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Li A, Lv D, Zhang Y, Zhang D, Zong Y, Shi X, Li P, Hao X. Elevated CO 2 concentration enhances drought resistance of soybean by regulating cell structure, cuticular wax synthesis, photosynthesis, and oxidative stress response. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2024; 206:108266. [PMID: 38103338 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.108266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The atmospheric [CO2] and the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as drought are increased, leading to uncertainty to soybean production. Elevated [CO2] (eCO2) partially mitigates the adverse effects of drought stress on crop growth and photosynthetic performance, but the mitigative mechanism is not well understood. In this study, soybean seedlings under drought stress simulated by PEG-6000 were grown in climate chambers with different [CO2] (400 μmol mol-1 and 700 μmol mol-1). The changes in anatomical structure, wax content, photosynthesis, and antioxidant enzyme were investigated by the analysis of physiology and transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq). The results showed that eCO2 increased the thickness of mesophyll cells and decreased the thickness of epidermal cells accompanied by reduced stomatal conductance, thus reducing water loss in soybean grown under drought stress. Meanwhile, eCO2 up-regulated genes related to wax anabolism, thus producing more epidermal wax. Under drought stress, eCO2 increased net photosynthetic rate (PN), ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase activity, and alerted the gene expressions in photosynthesis. The increased sucrose synthesis and decreased sucrose decomposition contributed to the progressive increase in the soluble saccharide contents under drought stress with or without eCO2. In addition, eCO2 increased the expressions of genes associated with peroxidase (POD) and proline (Pro), thus enhancing POD activity and Pro content and improving the drought resistance in soybean. Taken together, these findings deepen our understanding of the effects of eCO2 on alleviating drought stress in soybean and provide potential target genes for the genetic improvement of drought tolerance in soybean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Li
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China; Hybrid Rape Research Center of Shaanxi Province, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Danni Lv
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China
| | - Dongsheng Zhang
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China
| | - Yuzheng Zong
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China
| | - Xinrui Shi
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China
| | - Ping Li
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China.
| | - Xingyu Hao
- College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, 030800, Shanxi, China.
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Barroso JP, de Almeida AAF, do Nascimento JL, Oliveira BRM, Dos Santos IC, Mangabeira PAO, Ahnert D, Baligar VC. The damage caused by Cd toxicity to photosynthesis, cellular ultrastructure, antioxidant metabolism, and gene expression in young cacao plants are mitigated by high Mn doses in soil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:115646-115665. [PMID: 37884715 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30561-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Manganese (Mn) is one of the essential mineral micronutrients most demanded by cacao. Cadmium (Cd) is highly toxic to plants and other living beings. There are indications that Mn can interact with Cd and mitigate its toxicity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the action of Mn on the toxic effect of Cd in young plants of the CCN 51 cacao genotype, subjected to different doses of Mn, Cd, and Mn+Cd in soil, through physiological, biochemical, molecular, and micromorphological and ultrastructural changes. High soil Mn doses favored the maintenance and performance of adequate photosynthetic processes in cacao. However, high doses of Cd and Mn+Cd in soil promoted damage to photosynthesis, alterations in oxidative metabolism, and the uptake, transport, and accumulation of Cd in roots and leaves. In addition, high Cd concentrations in roots and leaf tissues caused irreversible damage to the cell ultrastructure, compromising cell function and leading to programmed cell death. However, there was a mitigation of Cd toxicity when cacao was grown in soils with low Cd doses and in the presence of Mn. Thus, damage to the root and leaf tissues of cacao caused by Cd uptake from contaminated soils can be attenuated or mitigated by the presence of high Mn doses in soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joedson Pinto Barroso
- State University of Santa Cruz, Department of Biological Sciences, Highway Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida
- State University of Santa Cruz, Department of Biological Sciences, Highway Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil.
| | - Junea Leandro do Nascimento
- State University of Santa Cruz, Department of Biological Sciences, Highway Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Bruna Rafaela Machado Oliveira
- State University of Santa Cruz, Department of Biological Sciences, Highway Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Ivanildes Conceição Dos Santos
- State University of Santa Cruz, Department of Biological Sciences, Highway Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | | | - Dário Ahnert
- State University of Santa Cruz, Department of Biological Sciences, Highway Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Virupax C Baligar
- USDA-ARS-Beltsville Agricultural Research Center Beltsville, Beltsville, MD, USA
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Silveira PTDS, Glória MBA, Tonin IP, Martins MOP, Efraim P. Varietal Influence on the Formation of Bioactive Amines during the Processing of Fermented Cocoa with Different Pulp Contents. Foods 2023; 12:foods12030495. [PMID: 36766023 PMCID: PMC9914241 DOI: 10.3390/foods12030495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
During cocoa processing, there can be the formation of bioactive amines, which are compounds that play relevant roles not only in plant development but also in human health. Thus, we aimed to investigate the presence and levels of bioactive amines during the processing of two important varieties of cocoa (PS 1319 and Parazinho). The seeds were fermented using five different pulp proportions: 100% (E1), 80% (E2), 60% (E3), and 0% (total pulp removal) (E4). The beans were fermented and dried on a farm following traditional procedures. Soon after, they were roasted and processed into chocolates with 60% cocoa in the laboratory. Bioactive amine contents were determined by ion-pair reversed-phase HPLC and fluorometric detection in the samples before, during, and after fermentation, after drying and roasting (nibs), and in the liquor and chocolate. The only amines found before processing in PS 1319 and Parazinho, respectively, in dry weight basis (dwb), were putrescine (pulp, 13.77 and 12.31; seed, 5.88 and 4.58) and serotonin (seed, 2.70 and 2.54). Fermentation was shorter for Parazinho (156 h) compared to PS 1319 (180 h). The changes in amines were affected by the cocoa variety. During drying, the presence of cadaverine stood out, appearing in all treatments of the PS 1319 variety, reaching 17.96 mg/kg dwb, and in two treatments of the Parazinho variety (100 and 60% pulp). During roasting, most of the amines decreased, except for phenylethylamine, which increased up to 2.47 mg/kg dwb for Parazinho and 1.73 mg/kg dwb for PS 1319. Most of the amines formed and built up (e.g., tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine) during fermentation were not available or were at low levels in the nibs. Most of the amines found during processing did not reach the final product (chocolate), except for cadaverine in PS 1319 without pulp (7.54 mg/kg dwb). Finally, we confirmed how pulp content, processing, and variety influence the content of bioactive amines in cocoa and chocolate. These changes can be better demonstrated through a heatmap and principal component analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Priscilla Efraim
- School of Food Engineering, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas 13083-970, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-19-35214006
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Dzandu E, Enu-Kwesi L, Markwei CM, Ayeh KO. Screening for drought tolerance potential of nine cocoa ( Theobroma cacao L.) genotypes from Ghana. Heliyon 2021; 7:e08389. [PMID: 34849420 PMCID: PMC8608854 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was conducted with a view to screen nine genotypes of Cacao from The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) to test their abilities to withstand drought stress conditions using parameters such as leaf relative water content (RWC), proline accumulation in leaves and trichomes. The experimental design consisted of three replicates of the genotypes used and these were laid out in Complete Randomized Block Design (CRBD) to determine the drought tolerance potentials of the nine genotypes of cocoa at the seedling stage. Two water treatments were used which involved withholding water from one day after full saturation with water prior to the first appearance of drought symptoms (FADS) and watering every two days to the completion of the experiment. Results in this research revealed that proline was found to gather in water-stressed seedlings, and the differences in the mean proline amounts in the genotypes was found to be significant. Genotype T63/971 x Sca9 had the most elevated concentration of free proline at FADS (4 μg/g DW) followed by genotype T60 x Pound10 (3.5 μg/g DW) whereas genotype PA150 × 9006 had the smallest amount of accumulated proline in leaves. Genotype PA150 × 6020 had the highest RWC and SMC of 65% and 1.5% respectively at FADS whilst genotype PA7 x 6035 had the lowest RWC of 43%. There was a direct relationship between the amounts of free proline of genotypes T63/971 x SCA9 and T60 x POUND10 and their respective RWC of the leaves. Genotypes T63/971 x SCA9 and PA150 × 9006 had the highest and lowest numbers of trichomes respectively. Inference from this study revealed that T63/971 x SCA9 and T60 x POUND10 genotypes appear to be the most drought-tolerant genotypes in view of their relatively high values of free proline content, leaf RWC, trichomes and lower values of soil water use (SMC).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellis Dzandu
- Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, School of Biological Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
| | - Lewis Enu-Kwesi
- Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, School of Biological Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
| | - Carol Merley Markwei
- Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, School of Biological Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
| | - Kwadwo Owusu Ayeh
- Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, School of Biological Sciences, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
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Osorio Zambrano MA, Castillo DA, Rodríguez Pérez L, Terán W. Cacao ( Theobroma cacao L.) Response to Water Stress: Physiological Characterization and Antioxidant Gene Expression Profiling in Commercial Clones. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:700855. [PMID: 34552605 PMCID: PMC8450537 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.700855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The increase in events associated with drought constraints plant growth and crop performance. Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is sensitive to water deficit stress (DS), which limits productivity. The aim of this research was to characterise the response of seven (CCN51, FEAR5, ICS1, ICS60, ICS95, EET8, and TSH565) commercially important cacao clones to severe and temporal water deficit stress. Ten-month-old cacao trees were submitted to two treatments: well-watered and water-stressed until the leaf water potential (Ψ leaf) reached values between -3.0 and -3.5 MPa. The effects of hydric stress on water relations, gas exchange, photochemical activity, membrane integrity and oxidative stress-related gene expression were evaluated. All clones showed decreases in Ψ leaf, but TSH565 had a higher capacity to maintain water homeostasis in leaves. An initial response phase consisted of stomatal closure, a general mechanism to limit water loss: as a consequence, the photosynthetic rate dropped by approximately 98% on average. In some clones, the photosynthetic rate reached negative values at the maximum stress level, evidencing photorespiration and was confirmed by increased intracellular CO2. A second and photosynthetically limited phase was characterized by a drop in PSII quantum efficiency, which affected all clones. On average, all clones were able to recover after 4 days of rewatering. Water deficit triggered oxidative stress at the early phase, as evidenced by the upregulation of oxidative stress markers and genes encoding ROS scavenging enzymes. The effects of water deficit stress on energy metabolism were deduced given the upregulation of fermentative enzyme-coding genes. Altogether, our results suggest that the EET8 clone was the highest performing under water deficit while the ICS-60 clone was more susceptible to water stress. Importantly, the activation of the antioxidant system and PSII repair mechanism seem to play key roles in the observed differences in tolerance to water deficit stress among clones.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Wilson Terán
- Plant and Crop Biology, Department of Biology, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia
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Ceccarelli V, Fremout T, Zavaleta D, Lastra S, Imán Correa S, Arévalo‐Gardini E, Rodriguez CA, Cruz Hilacondo W, Thomas E. Climate change impact on cultivated and wild cacao in Peru and the search of climate change‐tolerant genotypes. DIVERS DISTRIB 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.13294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Tobias Fremout
- Bioversity International Lima Peru
- Division of Forest, Nature and Landscape KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | | | | | | | - Enrique Arévalo‐Gardini
- Instituto de Cultivos Tropicales (ICT) Tarapoto Peru
- Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Alto Amazonas Yurimaguas Peru
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Khalid MF, Hussain S, Anjum MA, Morillon R, Ahmad S, Ejaz S, Hussain M, Jaafar HZE, Alrashood ST, Ormenisan AN. Physiological and biochemical responses of Kinnow mandarin grafted on diploid and tetraploid Volkamer lemon rootstocks under different water-deficit regimes. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0247558. [PMID: 33831006 PMCID: PMC8031453 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Water shortage is among the major abiotic stresses that restrict growth and productivity of citrus. The existing literature indicates that tetraploid rootstocks had better water-deficit tolerance than corresponding diploids. However, the associated tolerance mechanisms such as antioxidant defence and nutrient uptake are less explored. Therefore, we evaluated physiological and biochemical responses (antioxidant defence, osmotic adjustments and nutrient uptake) of diploid (2x) and tetraploid (4x) volkamer lemon (VM) rootstocks grafted with kinnow mandarin (KM) under two water-deficit regimes. The KM/4xVM (VM4) and KM/2xVM (VM2) observed decrease in photosynthetic variables, i.e., photosynthetic rate (Pn), stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration rate (E), leaf greenness (SPAD), dark adopted chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), dark adopted chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv´/Fm´), relative water contents (RWC) and leaf surface area (LSA), and increase in non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) under both water-deficit regimes. Moreover, oxidative stress indicators, i.e., malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide, and activities of antioxidant enzymes, i.e., superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APx), glutathione reductase (GR) were increased under both water-deficit regimes. Nonetheless, increase was noted in osmoprotectants such as proline (PRO) and glycine betaine (GB) and other biochemical compounds, including antioxidant capacity (AC), total phenolic content (TPC) and total soluble protein (TSP) in VM2 and VM4 under both water-deficit regimes. Dry biomass (DB) of both rootstocks was decreased under each water-deficit condition. Interestingly, VM4 showed higher and significant increase in antioxidant enzymes, osmoprotectants and other biochemical compounds, while VM2 exhibited higher values for oxidative stress indicators. Overall, results indicated that VM4 better tolerated water-deficit stress by maintaining photosynthetic variables associated with strong antioxidant defence machinery as compared to VM2. However, nutrient uptake was not differed among tested water-deficit conditions and rootstocks. The results conclude that VM4 can better tolerate water-deficit than VM2. Therefore, VM4 can be used as rootstock in areas of high-water deficiency for better citrus productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Fasih Khalid
- Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Sajjad Hussain
- Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Akbar Anjum
- Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Raphael Morillon
- Equipe “Structure Evolutive des Agrumes, Polyploidie et Amelioration Genetique, SEAPAG- CIRAD, UMR AGAP, Petit-Bourg, Guadeloupe, France
- AGAP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, Montpellier, France
| | - Shakeel Ahmad
- Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Shaghef Ejaz
- Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Department of Horticulture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Mubshar Hussain
- Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Department of Agronomy, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Hawa Z. E. Jaafar
- Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Crop Science, University Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Sara T. Alrashood
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Alexe Nicolae Ormenisan
- Department of Food and Tourism Engineering and Management, Transilvania University of Brasov, Brasov, Romania
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Monteiro Reis GS, Furtado de Almeida AA, de Almeida Santos N, Santana JO, Maria de Souza Araújo D, Mora-Ocampo IY, Ahnert D, Pirovani CP. Proteomic profiles of young and mature cocoa leaves subjected to mechanical stress caused by wind. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2020; 155:851-867. [PMID: 32889352 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.08.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cocoa is a perennial and arboreal species intolerant to strong and frequent winds and, for this reason, is usually grown with windbreaks of trees. The mechanical alterations caused by the wind in the field have a great impact on the growth, development and productivity of cocoa. The present work had a main objective to understand the molecular mechanisms of responses to mechanical stress, caused by the action of constant wind flow in young plants of cocoa through alterations of the proteomic profile in young (YL) and mature leaves (ML). Plants were exposed to constant wind (CW) at a speed of 4.5 m s-1 for 12 h. There was a reduction in the accumulation of proteins in YL and a significant increase in ML submitted to CW in relation to the control. Differentially accumulated proteins, identified in YL and ML, belong to a broad functional group, related to energy production and carbon metabolism. Besides that, there was a higher efficiency in the protein relative abundance associated to energy production and the assimilation of carbon in the ML exposed to CW, in relation to the control. It was observed the appearance of new isoforms and, or post-transitional changes, which represent an acclimatization and tolerance response of these leaves to the stressor factor. In contrast, in YL, the energy production and the synthesis of gene products essential for their growth and development were affected by the mechanical stress caused by the wind, making them more intolerant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graciele Santos Monteiro Reis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil.
| | - Nayara de Almeida Santos
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Juliano Oliveira Santana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - D'avila Maria de Souza Araújo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Irma Yuliana Mora-Ocampo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Dário Ahnert
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Carlos Priminho Pirovani
- Department of Biological Sciences, Santa Cruz State University, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
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Hebbar KB, Apshara E, Chandran KP, Prasad PVV. Effect of elevated CO 2, high temperature, and water deficit on growth, photosynthesis, and whole plant water use efficiency of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY 2020; 64:47-57. [PMID: 31468175 DOI: 10.1007/s00484-019-01792-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the response of 6-month-old cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) seedlings to elevated CO2 concentration [ECO2], elevated temperature [ET], and their interaction with water deficit stress was studied in an open top chamber (OTC). Each OTC was maintained at chamber control (400 ppm CO2), [ECO2] 550 ppm, [ECO2] 700 ppm, ET 3 °C above chamber control, and ET 3 °C + [ECO2] 550 ppm. Inside each OTC, a set of plants received moisture at 100% FC, while the other set was at 50% FC, which was the water deficit stress treatment. Increasing the CO2 concentration in cocoa increased photosynthesis (Pn) by 27%, which resulted in high biomass accumulation, thus improving the whole plant water use efficiency (WUE). The impact of high temperature (Tmax), around 39 °C in ET treatment against 36 °C in chamber control, is quite severe on Pn, leaf Ψ, and biomass accumulation. Similarly, water deficit at 50% FC resulted in the leaf Ψ reducing to - 14.06 bars at which Pn, leaf area, and biomass were significantly reduced. [ECO2] could ameliorate the negative effect of high temperature and water deficit stress to certain extent. However, the relative response of cocoa seedlings to [ECO2] in improving Pn, leaf Ψ, biomass, and WUE was greater under 50% FC compared to plants at 100% FC suggested additional advantage of [ECO2] to cocoa under water limited conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- K B Hebbar
- ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, 671 124, India.
| | - Elain Apshara
- ICAR-Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal, 574 243, India
| | - K P Chandran
- ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, 671 124, India
| | - P V Vara Prasad
- Department of Agronomy, Throckmorton Plant Science Center, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
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Climate change could threaten cocoa production: Effects of 2015-16 El Niño-related drought on cocoa agroforests in Bahia, Brazil. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0200454. [PMID: 29990360 PMCID: PMC6039034 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate models predict a possible increase in the frequency of strong climate events such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which in parts of the tropics are the cause of exceptional droughts, these threaten global food production. Agroforestry systems are often suggested as promising diversification options to increase farmers' resilience to extreme climatic events. In the Northeastern state of Bahia, where most Brazilian cocoa is grown in wildlife-friendly agroforests, ENSOs cause severe droughts which negatively affect forest and agriculture. Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is described as being sensitive to drought but there are no field-studies of the effect of ENSO-related drought on adult cocoa trees in the America's; there is one study of an experimentally-imposed drought in Indonesia which resulted in 10 to 46% yield loss. In our study, in randomly chosen farms in Bahia, Brazil, we measured the effect of the 2015–16 severe ENSO, which caused an unprecedented drought in cocoa agroforests. We show that drought caused high cocoa tree mortality (15%) and severely decreased cocoa yield (89%); the drought also increased infection rate of the chronic fungal disease witches' broom (Moniliophthora perniciosa). Ours findings showed that Brazilian cocoa agroforests are at risk and that increasing frequency of strong droughts are likely to cause decreased cocoa yields in the coming decades. Furthermore, because cocoa, like many crops, is grown somewhat beyond its climatic limits, it and other crops could be the 'canaries in the coalmine' warning of forthcoming major drought effects on semi-natural and natural vegetation.
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Reis GSM, de Almeida AAF, Mangabeira PAO, dos Santos IC, Pirovani CP, Ahnert D. Mechanical stress caused by wind on leaves of Theobroma cacao: Photosynthetic, molecular, antioxidative and ultrastructural responses. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198274. [PMID: 29949591 PMCID: PMC6021058 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Theobroma cacao is cultivated in the shade, in a so-called 'Cabruca' system, in intercropped with Erithryna or other tree species of economic value, and in full sun as a monoculture in irrigated or chemically-irrigated systems. Since it is a species quite intolerant to wind, it is practically impossible to implant cacao crops under full exposure to the sun, or in areas of frequent winds, without the protection of windbreaks, using arboreal species around the area of culture in the form of box. Wind can cause mechanical stimuli in plants, affecting their growth and development. The objective of this work was to evaluate the photosynthetic changes in mature leaves and the molecular, biochemical and ultrastructural changes in young and mature leaves of the CCN 51 cloned genotype of T. cacao subjected to intermittent (IW) and constant (CW) wind, with velocities of 2.5, 3.5 and 4.5 m s-1, during 3, 6 and 12 h of exposure. It was verified that CW and IW, considering different exposure times, interfered directly in stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (E) and water use efficiency (WUE), causing a reduction of the photosynthetic rate (A) in mature leaves. In addition, the pulvinus and blade of young and mature leaves, exposed to IW and CW with different exposure times (3 and 12 h), showed marked macroscopic and microscopic mechanical injuries resulting from the constant leaf movement. At both speeds, there was rupture of the cell nuclear membrane in pulvinus and the mesophyll tissues, mainly in the young leaves. On the other hand, in young and mature leaves exposed to CW and IW at different speeds and exposure times, there was lipid peroxidation, increased activity of guaiacol (GPX) and ascorbate (APX) peroxidases in most treatments; and altered expression of transcripts of psba and psbo genes related to the phothosynthetic apparatus and Cu-Zn-sod and per genes related to antioxidative enzymes at the rate of 4.5 m s-1. Younger leaves were more intolerant to mechanical stress caused by the wind, since presented greater macro and microscopic damages and, consequently, greater molecular, biochemical and ultrastructural changes. High wind speeds can seriously compromise the development of young leaves of T. cacao plants and affect their productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graciele Santos Monteiro Reis
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Pedro Antônio Oliveira Mangabeira
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Ivanildes Conceição dos Santos
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Carlos Priminho Pirovani
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Dário Ahnert
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
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dos Santos EA, de Almeida AAF, Branco MCDS, dos Santos IC, Ahnert D, Baligar VC, Valle RR. Path analysis of phenotypic traits in young cacao plants under drought conditions. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191847. [PMID: 29408854 PMCID: PMC5800674 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Drought is worldwide considered one of the most limiting factors of Theobroma cacao production, which can be intensified by global climate changes. In this study, we aimed to investigate the phenotypic correlation among morphological characteristics of cacao progenies submitted to irrigation and drought conditions and their partitions into direct and indirect effects. Path analysis with phenotypic plasticity index was used as criteria for estimation of basic and explanatory variables. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at the Cacao Research Center (CEPEC), Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil, in a randomized block 21 x 2 factorial arrangement [21 cacao progenies obtained from complete diallel crosses and two water regimes (control and drought)] and six replications. In general, drought conditions influenced biomass production in most progenies, causing significant reductions in total leaf area, leaf number, leaf biomass, fine-roots length (diameter <1 mm), root volume and root area for considered drought intolerant. All progenies showed alterations in growth due to drought. Phenotypic plasticity was most strongly pronounced in root volume. Stem and root diameters, as well as stem dry biomass were the growth variables with the greatest direct effects on root volume under drought conditions, these characters being indicated in screening of cacao progenies drought tolerant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emerson Alves dos Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod, Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod, Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
- * E-mail:
| | - Marcia Christina da Silva Branco
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod, Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Ivanildes Conceição dos Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod, Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Dario Ahnert
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod, Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Virupax C. Baligar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD, United States of America
| | - Raúl René Valle
- Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau, Comissão Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira (CEPEC/CEPLAC), Rod, Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
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Comprehensive Screening of Some West and Central African Sesame Genotypes for Drought Resistance Probing by Agromorphological, Physiological, Biochemical and Seed Quality Traits. AGRONOMY-BASEL 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/agronomy7040083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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14
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Niether W, Smit I, Armengot L, Schneider M, Gerold G, Pawelzik E. Environmental Growing Conditions in Five Production Systems Induce Stress Response and Affect Chemical Composition of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Beans. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:10165-10173. [PMID: 29111715 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cocoa beans are produced all across the humid tropics under different environmental conditions provided by the region but also by the season and the type of production system. Agroforestry systems compared to monocultures buffer climate extremes and therefore provide a less stressful environment for the understory cocoa, especially under seasonally varying conditions. We measured the element concentration as well as abiotic stress indicators (polyamines and total phenolic content) in beans derived from five different production systems comparing monocultures and agroforestry systems and from two harvesting seasons. Concentrations of N, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Na, and Zn were higher in beans produced in agroforestry systems with high stem density and leaf area index. In the dry season, the N, Fe, and Cu concentration of the beans increased. The total phenolic content increased with proceeding of the dry season while other abiotic stress indicators like spermine decreased, implying an effect of the water availability on the chemical composition of the beans. Agroforestry systems did not buffer the variability of stress indicators over the seasons compared to monocultures. The effect of environmental growing conditions on bean chemical composition was not strong but can contribute to variations in cocoa bean quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Niether
- University of Goettingen, Institute of Geography , Goldschmidtstrasse 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Inga Smit
- Institute of Crop Sciences , Carl-Sprengel-Weg 1, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Laura Armengot
- Forschungsinstitut für Biologischen Landbau (FiBL) , Deparment of International Cooperation, Ackerstrasse 113, Postfach 219, 5070 Frick, Switzerland
| | - Monika Schneider
- Forschungsinstitut für Biologischen Landbau (FiBL) , Deparment of International Cooperation, Ackerstrasse 113, Postfach 219, 5070 Frick, Switzerland
| | - Gerhard Gerold
- University of Goettingen, Institute of Geography , Goldschmidtstrasse 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Elke Pawelzik
- Institute of Crop Sciences , Carl-Sprengel-Weg 1, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
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15
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Santos ICD, Almeida AAFD, Pirovani CP, Costa MGC, Silva MFDGFD, Bellete BS, Freschi L, Soares Filho W, Coelho Filho MA, Gesteira ADS. Differential accumulation of flavonoids and phytohormones resulting from the canopy/rootstock interaction of citrus plants subjected to dehydration/rehydration. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2017; 119:147-158. [PMID: 28866236 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2017] [Revised: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Water scarcity can elicit drastic changes in plant metabolic and hormonal regulation, which may be of fundamental importance to stress tolerance. The study of plant the metabolic alterations in response to water deficit, especially the effects of the rootstocks level, is important to elucidate the mechanisms associated to drought tolerance. To verify the influence of rootstock and grafting on the tolerance to drought in citrus plants, we analyzed the growth, phytohormone levels and flavonoid profiles in grafted and ungrafted citrus plants subjected to different soil water regimes on plant status (well-watered, moderate drought and severe drought and rehydrated) under field conditions. The experiments were conducted under field conditions in the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil. Water deficit reduced the total leaf area per plant in all canopy/rootstock combinations. Self-grafting reduce root volume, area and length when compared to ungrafted plants. Drought-induced increases in salicylic acid and abscisic acid associated with concomitant reductions in indoleacetic acid were observed in most canopy/rootstock combinations. However, plants with 'Sunki Maravilha' rootstocks exhibited the most pronounced changes in hormonal levels upon drought stress. Associated to these hormonal changes, drought also significantly affected flavonoid content and profile in both leaves and roots of the distinct citrus combinations. Glycosylated (GFs) and polimethoxylated flavonoids were predominantly found in leaves, whereas prenylated coumarins were found in the roots. Leaf levels of GFs (vicenin, F11, rutin and rhoifolin) were particularly modulated by drought in plants with 'Rangpur Santa Cruz' lime rootstock, whereas root levels of prenylated coumarins were most regulated by drought in plants with the 'Sunki Maravilha' root system. Taken together, these data indicate that the impacts of water deficit restriction on growth, hormonal balance and flavonoid profiles significantly varies depending on the canopy/rootstock combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivanildes C Dos Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil.
| | - Carlos P Pirovani
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Márcio Gilberto Cardoso Costa
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brazil
| | - Maria Fatima das Graças Fernandes da Silva
- Departamento de Química, Laboratório de Produtos Naturais, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Rodovia Washington Luís, km 235 - SP-310, 13565-905, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Barbara Sayuri Bellete
- Departamento de Química, Laboratório de Produtos Naturais, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Rodovia Washington Luís, km 235 - SP-310, 13565-905, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luciano Freschi
- Departamento de Botânica, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-090, Brazil
| | - Walter Soares Filho
- Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura, Rua Embrapa s/n, CP 007, Cruz das Almas, BA, Brazil
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16
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Pereira AS, de Almeida AAF, Branco MCDS, Costa MGC, Ahnert D. Combining ability, heritability and genotypic relations of different physiological traits in cacao hybrids. PLoS One 2017. [PMID: 28628670 PMCID: PMC5476260 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Selecting parents and evaluating progenies is a very important step in breeding programs and involves approaches such as understanding the initial stages of growth and characterizing the variability among genotypes for different parameters, such as physiological, growth, biomass partitioning and nutrient translocation to the aerial part. In these cases, facilitating tools can be used to understand the involved gene dynamics, such as diallel crosses and genetic and phenotypic correlations. Our main hypothesis is that the contrasting phenotypes of these parental genotypes of cocoa used are due to genetic factors, and progenies derived from crosses of these parental genotypes are useful for breeding programs related to plant architecture, physiological parameters and translocation of mineral nutrients. We aimed to evaluate the combining abilities in progenies of cacao (Theobroma cacao L) originating from contrasting parents for canopy vigor. Emphasis was given to the evaluation of morphological and physiological parameters and the phenotypic and genotypic correlations to understand the dynamics of the action of the genes involved, as well as in expression profile from genes of gibberellins biosynthesis pathway in the parents. Fifteen F1 progenies were obtained from crosses of six clones (IMC 67, P4B, PUCALA, SCA 6, SCA 24 and SJ 02) that were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with four replicates of 12 plants per progeny, in a balanced half table diallel scheme. It is possible to identify and select plants and progenies of low, medium and high height, as there is expressive genetic variability for the evaluated parameters, some of these on higher additive effects, others on larger nonadditive effects and others under a balance of these effects. Most physiological parameters evaluated show that for selection of plants with the desired performance, no complex breeding methods would be necessary due to the high and medium heritability observed. Strong genetic components were observed from many of the correlations, which indicate the possibility to formulate selection indices for multi-traits, such as dwarfism or semidwarfism, tolerance to increase of leaf sodium concentrations and maintenance of the photosynthetic apparatus integrity under these conditions. Additionally, plants with higher carbon fixation, better water use, higher carboxylation efficiency and greater magnesium accumulation in leaves can be selected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan Silva Pereira
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
- * E-mail:
| | - Márcia Christina da Silva Branco
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Marcio Gilberto Cardoso Costa
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Dario Ahnert
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
- Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau, Comissão Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira (CEPEC/CEPLAC). Rod. Jorge Amado, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
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17
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Dos Santos EA, Almeida AAFD, Ahnert D, Branco MCDS, Valle RR, Baligar VC. Diallel Analysis and Growth Parameters as Selection Tools for Drought Tolerance in Young Theobroma cacao Plants. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0160647. [PMID: 27504627 PMCID: PMC4978391 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0160647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to estimate the combining ability, of T. cacao genotypes preselected for drought tolerance through diallel crosses. The experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions at the Cacao Research Center (CEPEC), Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil, in a completely randomized block design, in an experimental arrangement 21 x 2 [21 complete diallel crosses and two water regimes (control and stressed)]. In the control, soil moisture was kept close to field capacity, with predawn leaf water potential (ΨWL) ranging from -0.1 to -0.5 MPa. In the drought regime, the soil moisture was reduced gradually by decreasing the amount of water application until ΨWL reached -2.0 to -2.5 MPa. Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed for most morphological attributes analyzed regarding progenies, water regime and their interactions. The results of the joint diallel analysis revealed significant effects between general combining ability (GCA) x water regimes and between specific combining ability (SCA) x water regimes. The SCA 6 genetic material showed high general combining ability for growth variables regardless of the water regime. In general, the water deficit influenced the production of biomass in most of the evaluated T. cacao crosses, except for SCA-6 x IMC-67, Catongo x SCA, MOC-01 x Catongo, Catongo x IMC-67 and RB-40 x Catongo. Multivariate analysis showed that stem diameter (CD), total leaf area (TLA), leaf dry biomass (LDB), stem dry biomass (SDB), root dry biomass (RDB), total dry biomass (TDB), root length (RL), root volume (RV), root diameter (RD) <1 mm and 1 <(RD) <2 mm were the most important growth parameters in the separation of T. cacao genotypes in to tolerant and intolerant to soil water deficit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emerson Alves Dos Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Alex-Alan Furtado de Almeida
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Dario Ahnert
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Marcia Christina da Silva Branco
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazaré de Andrade, Rod. Jorge Amado, km 16, 45662-900, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Raúl René Valle
- Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau, Comissão Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira (CEPEC/CEPLAC), Rod. Jorge Amado, km 22, 45650-000, Ilhéus, BA, Brasil
| | - Virupax C Baligar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD, 20705-2350, United States of America
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