune system. In this article, we show that CPXV012, a 9-kDa type II transmembrane protein, prevents peptide transport by inhibiting ATP binding to TAP. We identified a segment within the ER-luminal domain of CPXV012 that imposes the block in peptide transport by TAP. Biophysical studies show that this domain has a strong affinity for phospholipids that are also abundant in the ER membrane. We discuss these findings in an evolutionary context and show that a frameshift deletion in the CPXV012 gene in an ancestral cowpox virus created the current form of CPXV012 that is capable of inhibiting TAP. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the ER-luminal domain of CPXV012 inserts into the ER membrane, where it interacts with TAP. CPXV012 presumably induces a conformational arrest that precludes ATP binding to TAP and, thus, activity of TAP, thereby preventing the presentation of viral peptides to CTLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutger D Luteijn
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Hanneke Hoelen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth Kruse
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Wouter F van Leeuwen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jennine Grootens
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Daniëlle Horst
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Martijn Koorengevel
- Department of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jan W Drijfhout
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth Kremmer
- Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Institute of Molecular Immunology, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006; and
| | - Jacques J Neefjes
- Department of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Antoinette Killian
- Department of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Robert Jan Lebbink
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Maaike E Ressing
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Emmanuel J H J Wiertz
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands;
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Okeke MI, Okoli AS, Nilssen Ø, Moens U, Tryland M, Bøhn T, Traavik T. Molecular characterization and phylogenetics of Fennoscandian cowpox virus isolates based on the p4c and atip genes. Virol J 2014; 11:119. [PMID: 24972911 PMCID: PMC4112975 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cowpox virus (CPXV), a rodent-borne Orthopoxvirus (OPV) that is indigenous to Eurasia can infect humans, cattle, felidae and other animals. Molecular characterization of CPXVs isolated from different geographic locations is important for the understanding of their biology, geographic distribution, classification and evolution. Our aim was to characterize CPXVs isolated from Fennoscandia on the basis of A-type inclusion (ATI) phenotype, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) profiles of atip gene fragment amplicon, and phylogenetic tree topology in conjunction with the patristic and genetic distances based on full length DNA sequence of the atip and p4c genes. Methods ATI phenotypes were determined by transmission electron microcopy and RFLP profiles were obtained by restriction enzyme digestion of the atip gene fragment PCR product. A 6.2 kbp region spanning the entire atip and p4c genes of Fennoscandian CPXV isolates was amplified and sequenced. The phylogenetic affinity of Fennoscandian CPXV isolates to OPVs isolated from other geographic regions was determined on the basis of the atip and p4c genes. Results Fennoscandian CPXV isolates encoded full length atip and p4c genes. They produce wild type V+ ATI except for CPXV-No-H2. CPXVs were resolved into six and seven species clusters based on the phylogeny of the atip and p4c genes respectively. The CPXVs isolated from Fennoscandia were grouped into three distinct clusters that corresponded to isolates from Norway, Sweden and Finland. Conclusion CPXV is a polyphyletic assemblage of six or seven distinct clusters and the current classification in which CPXVs are united as one single species should be re-considered. Our results are of significance to the classification and evolution of OPVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inger K. Damon
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Clarissa R. Damaso
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Grant McFadden
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
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