In Vivo acrylamide exposure may cause severe toxicity to mouse oocytes through its metabolite glycidamide

Acrylamide toxicity in aquatic animals and its mitigation approaches: an updated overview

Acrylamide (ACR) is widely applied in various industrial activities, as well as in the water purification process. Furthermore, ACR is synthesized naturally in some starchy grains exposed to high temperatures for an extended time during the cooking process. Because of its widespread industrial usage, ACR might be released into water stream sources. Also, ACR poses a high risk of contaminated surface and ground-water resources due to its high solubility and mobility in water. Furthermore, animal studies have indicated that ACR exposure may cause cancer (in many organs such as lung, prostate, uterus, and pancreas), genetic damage (in both somatic and germ cells), and severe effects on reproduction and development. Recently, numerous studies have shown that ACR has a mild acute cytotoxic impact on aquatic species, particularly during early life stages. Besides, wide-spectrum usage of ACR in many industrial activities presented higher environmental risks as well as major hazards to consumer health. This literature was designed to include all potential and accessible reports on ACR toxicity related with aquatic species. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews were applied to evaluate the risk effects of ACR on aquatic organisms, the ACR sub-lethal concentration in the ecosystem, and the possible protective benefits of various feed additives against ACR toxicity in fish. The major findings are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The primary aim of this literature was to specify the hazards of ACR toxicity related with fish welfare and possible suggested strategies to reduce its risks.

Antioxidants Amelioration Is Insufficient to Prevent Acrylamide and Alpha-Solanine Synergistic Toxicity in BEAS-2B Cells

Cells produce free radicals and antioxidants when exposed to toxic compounds during cellular metabolism. However, free radicals are deleterious to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Antioxidants neutralize and eliminate free radicals from cells, preventing cell damage. Therefore, the study aims to determine whether the antioxidants butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) will ameliorate the maximum dose of acrylamide and alpha (α)-solanine synergistic toxic effects in exposed BEAS-2B cells. These toxic compounds are consumed worldwide by eating potato products. BEAS-2B cells were simultaneously treated with BHA 10 μM and BHT 20 μM and incubated in a 5% CO2 humidified incubator for 24 h, followed by individual or combined treatment with acrylamide (3.5 mM) and α-solanine (44 mM) for 48 h, including the controls. Cell morphology, DNA, RNA, and protein were analyzed. The antioxidants did not prevent acrylamide and α-solanine synergistic effects in exposed BEAS-2B cells. However, cell morphology was altered; polymerase chain reaction (PCR) showed reduced RNA constituents but not DNA. In addition, the toxic compounds synergistically inhibited AKT/PKB expression and its downstream genes. The study showed BHA and BHT are not protective against the synergetic toxic effects of acrylamide and α-solanine in exposed BEAS-2B cells.

Research Progress of Programmed Cell Death Induced by Acrylamide

Acrylamide exposure through environment pollution and diet is very common in daily life. With the deepening of the study on the toxicity of acrylamide, it has attracted widespread attention for the effects of acrylamide on multiple organs through affecting a variety of programmed cell death. Multiple studies have shown that acrylamide could exert its toxic effect by inducing programmed cell death, but its specific molecular mechanism is still unclear. In this review, the research on the main forms of programmed cell death (apoptosis, autophagy, and programmed necrosis) induced by acrylamide and their possible mechanisms are reviewed. This review may provide basic data for further research of acrylamide and prevention of its toxicity.

Exposure to acrylamide induces zygotic genome activation defects of mouse embryos

Acrylamide (ACR) is an important chemical raw material for wastewater treatment, paper industry and textile industry, which is widely exposed from occupational, environmental and dietary situation. ACR has neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, potential carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity. Recent study indicates that ACR affected oocyte maturation quality. In the present study, we reported the effects of ACR exposure on zygotic genome activation (ZGA) in embryos and its related mechanism. Our results showed that ACR treatment caused 2-cell arrest in mouse embryos, indicating the failure of ZGA, which was confirmed by decreased global transcription levels and aberrant expression of ZGA-related and maternal factors. We found that histone modifications such as H3K9me3, H3K27me3 and H3K27ac levels were altered, and this might be due to the occurrence of DNA damage, showing with positive γ-H2A.X signal. Moreover, mitochondrial dysfunction and high levels of ROS were detected in ACR treated embryos, indicating that ACR induced oxidative stress, and this might further cause abnormal distribution of endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and lysosomes. In conclusion, our results indicated that ACR exposure disrupted ZGA by inducing mitochondria-based oxidative stress, which further caused DNA damage, aberrant histone modifications and organelles in mouse embryos.

The role of additives on acrylamide formation in food products: a systematic review

Acrylamide (AA) is a toxic substance formed in many carbohydrate-rich food products, whose formation can be reduced by adding some additives. Furthermore, the type of food consumed determines the AA intake. According to the compiled information, the first route causing AA formation is the Maillard reaction. Some interventions, such as reducing AA precursors in raw materials, (i.e., asparagine), reducing sugars, or decreasing temperature and processing time can be applied to limit AA formation in food products. The L-asparaginase is more widely used in potato products. Also, coatings loaded with proteins, enzymes, and phenolic compounds are new techniques for reducing AA content. Enzymes have a reducing effect on AA formation by acting on asparagine; proteins by competing with amino acids to participate in Maillard, and phenolic compounds through their radical scavenging activity. On the other hand, some synthetic and natural additives increase the formation of AA. Due to the high exposure to AA and its toxic effects, it is essential to recognize suitable food additives to reduce the health risks for consumers. In this sense, this study focuses on different additives that are proven to be effective in the reduction or formation of AA in food products.

The inhibitory effect of Yam polysaccharides on acrylamide-induced programmed cell death in RAW 264.7 cells

Acrylamide has been well known for its neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, etc. Recently, the immunotoxicity of acrylamide has been reported by different research groups, although the underlying mechanisms of acrylamide endangering immune systems have not been fully elucidated. In this study, mouse monocyte-macrophage cells model was used to clarify the toxic mechanism of acrylamide and the inhibitory effect of Yam polysaccharides (YPS) on acrylamide-induced damage. We found that acrylamide induced RAW 264.7 cell death in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. After acrylamide (2.0, 3.0, 4.0 mmol/L) treatment for 24 h, cell apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis were observed. However, the levels of autophagy and pyroptosis decreased at a high concentration of acrylamide (4.0 mmol/L). Acrylamide upregulated P2X7 expression, but the P2X7 level was not showing a monotone increasing trend. When the P2X7 antagonist was applied, the effect of acrylamide on autophagy and pyroptosis was weakened. Additionally, acrylamide triggered the occurrence of oxidative stress and a decreased nitric oxide (NO) level. However, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, the decrease of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression, and the increase of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression were reversed by the inhibition of P2X7. Yam polysaccharides (50.0 μg/ml) significantly inhibited acrylamide-induced oxidative stress and cell death (including apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis). Yam polysaccharides also effectively reversed the increase of iNOS expression induced by acrylamide. However, Yam polysaccharides promoted the expression of P2X7 rather than prohibit it. These results indicated that acrylamide caused RAW 264.7 cell death due to pro-apoptosis as well as excessive autophagy and pyroptosis. Apoptosis might be more predominant than autophagy and pyroptosis under a higher concentration of acrylamide (4.0 mmol/L). P2X7-stimulated oxidative stress was responsible for acrylamide-induced programmed cell death (PCD), but P2X7 showed limited regulatory effect on apoptosis. Yam polysaccharides with antioxidant activity inhibited acrylamide-induced cell death (apoptosis, autophagy, and pyroptosis), but exerted limited effect on the acrylamide-induced P2X7 expression. These findings would offer an insight into elucidating the immunotoxic mechanism of acrylamide and the potential approaches to control its toxicity.

Acrylamide-induced damage to postsynaptic plasticity is CYP2E1 dependent in an SH-SY5Y co-culture system

Acrylamide (ACR), a neurotoxic substance, is characterized by a range of industrial and population exposures. The effects of ACR on synapses have been examined, but the regulation and molecular mechanism of key proteins related to ACR and its metabolite glycidamide (GA) have not been elucidated. In this study, we constructed two co-culture systems to mimic neurons that do not express and overexpress CYP2E1. In these co-cultures, we observed the effects and relative influence of ACR and GA on cell survival as well as synaptic structural and functional plasticity. Next, we investigated the relationship between ACR-induced nerve damage and key proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. After ACR exposure, cell death and synaptic damage were significantly worse in CYP2E1-overexpressing co-culture systems, suggesting that ACR-induced neurotoxicity may be related to metabolic efficiency (including CYP2E1 activity). Moreover, with increasing doses of ACR, the key postsynaptic membrane proteins PSD-95 expression was reduced and CaMKII and NMDAR-2B phosphorylation was increased. ACR exposure also triggered a rapid dose- and time-dependent increase in intracellular Ca²⁺, whose changes can affect the expression of the above-mentioned key proteins. In summary, we clarified the relationship between ACR exposure, neuronal damage and postsynaptic plasticity and proposed an ACR-CYP2E1-GA: Ca²⁺-PSD-95-NMDAR-Ca²⁺-CaMKII effect chain. This information will further improve the development of an alternative pathway strategy for investigating the risk posed by ACR.

A systematic review on the effects of acrylamide and bisphenol A on the development of Drosophila melanogaster

The current global scenario has instigated a steady upsurge of synthetic chemicals usage thereby creating a toxic environment unsuitable for animals and humans. Acrylamide and bisphenol A are some of the most common toxins found in the atmosphere due to their extensive involvement in numerous industrial processes. Acrylamide, an occupational hazard toxin has been known to cause severe nerve damage and peripheral neuronal damage in both animals and humans. General sources of acrylamide exposure are effluents from textile and paper industries, cosmetics, and thermally processed foods rich in starch. Bisphenol A (BPA) is generally found in food packaging materials, dental sealants, and plastic bottles. It is highly temperature-sensitive that can easily leach into the food products or humans on contact. The genotoxic and neurotoxic effects of acrylamide and bisphenol A have been widely researched; however, more attention should be dedicated to understanding the developmental toxicity of these chemicals. The developmental impacts of toxin exposure can be easily understood using Drosophila melanogaster as a model given considering its short life span and genetic homology to humans. In this review, we have discussed the toxic effects of acrylamide and BPA on the developmental process of Drosophila melanogaster.

Assessment of the genotoxicity of acrylamide

EFSA was requested to deliver a statement on a recent publication revisiting the evidence for genotoxicity of acrylamide (AA). The statement was prepared by a Working Group and was endorsed by the CONTAM Panel before its final approval. In interpreting the Terms of Reference, the statement considered the modes of action underlying the carcinogenicity of AA including genotoxic and non-genotoxic effects. Relevant publications since the 2015 CONTAM Panel Opinion on AA in food were reviewed. Several new studies reported positive results on the clastogenic and mutagenic properties of AA and its active metabolite glycidamide (GA). DNA adducts of GA were induced by AA exposure in experimental animals and have also been observed in humans. In addition to the genotoxicity of AA, there is evidence for both secondary DNA oxidation via generation of reactive oxygen species and for non-genotoxic effects which may contribute to carcinogenesis by AA. These studies extend the information assessed by the CONTAM Panel in its 2015 Opinion, and support its conclusions. That Opinion applied the margin of exposure (MOE) approach, as recommended in the EFSA Guidance for substances that are both genotoxic and carcinogenic, for risk characterisation of the neoplastic effects of AA. Based on the new data evaluated, the MOE approach is still considered appropriate, and an update of the 2015 Opinion is not required at the present time.

Acrylamide Exposure Destroys the Distribution and Functions of Organelles in Mouse Oocytes

Acrylamide (ACR) is a common industrial ingredient which is also found in foods that are cooked at high temperatures. ACR has been shown to have multiple toxicities including reproductive toxicity. Previous studies reported that ACR caused oocyte maturation defects through the induction of apoptosis and oxidative stress. In the present study, we showed that ACR exposure affected oocyte organelle functions, which might be the reason for oocyte toxicity. We found that exposure to 5 mM ACR reduced oocyte maturation. ACR caused abnormal mitochondrial distribution away from spindle periphery and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. Further analysis showed that ACR exposure reduced the fluorescence intensity of Rps3 and abnormal distribution of the endoplasmic reticulum, indicating that ACR affected protein synthesis and modification in mouse oocytes. We found the negative effects of ACR on the distribution of the Golgi apparatus; in addition, fluorescence intensity of vesicle transporter Rab8A decreased, suggesting the decrease in protein transport capacity of oocytes. Furthermore, the simultaneous increase in lysosomes and LAMP2 fluorescence intensity was also observed, suggesting that ACR affected protein degradation in oocytes. In conclusion, our results indicated that ACR exposure disrupted the distribution and functions of organelles, which further affected oocyte developmental competence in mice.

Eruca sativa seed extract modulates oxidative stress and apoptosis and up-regulates the expression of Bcl-2 and Bax genes in acrylamide-induced testicular dysfunction in rats

Acrylamide (ACR) has been previously associated with male sexual dysfunction and infertility. Eruca sativa (L.) (arugula or rocket) have been widely used in traditional remedies in Mediterranean region and western Asia and was known for its strong aphrodisiac effect since Roman times. The current study was designed to investigate LC/MS analysis of total ethanol extract Eruca sativa (L.) and the efficiency and mechanism of action of Eruca sativa seed extract (ESS) in reducing hypogonadism induced by acrylamide in male rats. Male Wistar rats were divided into 6 groups (n = 7): control group, Eruca sativa seed extract (ESS) at doses of 100 and 200 mg\kg, acrylamide (ACR), ACR + ESS 100 mg/kg, and ACR + ESS 200 mg/kg. The animals received ACR at a dose of 10 mg/kg b.wt for 60 days. Sperm indices, testicular oxidative stress, testosterone hormone, and testicular histopathology and immunohistochemistry of PCNA and caspase-3 were investigated. Moreover, the expression level of testicular B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) genes was evaluated. In respect to the LC/MS of total ethanol extract Eruca sativa (L.) seed revealed tentative identification of 39 compounds, which belongs to different classes as sulphur-containing compounds, flavonoids, phenolic acid, and fatty acids. Administration of ESS extract (100, 200 mg/kg) improved semen quality, diminished lipid peroxidation, enhanced testicular antioxidant enzyme, restored serum testosterone level, and reduced testicular degeneration and Leydig cell death in the rats intoxicated with ACR. However, the effects of ESS at the dose of 200 mg/kg were similar to that of control group. Furthermore, ESS treatment significantly induced anti-apoptotic effect indicated by elevation of both Bcl-2 and Bax expressions. Nutriceutics of ESS extract protects testis against ACR-induced testicular toxicity via normalizing testicular steroidogenesis, keeping Leydig cells, and improving oxidative stress status.

Mechanical and microstructural studies in a polysaccharide-acrylate double network hydrogel

Polymeric hydrogels continue to find a wide range of applications. However, a major drawback of hydrogels is the lack of mechanical strength. In this regard, "Double Network Hydrogels" (DN) have shown great promise recently. The toughness in DN hydrogels originates from the synergistic effect of two polymeric networks. In this work, we have synthesized a DN hydrogel consisting of a tightly cross linked carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) as the first network and loosely cross linked poly(hydroxyethylacrylate) (PHEA) as a second network (CMC-PHEA-DN). The required flexibility in the second network (PHEA) was induced by the presence of a small amount of stearyl methacrylate (SM) as a co-monomer in hydroxyl ethyl acrylate (HEA). The compressive strength of the CMC-PEHA-DN hydrogel was found to be 280 times more than that of CMC-SN hydrogel, and the presence of SM in DN hydrogels showed better recovery after deformation. Cell viability studies showed the biocompatibility of DN hydrogels. The micro-structural analysis of DN xerogels by 3D X-ray Microtomography indicated the presence of oriented pores in size range of 30-40 μm. To the best of our knowledge, Microtomography was used for the first time to study the DN gels. These hydrogels can be used to develop implants that can withstand prolonged stress and expand the life span of implants.

Therapeutic effects of thymoquinone or capsaicin on acrylamide-induced reproductive toxicity in rats mediated by their effect on oxidative stress, inflammation, and tight junction integrity

In the field of environmental toxicology, endocrine-disrupting effects have become a major concern. The present research set out to investigate the possible reproductive toxicity of acrylamide. The research was also expanded to explore the protective effects of two nutraceuticals, thymoquinone (TQ) and capsaicin, against acrylamide-induced reproductive toxicity. Six groups of sixty male albino rats were created. Group 1 was used as a control. Rats were administered a daily dose of acrylamide and acted as the model in Group 2. TQ was provided to rats once a day in Group 3. Capsaicin was administered to rats once a day in Group 4. TQ was given once daily to rats exposed to acrylamide in Group 5. Rats were given capsaicin once a day for eight weeks after being exposed to acrylamide in Group 6. Acrylamide induced oxidative stress, testicular NF-κB/p65 expression, and down-regulated the expression of occludin, all of which can contribute to its testicular toxicity, while TQ or capsaicin removes all of these toxicity signs. TQ and capsaicin have shown efficacy in alleviating all of the acrylamide's toxic insults in the current reproductive toxicity model. Both nutraceuticals upregulated the expression of occludin in testicular tissue and restored tight junction integrity, in addition to their well-known antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, which were confirmed in this study.

Advanced polymeric nanotechnology to augment therapeutic delivery and disease diagnosis

Therapeutic and diagnostic payloads are usually associated with properties that compromise their efficacy, such as poor aqueous solubility, short half-life, low bioavailability, nonspecific accumulation and diverse side effects. Nanotechnological solutions have emerged to circumvent some of these drawbacks, augmenting therapeutic and/or diagnostic outcomes. Nanotechnology has benefited from the rise in polymer science research for the development of novel nanosystems for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. Polymers are a widely used class of biomaterials, with a considerable number of regulatory approvals for application in clinics. In addition to their versatility in production and functionalization, several synthetic and natural polymers demonstrate biocompatible properties that dictate their successful biological performance. This article highlights the physicochemical characteristics of a variety of natural and synthetic biocompatible polymers, as well as their role in the manufacture of nanotechnology-based systems, state-of-art applications in disease treatment and diagnosis, and current challenges in finding a way to clinics.

Developmental and behavioural toxicity induced by acrylamide exposure and amelioration using phytochemicals in Drosophila melanogaster

Acrylamide, an environmental pollutant, is known to occur in food substances cooked at high temperatures. Studies on various models indicate acrylamide to cause several physiological conditions such as neuro- and reproductive toxicity, and carcinogenesis. In our study, exposure of Drosophila melanogaster (Oregon K strain) to acrylamide via their diet resulted in a concentration and time-dependent mortality, while the surviving flies exhibited significant locomotor deficits, most likely due to oxidative stress-induced neuronal damage. Also, Drosophila embryos exhibited signs of developmental toxicity as evidenced by the alteration in the migration of border cells and cluster cells during the developmental stages, concomitant to modulation in expression of gurken and oskar genes. Curcumin, a known antioxidant has been widely studied for its neuroprotective effects against acrylamide; however; very few studies focus on thymoquinone for its role against food toxicant. Our research focuses on the toxicity elicited by acrylamide and the ability of the antioxidants: thymoquinone, curcumin and combination of thereof, in reversing the same.

Exposure to acrylamide inhibits uterine decidualization via suppression of cyclin D3/p21 and apoptosis in mice

Acrylamide (ACR), a neurotoxicity and carcinogenic chemical, has attracted considerable attention since it is present at high concentrations in thermally cooked carbohydrate-rich foods. ACR exposure significantly increased rate of fetal resorption, and decreased fetal body weights in mice. However, no detailed information is available about the effect of ACR on uterine decidualization, which is a vital process in the establishment of successful pregnancy. Thus, our aim of this study was to explore the effect and mechanism of ACR on uterine decidualization in vivo during mice pregnancy. Mice were gavaged with 0, 10, and 50 mg ACR /kg/day from gestational days (GD) 1 until GD 8, whereas pseudopregnant mice from pseudopregnant day (PPD) 4 until PPD 8. Results indicated ACR treatment dramatically reduced numbers of implanted embryos, and decreased the weights of implantation site and oil-induced uterus. Nevertheless, no significant difference was observed in the weights of no oil-induced uterus between control and ACR-treated group. Furthermore, ACR significantly reduced numbers of polyploidy and PCNA-positive decidual cells and expression of cyclin D3 and p21 proteins, and induced apoptosis of decidua, as presented by up-regulation of Bax and cleaved-caspase-3, and decreased Bcl-2 protein during normal pregnant and pseudopregnant process. In summary, ACR exposure significantly inhibited uterine endometrial decidualization via the apoptosis and suppression of cyclin D3/p21 in mice.

Pharmacokinetics and Metabolite Profiling of Trepibutone in Rats Using Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography Combined With Hybrid Quadrupole-Orbitrap and Triple Quadrupole Mass Spectrometers

Trepibutone was widely used for cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, biliary tract dyskinesia, cholecystectomy syndrome, and chronic pancreatitis in clinic. However, few investigations on trepibutone have been conducted. In this study, an accurate, sensitive, and selective analytical method was developed and successfully applied to assess the pharmacokinetic behavior of trepibutone in rats. Trepibutone and carbamazepine (internal standard, IS) were quantified using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode with the transitions of m/z 311.09→265.08 and m/z 237.06→194.08, respectively. The linearity, precision, accuracy, extraction recovery, matrix effect, and stability of the established method were all excellent within acceptable range. A total of 30 metabolites were identified in plasma and urine by Q-Exactive high resolution mass spectrometry, and several common metabolic pathways were observed such as dealkylation, oxidation, reduction, glucuronidation, and so on. This research provides more information on trepibutone in pharmacodynamics and toxicology and will assist the usage of trepibutone in clinical.

Thermal processing food-related toxicants: a review

Heterocyclic aromatic amines, acrylamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, furan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrosamines, acrolein, chloropropanols and chloroesters are generated toxicants formed in some foodstuffs, mainly starchy and protein-rich food during thermal treatment such as frying, roasting and baking. The formation of these chemical compounds is associated with development of aromas, colors and flavors. One of the challenges facing the food industry today is to minimize these toxicants without adversely affecting the positive attributes of thermal processing. To achieve this objective, it is essential to have a detailed understanding of the mechanism of formation of these toxicants in processed foods. All reviewed toxicants in that paper are classified as probable, possible or potential human carcinogens and have been proven to be carcinogenic in animal studies. The purpose of that review is to summarize some of the most frequent occurring heat-generated food toxicants during conventional heating, their metabolism and carcinogenicity. Moreover, conventional and microwave heating were also compared as two different heat treatment methods, especially how they change food chemical composition and which thermal food toxicants are formed during specific method.