High-Deductible Health Plans Reduce Health Care Cost And Utilization, Including Use Of Needed Preventive Services

Inequities in Unexpected Cost-Sharing for Preventive Care in the United States

INTRODUCTION

Unexpected out-of-pocket (OOP) costs for preventive care reduce future uptake. Because adherence to service guidelines differs by patient populations, understanding the role of patient demographics and social determinants of health (SDOH) in the incidence and size of unexpected cost-sharing is necessary to address these disparities. This study examined the associations between patient demographics and cost-sharing for common preventive services.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study used a national sample of insurance claims for recommended preventive services provided to privately insured adult patients between 2017 and 2020. The relationships between patient demographics and OOP costs were adjusted for service type, insurance type, geographic location, and time trends using regression analysis. Analyses were conducted in 2024.

RESULTS

The sample included 1,736,063 unique preventive care encounters of 1,078,010 individuals. Among preventive encounters, 40.3% resulted in OOP costs. Lower-educated patients had 9.4% (OR=1.094; 95% CI=1.082, 1.106) higher odds of incurring OOP costs than patients with college degrees. Low-income patients (annual household income of $49,999 or less) had 10.7% (OR=0.893; 95% CI=0.880, 0.906) lower odds of incurring OOP costs than high-income patients. Conditional on incurring costs, lower educated patients paid $15.07 (95% CI= -$15.24, -$14.91) less than higher educated patients, and low-income patients paid $11.76 (95% CI=$11.58, $11.95) more than high-income patients. Significant differences across racial and ethnic groups were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The likelihood and size of OOP costs for preventive care varied considerably by patient demographics; this may contribute to inequitable access to high-value care.

Health Care-Related Savings Accounts, Health Care Expenditures, and Tax Expenditures

Importance

Approximately 30% of US families with employer-sponsored health insurance, disproportionately drawn from high-income groups, benefit from flexible spending accounts (FSAs) or health savings accounts (HSAs). The combined association through both out-of-pocket spending and premiums of these tax-favored accounts with health care expenditures and tax expenditures remain uncertain.

Objective

To compare the health care and health-related tax expenditures among families holding FSAs, HSAs, or neither type of account.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study used family-level data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey from January 1, 2011, to December 31, 2019, and conducted regression models, controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, chronic conditions, prior health care expenditures, and marginal tax rates to analyze how holding tax-favored accounts is associated with families' health care spending and tax expenditures. The sample was restricted to families included in the survey for 2 years, with no members 65 years or older, and with at least 1 policyholder covered (only) by full-year employer-sponsored insurance. Data were analyzed from December 1, 2023, to April 30, 2024.

Exposures

Holding FSAs or HSAs.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Out-of-pocket and insurance-paid health expenditures overall and by service were measured. Health-related tax expenditures were based on tax-excluded insurance premiums and tax-sheltered out-of-pocket expenses.

Results

Of the 17 038 families included in the study sample, 2628 held FSAs (weighted 17%) and 1845 (weighted 13%) held HSAs. In regression-adjusted models, families with FSAs spent a mean of 20% or $2033 (95% CI, $789-$3276) more on health care annually than non-account holding families, largely due to increased insurer-paid expenses. Families with HSAs spent a mean of 44% or $697 (95% CI, $521-$873) more on out-of-pocket expenditures and had insignificantly higher insurance-paid expenditures than families without accounts, resulting in overall expenditures comparable to those of non-account holders. The additional tax expenditures associated with FSAs were a mean of $1306 (95% CI, $536-$2076) annually per family. Both types of funds were associated with significant increases in tax expenditures from additional office-based visits ($445 [95% CI, $244-$645] for FSAs and $174 [95% CI, $11-$336] for HSAs), outpatient visits ($330 [95% CI, $132-$528] for FSAs and $250 [95% CI, $15-$485] for HSAs), dental visits ($180 [95% CI, $126-$233] for FSAs and $165 [95% CI, $104-$226] for HSAs), and vision care ($36 [95% CI, $28-$45] for FSAs and $52 [95% CI, $40-$64] for HSAs).

Conclusions and Relevance

Participation in FSAs is associated with higher health care expenditures and tax expenditures, while HSAs are not associated with reduced expenditures. Tax policy could be better targeted to enhance insurance coverage and health care accessibility.

Social Determinants of Health and Insurance Claim Denials for Preventive Care

Importance

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) eliminated out-of-pocket cost-sharing for recommended preventive care for most privately insured patients. However, patients seeking preventive care continue to face cost-sharing and administrative hurdles, including claim denials, which may exacerbate inequitable access to care.

Objective

To determine whether patient demographics and social determinants of health are associated with denials of insurance claims for preventive care.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study of patients insured through their employers or the ACA Marketplaces used claims and remittance data from Symphony Health Solutions' Integrated DataVerse from 2017 to 2020; analysis was completed from January to July 2024.

Exposure

Seeking preventive care.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The primary outcome was the frequency of insurer denials for preventive services across 5 categories: specific benefit denials, billing errors, coverage lapses, inadequate coverage, and other. Subgroup analysis was performed across patient household income, education, and race and ethnicity. Secondary outcomes included charges for denied claims, approximating patients' remaining financial responsibility for care.

Results

A total of 1 535 181 patients received 4 218 512 preventive services in 2 507 943 unique visits (mean [SD] age at visits, 54.02 [13.19] years; 1 804 637 visits for female patients [71.96%]); 585 299 patients (23.30%) had an annual household income $100 000 or higher, and 824 540 patients had some college education (32.88%). A total of 20 658 individuals (0.82%) were Asian, 139 950 (5.58%) were Hispanic, 219 646 (8.76%) were non-Hispanic Black, 1 372 223 (54.72%) were non-Hispanic White, and 25 412 (1.0%1) were other races and ethnicities not included in the other 4 groups. Of preventive claims, 1.34% (95% CI, 1.32%-1.36%) were denied, consisting mainly of specific benefit denials (0.67%; 95% CI, 0.66%-0.68%) and billing errors (0.51%; 95% CI, 0.50%-0.52%). The lowest-income patients had 43.0% higher odds of experiencing a denial than the highest-income patients (odds ratio, 1.43; 95% CI, 1.37-1.50; P < .001). The least educated enrollees had a denial rate of 1.79% (95% CI, 1.76%-1.82%) compared with 1.14% (95% CI, 1.12%-1.16%) for enrollees with college degrees. Denial rates for Asian (2.72%; 95% CI, 2.55%-2.90%), Hispanic (2.44%; 95% CI, 2.38%-2.50%), and non-Hispanic Black (2.04%; 95% CI, 1.99%-2.08%) patients were significantly higher than those for non-Hispanic White patients (1.13%; 95% CI, 1.12%-1.15%).

Conclusions and Relevance

In this cohort study of 1 535 181 patients seeking preventive care, denials of insurance claims for preventive care were disproportionately more common among at-risk patient populations. This administrative burden potentially perpetuates inequitable access to high-value health care.

Non-Medical Switching or Discontinuation Patterns among Patients with Non-Valvular Atrial Fibrillation Treated with Direct Oral Anticoagulants in the United States: A Claims-Based Analysis

This study assessed direct-acting oral anticoagulant (DOAC) switching/discontinuation patterns in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) in 2019, by quarter (Q1-Q4), and associated socioeconomic risk factors. Adults with NVAF initiating stable DOAC treatment (July 2018-December 2018) were selected from Symphony Health Solutions' Patient Transactional Datasets (April 2017-January 2021). Switching/discontinuation rates were reported in 2019 Q1-Q4, separately. Non-medical switching/discontinuation (NMSD) was defined as the difference between switching/discontinuation rates in Q1 and mean rates across Q2-Q4. The associations of socioeconomic factors with switching/discontinuation were assessed. Of 46,793 patients (78.7% ≥ 65 years; 52.6% male; 7.7% Black), 18.0% switched/discontinued their initial DOAC in Q1 vs. 8.8% on average in Q2-Q4, corresponding to an NMSD of 9.2%. During the quarter following the switch/discontinuation, more patients who switched/discontinued in Q1 remained untreated (Q1: 77.0%; Q2: 74.3%; Q3: 71.2%) and fewer reinitiated initial DOAC (Q1: 17.6%; Q2: 20.8%; Q3: 24.0%). Factors associated with the risk of switching/discontinuation in Q1 were race, age, gender, insurance type, and household income (all p < 0.05). More patients with NVAF switched/discontinued DOACs in Q1 vs. Q2-Q4, and more of them tended to remain untreated relative to those who switched/discontinued later in the year, suggesting a potential long-term impact of NMSD. Findings on factors associated with switching/discontinuation highlight potential socioeconomic discrepancies in treatment continuity.

Use Of High- And Low-Value Health Care Among US Adults, By Income, 2010-19

Health care payment reforms in the US have aimed to encourage the use of high-value care while discouraging the use of low-value care. However, little is known about whether the use of high- and low-value care differs by income level. Using data from the 2010-19 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, we examined the use of specified types of high- and low-value care by income level. We found that high-income adults were significantly more likely than low-income adults to use nearly all types of high-value care. Findings were consistent across age categories, although differences by income level in the use of high-value care were smaller among the elderly. Our analysis of differences in the use of low-value care had mixed results. Among nonelderly adults, significant differences between those with high and low incomes were found for five of nine low-value services, and among elderly adults, significant differences by income level were found for three of twelve low-value services. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these disparities is crucial to developing effective policies and interventions to ensure equitable access to high-value care and discourage low-value services for all patients, regardless of income.

Editorial Commentary: Increasing Patient Out-of-Pocket Expense Does Not Increase Value of Outpatient Surgery

In a value-based care environment, a goal is to favor outpatient surgery to reduce costs. Unfortunately, while outpatient (as compared to inpatient) surgery reduces overall cost, recent research shows that by including patient out-of-pocket expense (POPE), the proportion of overall cost born by the patient can greatly increase, which is unjust. The primary contributors to high outpatient surgery POPE are out-of-network facilities, out-of-network surgeons, and high-deductible insurance. Although historical focus on outpatient surgical cost reductions has been toward surgeon fees, anesthesia fees, facility fees, and implant fees, we must also focus on POPE. In the interim, it is essential to provide patients with price transparency, so that they understand their anticipated expenses and are not blindsided by cost burden.

Evaluating a novel online behavioural intervention to encourage cost-conscious strategies among US adults with chronic conditions who are enrolled in a high-deductible health plan: a proof-of-concept pilot study

OBJECTIVES

Patients with chronic conditions enrolled in high-deductible health plans (HDHPs) face cost-related access barriers and high out-of-pocket spending. Our objectives were to develop a novel behavioural intervention to help HDHP enrollees with chronic conditions use cost-conscious strategies and evaluate the intervention's preliminary effectiveness, acceptability and feasibility.

DESIGN

Prospective.

SETTING

Online (USA).

PARTICIPANTS

36 US adults enrolled in an HDHP through their employer or an exchange with diabetes, hypertension, asthma, coronary artery disease and/or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. 31/36 participants completed the study.

INTERVENTION

We developed a 5-week intervention consisting of a website with educational modules on discussing costs with clinicians, saving for future healthcare costs, comparing healthcare prices and quality, preparing for appointments, following up after appointments and planning for future healthcare needs; and emails encouraging participants to access each module.

OUTCOMES

We conducted a single-arm proof-of-concept pilot study of the intervention. Baseline and postintervention surveys measured primary outcomes of health insurance literacy and confidence in using cost-conscious strategies. 10 participants completed postintervention interviews.

RESULTS

31 (86%) participants completed a baseline and postintervention survey. Mean health insurance literacy scores (20-80 scale) improved from 56.5 to 67.1 (p<0.001). Mean confidence scores (0-10 scale) improved for talking to a healthcare provider about cost (6.1-7.6, p=0.0094), saving for healthcare (5.8-6.6, p=0.068), comparing prices (5.4-6.9, p=0.005) and comparing quality (6.1 to 7.6, p=0.0034). Participants found the website easy to use and helpful for learning about cost-conscious strategies on postintervention interviews.

CONCLUSIONS

Our novel behavioural intervention was acceptable to HDHP enrollees with chronic conditions, feasible to deliver and associated with increased health insurance literacy and confidence in using cost-conscious strategies. This intervention should be tested in a definitive randomised controlled trial that is fully powered to evaluate its effects on cost-related access barriers, out-of-pocket spending and health outcomes in this growing patient population.

Randomized Experiments to Reduce Overuse of Health Care: A Scoping Review

OBJECTIVE

Health care overuse is pervasive in countries with advanced health care delivery systems. We hypothesize that effective interventions to reduce low-value care that targets patients or clinicians are mediated by psychological and cognitive processes that change behaviors and that interventions targeting these processes are varied. Thus, we performed a scoping review of experimental studies of interventions, including the interventions' objectives and characteristics, to reduce low-value care that targeted psychological and cognitive processes.

METHODS

We systematically searched databases for experimental studies of interventions to change cognitive orientations and affective states in the setting of health care overuse. Outcomes included observed overuse or a stated intention to use services. We used existing frameworks for behavior change and mechanisms of change to categorize the interventions and the mediating processes.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven articles met the inclusion criteria. Sixteen studied the provision of information to patients or clinicians, with most providing cost information. Six studies used educational interventions, including the provision of feedback about individual practice. Studies rarely used counseling, behavioral nudges, persuasion, and rewards. Mechanisms for behavior change included gain in knowledge or confidence and motivation by social norms.

CONCLUSIONS

In this scoping review, we found few experiments testing interventions that directly target the psychological and cognitive processes of patients or clinicians to reduce low-value care. Most studies provided information to patients or clinicians without measuring or considering mediating factors toward behavior change. These findings highlight the need for process-driven experimental designs, including trials of behavioral nudges and persuasive language involving a trusting patient-clinician relationship, to identify effective interventions to reduce low-value care.

Deductible imputation in administrative medical claims datasets

OBJECTIVE

To validate imputation methods used to infer plan-level deductibles and determine which enrollees are in high-deductible health plans (HDHPs) in administrative claims datasets.

DATA SOURCES AND STUDY SETTING

2017 medical and pharmaceutical claims from OptumLabs Data Warehouse for US individuals <65 continuously enrolled in an employer-sponsored plan. Data include enrollee and plan characteristics, deductible spending, plan spending, and actual plan-level deductibles.

STUDY DESIGN

We impute plan deductibles using four methods: (1) parametric prediction using individual-level spending; (2) parametric prediction with imputation and plan characteristics; (3) highest plan-specific mode of individual annual deductible spending; and (4) deductible spending at the 80th percentile among individuals meeting their deductible. We compare deductibles' levels and categories for imputed versus actual deductibles.

DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS

Not applicable.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

All methods had a positive predictive value (PPV) for determining high- versus low-deductible plans of ≥87%; negative predictive values (NPV) were lower. The method imputing plan-specific deductible spending modes was most accurate and least computationally intensive (PPV: 95%; NPV: 91%). This method also best correlated with actual deductible levels; 69% of imputed deductibles were within $250 of the true deductible.

CONCLUSIONS

In the absence of plan structure data, imputing plan-specific modes of individual annual deductible spending best correlates with true deductibles and best predicts enrollees in HDHPs.

Why Cost Sharing on Its Own Will Not Fix Health Care Costs

This Viewpoint describes issues with cost sharing for health care costs and suggests improvements to current cost sharing systems.

How Have Patient Out-of-pocket Costs for Common Outpatient Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Surgical Procedures Changed Over Time? A Retrospective Study From 2010 to 2020

BACKGROUND

Out-of-pocket (OOP) costs can be substantial financial burdens for patients and may even cause patients to delay or forgo necessary medical procedures. Although overall healthcare costs are rising in the United States, recent trends in patient OOP costs for foot and ankle orthopaedic surgical procedures have not been reported. Fully understanding patient OOP costs for common orthopaedic surgical procedures, such as those performed on the foot and ankle, might help patients and professionals make informed decisions regarding treatment options and demonstrate to policymakers the growing unaffordability of these procedures.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

(1) How do OOP costs for common outpatient foot and ankle surgical procedures for commercially insured patients compare between elective and trauma surgical procedures? (2) How do these OOP costs compare between patients enrolled in various insurance plan types? (3) How do these OOP costs compare between surgical procedures performed in hospital-based outpatient departments and ambulatory surgical centers (ASCs)? (4) How have these OOP costs changed over time?

METHODS

This was a retrospective, comparative study drawn from a large, longitudinally maintained database. Data on adult patients who underwent elective or trauma outpatient foot or ankle surgical procedures between 2010 and 2020 were extracted using the MarketScan Database, which contains well-delineated cost variables for all patient claims, which are particularly advantageous for assessing OOP costs. Of the 1,031,279 patient encounters initially identified, 41% (427,879) met the inclusion criteria. Demographic, procedural, and financial data were recorded. The median patient age was 50 years (IQR 39 to 57); 65% were women, and more than half of patients were enrolled in preferred provider organization insurance plans. Approximately 75% of surgical procedures were classified as elective (rather than trauma), and 69% of procedures were performed in hospital-based outpatient departments (rather than ASCs). The primary outcome was OOP costs incurred by the patient, which were defined as the sum of the deductible, coinsurance, and copayment paid for each episode of care. Monetary data were adjusted to 2020 USD. A general linear regression, the Kruskal-Wallis test, and the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test were used for analysis, as appropriate. Alpha was set at 0.05.

RESULTS

For foot and ankle indications, trauma surgical procedures generated higher median OOP costs than elective procedures (USD 942 [IQR USD 150 to 2052] versus USD 568 [IQR USD 51 to 1426], difference of medians USD 374; p < 0.001). Of the insurance plans studied, high-deductible health plans had the highest median OOP costs. OOP costs were lower for procedures performed in ASCs than in hospital-based outpatient departments (USD 645 [IQR USD 114 to 1447] versus USD 681 [IQR USD 64 to 1683], difference of medians USD 36; p < 0.001). This trend was driven by higher coinsurance for hospital-based outpatient departments than for ASCs (USD 391 [IQR USD 0 to 1136] versus USD 337 [IQR USD 0 to 797], difference of medians USD 54; p < 0.001). The median OOP costs for common outpatient foot and ankle surgical procedures increased by 102%, from USD 450 in 2010 to USD 907 in 2020.

CONCLUSION

Rapidly increasing OOP costs of common foot and ankle orthopaedic surgical procedures warrant a thorough investigation of potential cost-saving strategies and initiatives to enhance healthcare affordability for patients. In particular, measures should be taken to reduce underuse of necessary care for patients enrolled in high-deductible health plans, such as shorter-term deductible timespans and placing additional regulations on the implementation of these plans. Moreover, policymakers and physicians could consider finding ways to increase the proportion of procedures performed at ASCs for procedure types that have been shown to be equally safe and effective as in hospital-based outpatient departments. Future studies should extend this analysis to publicly insured patients and further investigate the health and financial effects of high-deductible health plans and ASCs, respectively.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, economic and decision analysis.

Impact of Private Payer Policies on the Transition to Telemental Health Care Among Privately Insured Patients with Mental Health Disorders

Introduction: Mental health patients in states without private payer telehealth reimbursement policies before the public health emergency (PHE) may have experienced reduced access to telemental health (TMH). We estimate the association between private payer telehealth policy status in 2019 and the transition to TMH in 2020. Methods: Retrospective cohort study of privately insured individuals 2-64 years old with a mental health disorder and without TMH use in 2019. We examined new telemental use in 2020 by three categories of policy reimbursement status in 2019 (partial parity, full parity vs. no policy), overall (any telemental), and by modality (live video, audio-only, and online assessments) using logistic regression models clustered by state. Results: Among the 34,612 enrollees, 54.7% received TMH for the first time. Relative to no policy states, enrollees in partial or full parity states were equally likely to receive TMH in 2020. However, enrollees in states with a private payer telehealth policy were less likely to receive audio-only (partial parity: odds ratio [OR]: 0.59, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.39-0.90; full parity: OR: 0.38, 95% CI: 0.26-0.55), but more likely to receive online assessments (full parity: OR: 2.28, 95% CI: 1.4-4.59). Conclusions: Privately insured enrollees similarly transitioned to TMH across states suggesting a broad impact of the PHE policies on access to this care. The differences in audio-only and online assessments suggest that providers were possibly better prepared to implement TMH care via live video or patient portals in states with telehealth policies.

Cancer stage at diagnosis: Comparison of insurance status in SEER to the Department of Defense Cancer Registry

BACKGROUND

Military individuals, retirees, and their families have free care or minimal out-of-pocket costs in the US military health system (MHS). In contrast, out-of-pocket costs in the US general population vary substantially. This study compared cancer patients with various insurance types in the general population to those in the MHS in cancer stage at diagnosis.

METHODS

Patients were identified from the US Department of Defense's (DoD) Automated Central Tumor Registry (ACTUR) and the National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program. Tumor stage at diagnosis of breast, prostate, lung, and colon cancers during 2007-2013 was compared between ACTUR and SEER insurance categories of "insured," "insured-no specifics," "any Medicaid," and "uninsured," A multivariable logistic regression analysis estimated the odds ratio (OR) of late stage (Stages III and IV) versus early stage (Stages I and II) cancers comparing SEER insurance status to ACTUR.

RESULTS

There were 18,440 eligible patients identified from ACTUR and 831,959 patients identified from SEER. For all cancer types, patients in the SEER-insured/no specifics, Medicaid, and uninsured groups had significantly greater likelihood of late stage diagnosis compared to ACTUR patients. The adjusted ORs were greatest among uninsured and Medicaid patients. The SEER-insured group also had a significantly higher odds of advanced stage disease than ACTUR patients for prostate cancer and lung cancer.

CONCLUSION

Patients in the MHS with universal access to healthcare were diagnosed at an earlier stage than those in the general population. This difference was most evident compared to Medicaid and uninsured groups.

Choice of high-deductible health plans among enrollees with a substance use disorder

INTRODUCTION

High-deductible health plans (HDHPs) expose enrollees to increased out-of-pocket costs for their medical care, which can exacerbate the undertreatment of substance use disorders (SUDs). However, the factors that influence whether an enrollee with SUD chooses an HDHP are not well understood. In this study, we examine the factors associated with an individual with an SUD's decision to enroll in an HDHP.

METHODS

Using de-identified administrative commercial claims and enrollment data from OptumLabs (2007-2017), we identified individuals at employers offering at least one HDHP and one non-HDHP plan. We modeled whether an enrollee chose an HDHP using linear regression on plan and enrollee demographic characteristics. Key plan characteristics included whether a plan had a health savings account (HSA) or a health reimbursement arrangement (HRA). Key demographic variables included age, race/ethnicity, census block income range, census block highest educational attainment, and sex. We separately investigate new enrollment decisions (i.e., not previously enrolled in an HDHP) and re-enrollment decisions, as well as decisions among single enrollees and families of differing sizes. The study also adjusted models for additional plan characteristics, employer and year fixed effects, and census division. Robust standard errors were clustered at the employer level.

RESULTS

The sample comprised 30,832 plans and 318,334 enrollees. Among enrollees with new enrollment decisions, 24.6 % chose an HDHP; 93.8 % of HDHP enrollees chose to re-enroll in an HDHP. The study found the presence of a plan HRA to be associated with a higher probability of new and re-enrollment in an HDHP. We found that older enrollees with SUD were less likely to newly enroll in an HDHP, while enrollees who were non-White, living in lower-income census blocks, and living in lower educational attainment census blocks were more likely to newly enroll in an HDHP. Higher levels of health care utilization in the prior year were associated with a lower probability of newly enrolling in an HDHP but associated with a higher probability of re-enrolling.

CONCLUSION

Given the emerging evidence that HDHPs may discourage SUD treatment, greater HDHP enrollment could exacerbate health disparities.

Impact of High Deductible Health Plans on U.S. Adults With Chronic Pain

INTRODUCTION

Chronic pain affects an estimated 20% of U.S. adults. Because high-deductible health plans have captured a growing share of the commercial insurance market, it is unknown how high-deductible health plans impact care for chronic pain.

METHODS

Using 2007-2017 claims data from a large national commercial insurer, statistical analyses conducted in 2022-2023 estimated changes in enrollee outcomes before and after their firm began offering a high-deductible health plan compared with changes in outcomes in a comparison group of enrollees at firms never offering a high-deductible health plan. The sample included 757,530 commercially insured adults aged 18-64 years with headache, low back pain, arthritis, neuropathic pain, or fibromyalgia. Outcomes, measured at the enrollee year level, included the probability of receiving any chronic pain treatment, nonpharmacologic pain treatment, and opioid and nonopioid prescriptions; the number of nonpharmacologic pain treatment days; number and days' supply of opioid and nonopioid prescriptions; and total annual spending and out-of-pocket spending.

RESULTS

High-deductible health plan offer was associated with a 1.2 percentage point reduction (95% CI= -1.8, -0.5) in the probability of any chronic pain treatment and an $11 increase (95% CI=$6, $15) in annual out-of-pocket spending on chronic pain treatments among those with any use, representing a 16% increase in average annual out-of-pocket spending over the pre-high deductible health plan offer annual average. Results were driven by changes in nonpharmacologic treatment use.

CONCLUSIONS

By reducing the use of nonpharmacologic chronic pain treatments and marginally increasing out-of-pocket costs among those using these services, high-deductible health plans may discourage more holistic, integrated approaches to caring for patients with chronic pain conditions.

Association of High-Deductible Health Plans With Health Care Use and Costs for Patients With Cardiovascular Disease

Background By increasing cost sharing, high-deductible health plans (HDHPs) aim to reduce low-value health care use. The association of HDHPs with health care use and costs in patients with chronic cardiovascular disease is unknown. Methods and Results This longitudinal cohort study analyzed 57 690 privately insured patients, aged 18 to 64 years, from a large commercial claims database with chronic cardiovascular disease from 2011 to 2019. Health care entities in which all or most beneficiaries switched from being in a traditional plan to an HDHP were identified. A difference-in-differences design was used to account for differences between individuals who remained in traditional plans and those who switched to HDHPs and to assess changes in health care use and costs. Among the 934 individuals in the HDHP group and the 56 756 in the traditional plan group, switching to an HDHP was not associated with statistically significant changes in annual outpatient visits, hospitalizations, or emergency department visits (-8.3% [95% CI, -16.8 to 1.1], -28.5% [95% CI, -62.1 to 34.6], and 11.2% [95% CI, -20.9 to 56.5], respectively). Switching to an HDHP was associated with an increase of $921 (95% CI, $743-$1099) in out-of-pocket costs but no statistically significant difference in total health care costs. Conclusions Among commercially insured patients with chronic cardiovascular disease, switching to an HDHP was not associated with a change in health care use but was associated with an increase in out-of-pocket costs. Although health care use by individuals with chronic cardiovascular disease may not be sensitive to higher cost sharing associated with HDHP enrollment, there may be a significant increase in patients' financial burden.

Do High-Deductible Health Plans Incentivize Changing the Timing of Substance Use Disorder Treatment?

A high-deductible health plan (HDHP) may incentivize enrollees to limit health care use at the beginning of a plan year, when they are responsible for 100% of costs, or to increase the use of care at the end of the year, when enrollees may have less cost exposure. We investigated both the impact of the deductible reset that occurs at the beginning of a plan year and the option to enroll in an HDHP on the use of substance use disorder (SUD) treatment services over the course of a health plan year. We found decreases in SUD treatment use following the increase in cost exposure related to a deductible reset. There was no variation in this behavior between HDHP offer enrollees and comparison enrollees who were not offered an HDHP. These findings reinforce that cost-sharing poses a barrier to SUD care and continuity of care, which can increase the risk of adverse clinical outcomes.

Association of High-Deductible Health Plans and Time to Surgery for Breast and Colon Cancer

BACKGROUND

High-deductible health plans (HDHPs) have been shown to delay timing of breast and colon cancer screening, although the relationship to the timing of cancer surgery is unknown. The objective of this study was to characterize timing of surgery for breast and colon cancer patients undergoing cancer operations following routine screening.

STUDY DESIGN

Data from the IBM MarketScan Commercial Claims Database from 2007 to 2016 were queried to identify patients who underwent screening mammogram and/or colonoscopy. The calendar quarters of screening and surgery were analyzed with ordinal logistic regression. The time from screening to surgery (time to surgery, TTS) was evaluated using a Cox proportional hazard function.

RESULTS

Among 32,562,751 patients who had screening mammograms, 0.7% underwent breast cancer surgery within the following year. Among 9,325,238 patients who had screening colonoscopies, 0.9% were followed by colon cancer surgery within a year. The odds of screening (OR 1.146 for mammogram, 1.272 for colonoscopy; p < 0.001) and surgery (OR 1.120 for breast surgery, 1.219 for colon surgery; p < 0.001) increased each quarter for HDHPs compared to low-deductible health plans. Enrollment in an HDHP was not associated with a difference in TTS. Screening in Q3 or Q4 was associated with shorter TTS compared to screening in Q1 (hazard ratio 1.061 and 1.046, respectively; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

HDHPs were associated with delays in screening and surgery. However, HDHPs were not associated with delays in TTS. Interventions to improve cancer care outcomes in the HDHP population should concentrate on reducing barriers to timely screening.

Enhancing Trust During Complex Health Care Transformation

North Carolina's journey to value-based care substantially changes both care incentives and delivery, which requires buy-in from patients. Trust is a key enabler of patient accep-tance. Steps to reduce complexity in language and increase understanding of insurance contracts may improve trust and patience experiences.

Patient Cost-Sharing and Utilization of Breast Cancer Diagnostic Imaging by Patients Undergoing Subsequent Testing After a Screening Mammogram

Importance

Out-of-pocket costs (OOPCs) have been largely eliminated for screening mammography. However, patients still face OOPCs when undergoing subsequent diagnostic tests after the initial screening, which represents a potential barrier to those who require follow-up testing after initial testing.

Objective

To examine the association between the degree of patient cost-sharing and the use of diagnostic breast cancer imaging after undergoing a screening mammogram.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This retrospective cohort study used medical claims from Optum's deidentified Clinformatics Data Mart Database, a commercial claims database derived from a database of administrative health claims for members of large commercial and Medicare Advantage health plans. The large commercially insured cohort included female patients aged 40 years or older with no prior history of breast cancer undergoing a screening mammogram examination. Data were collected from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2017, and analysis was conducted from January 2021 to September 2022.

Exposures

A k-means clustering machine learning algorithm was used to classify patient insurance plans by dominant cost-sharing mechanism. Plan types were then ranked by OOPCs.

Main Outcomes and Measures

A multivariable 2-part hurdle regression model was used to examine the association between patient OOPCs and the number and type of diagnostic breast services undergone by patients observed to undergo subsequent testing.

Results

In our sample, 230 845 women (220 023 [95.3%] aged 40 to 64 years; 16 810 [7.3%] Black, 16 398 [7.1%] Hispanic, and 164 702 [71.3%] White) underwent a screening mammogram in 2016. These patients were covered by 22 828 distinct insurance plans associated with 6 025 741 enrollees and 44 911 473 distinct medical claims. Plans dominated by coinsurance were found to have the lowest mean (SD) OOPCs ($945 [$1456]), followed by balanced plans ($1017 [$1386]), plans dominated by copays ($1020 [$1408]), and plans dominated by deductibles ($1186 [$1522]). Women underwent significantly fewer subsequent breast imaging procedures in dominantly copay (24 [95% CI, 11-37] procedures per 1000 women) and dominantly deductible (16 [95% CI, 5-28] procedures per 1000 women) plans compared with coinsurance plans. Patients from all plan types underwent fewer breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans than patients in the lowest OOPC plan (balanced, 5 [95% CI, 2-12] MRIs per 1000 women; copay, 6 [95% CI, 3-6] MRI per 100 women; deductible, 6 [95% CI, 3-9] MRIs per 1000 women.

Conclusions and Relevance

Despite policies designed to remove financial barriers to access for breast cancer screening, significant financial barriers remain for women at risk of breast cancer.

Analysis of Postoperative Outcomes and Economic Behavior Trends of Tympanoplasty and Mastoidectomy With Expansion of High Deductible Health Plans

HYPOTHESIS

With rising deductibles, patients will delay ear surgeries toward the end of the year, and there will be an increase in postoperative complications.

BACKGROUND

The Affordable Care Act (ACA), passed on March 23, 2010, expanded high deductible health plans. The deductible can provide support for patients with high medical costs, but high deductibles deter patients from seeking necessary preventive health care and having elective procedures. Patients may defer care toward the end of the year until the deductible is met. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the relationship between expanding high deductible health plans and the repeal of the ACA's individual mandate on December 22, 2017, with the economic behavior trends of tympanoplasty and mastoidectomy in the fiscal year and surgical outcomes.

METHODS

TriNetX was used to obtain summary statistics of patients who had tympanoplasty and/or mastoidectomy from 58 health care organizations. TriNetX is a global federated database that contains de-identified patient data from the electronic medical records of participating health care institutions. This study evaluated the trends in ear surgeries from 2005 to 2021 in the fiscal quarters 1 and 4. Relative risk of developing postoperative complications was statistically interrogated.

RESULTS

The average rate of ear surgeries measured in cases/year was higher in Quarter 4 than in Quarter 1 after the expansion of higher deductible health plans (180; 124; p < 0.0001). After the repeal of the ACA's individual mandate, the rate of ear surgeries in Quarter 4 significantly decreased compared to post-ACA (-3.7; 287; p = 0.0002). No statistically significant differences were notable in postoperative complications.

CONCLUSIONS

The expansion of high deductible health plans with a rise in deductibles is associated with an increase in ear surgeries toward the end of the year. The repeal of the ACA's individual mandate is associated with a decreased rate of ear surgeries compared to post-ACA implementation. Despite financial concern, there was no increase in postoperative complications toward the end of the year.

Cost-Related Access Barriers, Medical Debt, and Dissatisfaction with Care Among Privately Insured Americans

BACKGROUND

Understanding experiences with private important to improving the quality of health care coverage.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association of health with cost-related access barriers, medical debt, and dissatisfaction with care among privately insured Americans.

DESIGN

We classified Americans with private insurance by self-reported health status into five groups (excellent, very good, good, fair, and poor health). We examined self-reported difficulty seeing a doctor due to costs, not taking medications due to costs, medical debt, and dissatisfaction with care among individuals with differing health status. We used logistic regression to examine the association of health status with individuals' experiences after accounting for baseline characteristics. The analysis was repeated among individuals with different forms of private insurance. Odds ratios were converted to risk ratios to improve ease of interpretation of the results.

SETTING

Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System of Americans in 17 states RESULTS: The sample included 82,494 US adults with private insurance. Following adjustment, compared to individuals with excellent health those in very good health, good health, fair health, and poor health reported increasingly higher risks of difficulty seeing a doctor due to costs with risk ratios of 1.02 (95% CI 1.01, 1.03), 1.07 (95% CI 1.06, 1.08), 1.18 (95% CI 1.17, 1.20), and 1.29 (95% CI 1.27, 1.31), respectively. Compared to individuals with excellent health, those in very good health, good health, fair health, and poor health reported increasingly higher risks of not taking medication due to costs, outstanding medical debt, and dissatisfaction with care. Similar relationships were seen across individually purchased and employer-sponsored insurance.

CONCLUSION

Cost-related access barriers, medical debt, and dissatisfaction with care were common among individuals with private insurance and most pronounced among those with fair and poor health who likely need and use their health insurance the most.

Consumer perceptions of information features in healthcare service advertisements and attitudes toward advertising

Purpose

With the increasing dependence on market-based distribution of health-care resources in the USA, spending on health-care service advertisements directly targeting consumers has also increased. Previous research has shown that the ads fail to deliver information deemed essential by regulators. Nevertheless, the attitude of consumers toward health-care service advertising has been more positive than negative. The purpose of this study is to create a taxonomy of advertising information features to better describe the relationships between information features in the advertisements and consumer attitudes toward them.

Design/methodology/approach

A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 128 health-care consumers in a western state in the USA.

Findings

Factor analysis generated seven groups of information features. Among them, information features about access, cost and quality of care were rated as most helpful, whereas providers’ clinical qualifications and communication were rated least helpful. The advertising attitude measure was validated to contain two subscales, one regarding health-care service advertising and the other regarding physicians who advertise. People who highly rated the consumerism features had more positive attitudes toward health-care service advertising and people who highly rated provider clinical qualification features had more negative attitudes toward advertising physicians.

Originality/value

This study made methodological improvements in health-care service advertising research that would be crucial for its theoretical development. It also shed light on consumer characteristics and perceptions about information features that could influence their attitudes toward health-care service advertising.

Understanding patient cost-sharing thresholds for diabetes treatment attributes via a discrete choice experiment

BACKGROUND: The process used to prefer certain products across drug classes for diabetes is generally focused on comparative effectiveness and cost. However, payers rarely tie patient preference for treatment attributes to formulary management resulting in a misalignment of value defined by providers, payers, and patients. OBJECTIVES: To explore patients' willingness to pay (WTP) for the predetermined high-value and low-value type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) treatments within a health plan. METHODS: A cross-sectional discrete choice experiment (DCE) survey was used to determine patient preference for the benefit, risk, and cost attributes of T2DM treatments. A comprehensive literature review of patient preference studies in diabetes and a review of guidelines and medical literature identified study attributes. Patients and diabetes experts were interviewed and instructed to identify, prioritize, and comment on which attributes of diabetes treatments were most important to T2DM patients. The patients enrolled in a health plan were asked to respond to the survey. A multinomial logit model was developed to determine the relative importance and the patient's WTP of each attribute. The patients' relative values based on WTPs for T2DM treatments were calculated and compared with the treatments by a health plan. RESULTS: A total of 7 attributes were selected to develop a web-based DCE questionnaire survey. The responses from a total of 58 patients were analyzed. Almost half (48.3%) of the respondents took oral medications and injections for T2DM. The most prevalent side effects due to diabetes medications were gastrointestinal (43.1%), followed by weight gain (39.7%) and nausea (32.8%). Patients were willing to pay more for treatments with proven cardiovascular benefit and for the risk reduction of hospitalization from heart failure. On the other hand, they would pay less for treatments with higher gastrointestinal side effects. Patients were willing to pay the most for sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist agents and the least for dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and thiazolidinediones. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides information to better align patient, provider, and payer preferences in both benefit design and value-based formulary strategy for diabetes treatments. A preferred placement of treatments with cardiovascular benefits and lower adverse gastrointestinal side effects may lead to increased adherence to medications and improved clinical outcomes at a lower overall cost to both patients and their health plan. DISCLOSURES: This study was supported by a grant from the PhRMA Foundation.

Impact of High-Deductible Health Plans on Breast Reconstruction: Considerations for Financial Toxicity

BACKGROUND

High-deductible health plans (HDHPs) are used within the United States to curb unnecessary health care spending; however, the resulting increased out-of-pocket (OOP) costs may be associated with financial toxicity. The aim was to assess the impact of HDHPs on use and seasonality of mastectomy and breast reconstruction procedures. The hypothesis is that the high OOP costs of HDHPs will lead to decreased overall service use and greater fourth-quarter use after the deductible has been met.

METHODS

MarketScan was queried from 2014 to 2017 for episodes of mastectomy, breast reconstruction (immediate and delayed), breast revision, and reduction. Only patients continuously enrolled for the full calendar year after the index operation were included. HDHPs and low-deductible health plans (LDHPs) were compared based on OOP cost sharing. Outcomes included surgery use rates, seasonality of operations, and median/mean OOP costs.

RESULTS

Annual mastectomy and breast reconstruction use rates varied little between LDHPs and HDHPs. Mastectomies, delayed breast reconstruction, and elective breast procedures (P < 0.001) all showed significant increases in fourth-quarter use, whereas immediate breast reconstruction did not. Regardless of timing and reconstruction method, HDHPs had significantly greater median OOP costs compared to LDHPs (all P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Mastectomy and breast reconstruction rates did not differ between LDHPs and HDHPs, but seasonality for all breast procedures was measured with the exception of immediate breast reconstruction, suggesting that women are rational economic actors. Regardless of service timing and reconstruction modality, HDHP patients had greater OOP costs compared to LDHP patients, which serves as a good starting point for provider engagement in financial toxicity.

Association between Financial Barriers to Healthcare Access and Mental Health Outcomes in Tennessee

OBJECTIVES

A large number of people cannot afford healthcare services in the United States. Researchers have studied the impact of lack of affordability of health care on the outcomes of various physical conditions. Mental health disorders have emerged as a major public health challenge during the past decade. The lack of affordability of health care also may contribute to the burden of mental health. This research focuses on the association between financial barriers to health care and mental health outcomes in the US state of Tennessee.

METHODS

We used cross-sectional data contained in the 2019 US Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). We extracted data for the state of Tennessee, which included 6242 adults aged 18 years or older. Multinomial regression analyses were conducted to test the association between not being able to see a doctor with the number of mentally unhealthy days during the past month. We coded the outcome as a three-level variable, ≥20 past-month mentally unhealthy days, 1 to 20 past-month mentally unhealthy days, and 0 past-month mentally unhealthy days. The covariates examined included self-reported alcohol use, self-reported marijuana use, and other demographic variables.

RESULTS

Overall, 11.0% of participants reported ≥20 past-month mentally unhealthy days and 24.0% reported 1 to 20 past-month mentally unhealthy days. More than 13% of study participants reported they could not see a doctor because of the cost in the past 12 months. The inability to see a doctor because of the cost of care was associated with a higher risk of ≥20 past-month mentally unhealthy days (relative risk ratio 3.18; 95% confidence interval 2.57-3.92, P < 0.001) and 1 to 19 past-month mentally unhealthy days (relative risk ratio 1.94; 95% confidence interval 1.63-2.32, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Statistically significant associations were observed between the inability to see a doctor when needed because of cost and increased days of poorer mental health outcomes. This research has potential policy implications in the postcoronavirus disease 2019 era with healthcare transformation and significant financial impact.

The effect of contraceptive access reform on privately insured patients: Evidence from Delaware Contraceptive Access Now

BACKGROUND

Many states are implementing comprehensive programs aimed at reducing persistent barriers to contraceptive care. Evidence on the effectiveness of these programs is essential for practice improvement and policy development.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate changes in the probability of initiating a contraceptive method by women with employer sponsored insurance after implementation of Delaware Contraceptive Access Now (DelCAN), a statewide initiative that aimed to increase access to long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs).

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

We used a difference-in-differences design to examine contraceptive initiation rates. Data came from IBM Marketscan and covered women age 15-44 enrolled in employer sponsored insurance. The primary outcome was insertion of a LARC, both in the overall study population and in the immediate postpartum (IPP) setting. Secondary analysis examined changes to other contraceptive method types.

RESULTS

The cohort of 4,550,459 enrollees generated a sample of 11,888,837 person-years and 615,670 childbirth hospitalizations. Difference-in-differences estimates suggested that DelCAN was associated with a 0.3 percentage point (95% CI [0.2, 0.5], p<0.001) increase in the LARC insertion rate in the overall study population and a 0.4 percentage point increase (95% CI [0.2, 0.6], p<0.001) in the percent of births adopting IPP LARC. Associations between DelCAN and LARC insertion appeared stronger for adolescents compared to older women. Results for other method types were less consistent.

CONCLUSIONS

A comprehensive statewide program was associated with increased LARC insertion rates among enrollees with employer sponsored insurance. Understanding the effect of these programs is critical for on-going policy development for states engaged in contraceptive access reform.

Repeat Annual Lung Cancer Screening After Baseline Screening Among Screen-Negative Individuals: No-Cost Coverage Is Not Enough

PURPOSE

Adherence to lung cancer screening (LCS) is central to effective screening. The authors evaluated the likelihood of repeat annual LCS in a national commercially insured population and associations with individual characteristics, insurance characteristics, and annual out-of-pocket cost (OOPC) burden.

METHODS

Using claims data from an employer-insured population (Clinformatics), individuals 55 to 80 years of age undergoing LCS between January 1, 2015, to September 30, 2019, with "negative" LCS were included. Repeat LCS was defined as low-dose chest CT occurring 10 to 15 months after the preceding LCS. Analysis was conducted over a 6-year period. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate associations between repeat LCS and individual characteristics, insurance characteristics, and total OOPC incurred by the individual in the year of the index LCS, even if unrelated to LCS.

RESULTS

Of 14,943 individuals with negative LCS, 4,561 (30.5%) underwent repeat LCS. Likelihood of repeat LCS was decreased for men (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.91; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.86-0.97), Hispanic ethnicity (aOR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.69-0.97), and indemnity insurance plans (aOR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.25-0.53). Relative to New England, individuals in nearly all US geographic regions were less likely to undergo repeat LCS. Finally, individuals with total OOPC in the highest two quartiles were less likely to undergo repeat LCS (aOR, 0.85 [95% CI, 0.77-0.92] for OOPC >$1,069.02-$2,475.09 vs $0-$351.82; aOR, 0.75 [95% CI, 0.68-0.82] for OOPC >$2,475.09 vs $0-$351.82).

CONCLUSIONS

Although federal policies facilitate LCS without cost sharing, individuals incurring high OOPC, even when unrelated to LCS, are less likely to undergo repeat LCS. Future policy design should consider the permeative burden of OOPC across the health continuum on preventive services use.

Association between high deductible health plan coverage and age at pediatric umbilical hernia repair

Background

High deductible health plans (HDHPs) are associated with the avoidance of both necessary and unnecessary healthcare. Umbilical hernia repair (UHR) is a procedure that is frequently unnecessarily performed in young children, contrary to best practice guidelines. We hypothesized that children with HDHPs, as compared with other types of commercial health plans, are less likely to undergo UHR before 4 years of age but are also more likely to have UHR delayed beyond 5 years of age.

Methods

Children aged 0-18 years old residing in metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) who underwent UHR in 2012-2019 were identified in the IBM Marketscan Commercial Claims and Encounters Database. A quasi-experimental study design using MSA/year-level HDHP prevalence among children as an instrumental variable was employed to account for selection bias in HDHP enrollment. Two-stage least squares regression modeling was used to evaluate the association between HDHP coverage and age at UHR.

Results

A total of 8601 children were included (median age 5 years, IQR 3-7). Univariable analysis revealed no differences between the HDHP and non-HDHP groups in the likelihood of UHR being performed before 4 years of age (27.7% vs 28.7%, p=0.37) or after 5 years of age (39.8% vs 38.9%, p=0.52). Geographical region, metropolitan area size, and year were associated with HDHP enrollment. Instrumental variable analysis demonstrated no association between HDHP coverage and undergoing UHR at <4 years of age (p=0.76) or >5 years of age (p=0.87).

Conclusions

HDHP coverage is not associated with age at pediatric UHR. Future studies should investigate other means by which UHRs in young children can be avoided.

Financial Toxicity in the Post-Health Reform Era

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), enacted in March 2010, was comprehensive health care reform legislation aimed to improve health care access and quality of care and curb health care-related costs. This review focuses on key provisions of the ACA and their impact on financial toxicity. We will focus our review on cancer care, because this is the most commonly studied disease process in respect to financial toxicity. Patients with cancer face rising expenditures and financial burden, which in turn impact quality of life, compliance to treatment, and survival outcomes. Health insurance expansion include dependent-coverage expansion, Medicaid expansion, and establishment of the Marketplace. Coverage reform focused on reducing financial barriers by limiting cost sharing. Payment reforms included new innovative payment and delivery systems to focus on improving outcomes and reducing costs. Challenges remain as efforts to reduce costs have led to the expansion of insurance plans, such as high-deductible health plans, that may ultimately worsen financial toxicity in cancer and high out-of-pocket costs for further diagnostic testing and procedures. Further research is necessary to evaluate the long-term impacts of the ACA provisions-and threats to the ACA-on outcomes and the costs accrued by patients.

High Deductible Health Plans and Use of Free Preventive Services Under the Affordable Care Act

The Affordable Care Act aimed to increase use of preventive services by eliminating cost-sharing to consumers. However, patients may be unaware of this benefit or they may not seek preventive services if they anticipate that the cost of potential diagnostic or treatment services will be too high, both more likely among those in high deductible health plans. We used nationally representative private health insurance claims (100% sample of IBM^® MarketScan^®) for the United States from 2006 to 2018, restricting the data to enrollment and claims for non-elderly adults who were enrolled for the full plan year. The cross-sectional sample (185 million person-years) is used to describe trends in preventive service use and costs from 2008 through 2016. The cohort sample (9 million people) focuses on the elimination of cost-sharing for certain high-value preventive services in late 2010, requiring continuous enrollment across 2010 and 2011. We examine whether HDHP enrollment is associated with use of eligible preventive services using semi-parametric difference-in-differences to account for endogenous plan selection. Our preferred model implies that HDHP enrollment was associated with a reduction of the post-ACA change in any use of eligible preventive services by 0.2 percentage points or 12.5%. Cancer screenings were unaffected but HDHP enrollment was associated with smaller increases in wellness visits, immunizations, and screening for chronic conditions and sexually transmitted infections. We also find that the policy was ineffective at reducing out-of-pocket costs for the eligible preventive services, likely due to implementation issues.

Patient Out-of-Pocket Costs Following the Availability of Biosimilar Versions of Infliximab

After market exclusivity ends for biologic drugs, biosimilars-follow-on versions made by other manufacturers-can compete with lower prices. Biosimilars have modestly reduced prescription drug spending for US payers, but it is unclear whether patients have directly experienced any savings. In this study we assessed whether availability of biosimilar infliximab was associated with lower out-of-pocket (OOP) costs, using claims from a national data set of commercially insured patients from 2014 to 2018. We used two-part models, adjusting for patient demographics, clinical characteristics, insurance plan type, and calendar month. Compared with the reference biologic, there was no difference in the percentage of biosimilar claims with OOP costs (30.1% vs. 30.8%; adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.84-1.15, P = 0.84) or the average nonzero OOP cost (median $378 vs. $538, adjusted mean ratio (aMR) 0.97, 95% CI, 0.80-1.18, P = 0.77). The percentage of claims with OOP costs was lower after biosimilar competition (30.7% vs. 35.0%, aOR 0.96, 95% CI, 0.94-0.99, P = 0.003), but average nonzero costs increased (median $534 vs. $520, aMR 1.04, 95% CI, 1.01-1.07, P = 0.004). Thus, early biosimilar infliximab competition did not improve affordability for patients. Policymakers need to better assure that competition in the biosimilar market translates to lower costs for patients using these medications.

The Longitudinal Impact Of A Multistate Commercial Accountable Care Program On Cost, Use, And Quality

The prevalence of accountable care organizations (ACOs) has grown significantly across Medicare and commercial payers in the past decade, but there are limited insights regarding the effect of ACOs on costs in the commercial population. We used longitudinal administrative claims data over the course of nineteen calendar quarters from 2016 to 2021 to assess the ongoing incremental impact of Elevance Health's commercial ACO program on cost and use across fifteen US states. We also analyzed the program's impact on spending subcategories (inpatient, outpatient, professional, and pharmacy) and measured differences in quality performance. The program was associated with incremental savings during this period. Incremental savings were greater in the fully insured population relative to the administrative services only population and were due to outpatient and pharmacy savings. ACO providers had superior quality performance measures relative to contracted providers not participating in ACOs. Payers should be aware of the potential for diminishing marginal returns of ACO contracting on containing health care costs.

High deductible health plans and spending among families with a substance use disorder

BACKGROUND

The United States faces an ongoing drug crisis, worsened by the undertreatment of substance use disorders (SUDs). Family enrollment in high deductible health plans (HDHPs) and the resulting increased cost exposure could exacerbate the undertreatment of SUD. This study characterized the distribution of health care spending within families where a member has a SUD and estimated the association between HDHPs and family health care spending.

METHODS

Using commercial claims and enrollment data from OptumLabs (2007-2017), we identified a treatment group of enrollees whose employers began offering an HDHP and comparison group whose employers never offered an HDHP. We used a difference-in-differences analysis that compared health care spending in families at firms that did vs. did not offer an HDHP before and after the HDHP offer. All models were adjusted for employer and year fixed effects, as well as family demographics, size, and chronic conditions.

RESULTS

Our sample was comprised of 317,353 family-years. Family members with a SUD, on average, contributed an outsized proportion of total family health care expenditures (56.9% in a family of three). Offering a family HDHP was associated with a 6.1% reduction (95% confidence interval [CI]: 9.7-2.6%) in the probability of families having any SUD-related expenditures. The HDHP offer was associated with a $1546 reduction in family total expenditures and a $1185 reduction for the individual with SUD (95% CI: -2272 to -821 and -1845 to -525, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The increased prevalence of family enrollment in HDHPs may further the existing issue of undertreatment of SUDs.

A systematic review of strategies used for controlling consumer moral hazard in health systems

Background

Consumer moral hazard refers to an increase in demand for health services or a decrease in preventive care due to insurance coverage. This phenomenon as one of the most evident forms of moral hazard must be reduced and prevented because of its important role in increasing health costs. This study aimed to determine and analyze the strategies used to control consumer moral hazards in health systems.

Methods

In this systematic review. Web of Sciences, PubMed, Scopus, Embase, ProQuest, Iranian databases(Magiran and SID), and Google Scholar engine were searched using search terms related to moral hazard and healthcare utilization without time limitation. Eligible English and Persian studies on consumer moral hazard in health were included, and papers outside the health and in other languages were excluded. Thematic content analysis was used for data analysis.

Results

Content analysis of 68 studies included in the study was presented in the form of two group, six themes, and 11 categories. Two group included “changing behavior at the time of receiving health services” and “changing behavior before needing health services.” The first group included four themes: demand-side cost sharing, health savings accounts, drug price regulation, and rationing of health services. The second approach consisted of two themes Development of incentive insurance programs and community empowerment.

Conclusion

Strategies to control consumer moral hazards focus on changing consumer consumptive and health-related behaviors, which are designed according to the structure of health and financing systems. Since “changing consumptive behavior” strategies are the most commonly used strategies; therefore, it is necessary to strengthen strategies to control health-related behaviors and develop new strategies in future studies. In addition, in the application of existing strategies, the adaptation to the structure of the health and financing system, and the pattern of consumption of health services in society should be considered.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12913-022-08613-y.

Understanding patient and physician responses to various cost-sharing programs for prescription drugs in South Korea: A multilevel analysis

Introduction

Patient and/or physician responses are a pivotal issue in designing rational cost-sharing programs under health insurance systems.

Objectives

This study aims to understand patient and/or physician responses to cost-sharing programs designed for prescription drugs in South Korea.

Methods

As a framework, we took advantage of a tiered cost-sharing program, including from copayment to coinsurance (threshold 1) and reduced coinsurance (threshold 2). Given the hierarchical structure of prescriptions nested within patients, we utilized a multilevel analysis to assess effects of various cost-sharing programs on patient and/or physician responses using National Health Insurance claims data from 2018.

Results

We found that a tiered cost-sharing program was effective in changing the behaviors of patients and/or physicians. Threshold 1 was found to be more effective than threshold 2 in changing their behaviors. At the prescription level, sensitivity to cost-sharing programs was associated with prescribed days of treatment and locations of prescription. In a similar vein, sensitivity to cost-sharing programs was associated with gender and age group of patients.

Conclusion

A simplified cost-sharing program with extended intervals should be considered to rationalize cost-sharing programs. Specifically, a cost-sharing program designed for long-term prescriptions for chronic diseases together with an emphasis on cost transparency is required to better guide price-conscious decisions by patients and/or physicians.

Association of Medical Financial Hardship and Mortality Among Cancer Survivors in the United States

BACKGROUND

Cancer survivors frequently experience medical financial hardship in the United States. Little is known, however, about long-term health consequences. This study examines the associations of financial hardship and mortality in a large nationally representative sample of cancer survivors.

METHODS

We identified cancer survivors aged 18-64 years (n = 14 917) and 65-79 years (n = 10 391) from the 1997-2014 National Health Interview Survey and its linked mortality files with vital status through December 31, 2015. Medical financial hardship was measured as problems affording care or delaying or forgoing any care because of cost in the past 12 months. Risk of mortality was estimated with separate weighted Cox proportional hazards models by age group with age as the timescale, controlling for the effects of sociodemographic characteristics. Health insurance coverage was added sequentially to multivariable models.

RESULTS

Among cancer survivors aged 18-64 years and 65-79 years, 29.6% and 11.0%, respectively, reported financial hardship in the past 12 months. Survivors with hardship had higher adjusted mortality risk than their counterparts in both age groups: 18-64 years (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.17, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.04 to 1.30) and 65-79 years (HR = 1.14, 95% CI = 1.02 to 1.28). Further adjustment for health insurance reduced the magnitude of association of hardship and mortality among survivors aged 18-64 years (HR = 1.09, 95% CI = 0.97 to 1.24). Adjustment for supplemental Medicare coverage had little effect among survivors aged 65-79 years (HR = 1.15, 95% CI = 1.02 to 1.29).

CONCLUSION

Medical financial hardship was associated with mortality risk among cancer survivors in the United States.

Association of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act With Ambulatory Quality, Patient Experience, Utilization, and Cost, 2014-2016

IMPORTANCE

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) expanded Medicaid eligibility at the discretion of states to US individuals earning up to 138% of the federal poverty level (FPL) and made private insurance subsidies available to most individuals earning up to 400% of the FPL. Its national impact remains debated.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association of the ACA with ambulatory quality, patient experience, utilization, and cost.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cross-sectional study used difference-in-differences (DiD) analyses comparing outcomes before (2011-2013) and after (2014-2016) ACA implementation for US adults aged 18 to 64 years with income below and greater than or equal to 400% of the FPL. Participants were respondents to the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, a nationally representative annual survey. Data analysis was performed from January 2021 to March 2022.

EXPOSURES

ACA implementation.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

For quality and experience, this study examined previously published composites based on individual measures, including high-value care composites (eg, preventive testing) and low-value care composites (eg, inappropriate imaging), an overall patient experience rating, a physician communication composite, and an access-to-care composite. For utilization, outpatient, emergency, and inpatient encounters and prescribed medicines were examined. Overall and out-of-pocket expenditures were analyzed for cost.

RESULTS

The total sample included 123 171 individuals (mean [SD] age, 39.9 [13.4] years; 65 034 women [52.8%]). After ACA implementation, adults with income less than 400% of the FPL received increased high-value care (diagnostic and preventive testing) compared with adults with income 400% or higher of the FPL (change from 70% to 72% vs change from 84% to 84%; adjusted DiD, 1.20%; 95% CI, 0.18% to 2.21%; P = .02) with no difference in any other quality composites. Individuals with income less than 400% of the FPL had larger improvements in experience, communication, and access composites compared with those with income greater than or equal to 400% of the FPL (global rating of health, change from 69% to 73% vs change from 79% to 81%; adjusted DiD, 2.12%; 95% CI, 0.18% to 4.05%; P = .03). There were no differences in utilization or cost, except that receipt of primary care increased for those with lower income vs those with higher income (change from 65% to 66% vs change from 80% to 77%; adjusted DiD, 2.97%; 95% CI, 1.18% to 4.77%; P = .001) and total out-of-pocket expenditures decreased for those with lower income vs those with higher income (change from $504 to $439 vs from $757 to $769; adjusted DiD, -$105.50; 95% CI, -$167.80 to -$43.20; P = .001).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

In this cross-sectional national study, the ACA was associated with improved patient experience, communication, and access and decreased out-of-pocket expenditures, but little or no change in quality, utilization, and total cost.

Sociodemographic Factors and Health Insurance Coverage Are Associated with Invasive Breast Cancer in Tennessee: Appalachian and Non-Appalachian County Comparison

Background:

Tennessean women experience the 12th highest breast cancer (BC) mortality in the United States. Yet, few studies have examined BC outcomes among Tennessean women in and outside of Appalachia. We examined whether sociodemographic factors and health insurance status were associated with invasive BC in Tennessee by Appalachian and non-Appalachian county designation.

Materials and Methods:

Using the Tennessee Cancer Registry, we identified 52,187 women, aged ≥18, diagnosed with BC between 2005 and 2015. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to examine associations between invasive BC and sociodemographic characteristics, health insurance coverage, and county designation (Appalachian/non-Appalachian). Regression analyses stratified by county designation were subsequently performed.

Results:

In Tennessee, younger women had lower odds of invasive BC diagnosis (<45: odds ratio [OR] = 0.74, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.67–0.81; 55–64: OR = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.84–0.97) compared to women ≥65. Married Tennessean women had 12% (95% CI = 1.04–1.21) higher odds of invasive BC than single women. Further, both public (OR = 1.81, 95% CI = 1.41–2.33) and private (OR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.06–1.76) health insurance were found to increase odds of invasive BC compared to no insurance/self-pay. Results from the subpopulation analyses were largely consistent with overall findings. In Appalachian counties, women on public health insurance had increased odds (OR = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.00–2.03) of invasive BC compared to uninsured/self-pay women, while in non-Appalachian counties, women insured both publicly (OR = 2.25, 95% CI = 1.57–3.24) and privately (OR = 1.68, 95% CI = 1.16–2.24) had increased odds of invasive BC.

Conclusions:

The results identify risk factors for Tennessean women in Appalachian and non-Appalachian counties whose malignancies evaded early detection, increasing risk of mortality.

Healthcare resource utilization and costs 2 years pre- and post-lumbar spine surgery for stenosis: a national claims cohort study of 22,182 cases

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Improved understanding of the pre- and postoperative trends in costs and healthcare resource utilization (HCRU) is needed to better inform patient expectations and aid in the development of strategies to minimize the significant healthcare burden associated with lumbar spine surgery.

PURPOSE

Examine the time course of costs and HCRU in the 2 years preceding and following elective lumbar spine surgery for stenosis in a large national claims cohort.

STUDY DESIGN/SETTING

Retrospective analysis of an administrative claims database (IBM® Marketscan® Research Databases 2007-2015).

PATIENT SAMPLE

Adult patients undergoing elective primary single-level lumbar surgery for stenosis with at least 2 years of continuous health plan enrollment pre- and postoperatively.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Functional measures, including monthly rates of HCRU (15 categories), monthly gross covered payments (including payments made by the health plan and deductibles and coinsurance paid by the patient) overall, by HCRU category, and by spine versus non-spine-related.

METHODS

All available patients were utilized for analysis of HCRU. For analysis of payments, only patients on noncapitated health plans providing accurate financial information were analyzed. Payments were converted to 2015 United States dollars using the medical care component of the consumer price index. Trends in payments and HCRU were plotted on a monthly basis pre- and post-surgery and assessed with regression models. Relationships with demographics, surgical factors, and comorbidities were assessed with multivariable repeated measures generalized estimating equations.

RESULTS

Median monthly healthcare payments 2 years prior to surgery were $275 ($22, $868). Baseline HCRU at 2 years preoperatively was stable or only gradually rising (office visits, prescription drug use), but began an increasingly steep rise in many categories 6 to 12 months prior to surgery. Monthly payments began an increasingly steep rise 6 months prior to surgery, reaching a peak of $1,402 ($634, $2,827) in the month prior to surgery. This was driven by an increase in radiology, office visits, PT, injections, prescription medications, ER encounters, and inpatient admissions. Payments dropped dramatically immediately following surgery. Over the remainder of the 2 years, the median total payments declined only slightly, as a continued decline in spine-related payments was offset by gradually increased non-spine related payments as patients aged. By 2 years postoperatively, the percentage of patients using PT and injections returned to within 1% of the baseline levels observed 2 years preoperatively; however, spine-related prescription medication use remained elevated, as did other categories of HCRU (radiology, office visits, lab/diagnostic services, and also rare events such as inpatient admissions, ER encounters, and SNF/IRF). Patients with a fusion component to their surgeries had higher payments and HCRU preoperatively, and this did not resolve postoperatively. Variations in payments and HCRU were also evident among plan types, with patients on comprehensive medical plans-predominantly employer-sponsored supplemental Medicare coverage-utilizing more inpatient, ER, and inpatient rehabilitation & skilled nursing facilities. Patients on high-deductible plans had fewer payments and HCRU across all categories; however, we are unable to distinguish whether this is because they used fewer of these services or if they were paying for these services out of pocket without submitting to the payer. By 2 years postoperatively, 51% of patients had no spine-related monthly payments, while 33% had higher and 16% had lower monthly payments relative to 2 years preoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to characterize time trends in direct healthcare payments and HCRU over an extended period preceding and following spine surgery. Differences among plan types potentially highlight disparities in access to care and plan-related financial mediators of patients' healthcare resource utilization.

Employer-Led Strategies to Improve the Value of Health Spending: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review studies that evaluated the impact of employer-led efforts in the United States to improve the value of health spending, where employers have implemented changes to their health benefits to reduce costs while improving or maintaining quality.

METHODS

We included all studies of employer-led health benefit strategies that reported outcomes for both employer health spending and employee health outcomes.

RESULTS

Our search returned 44 studies of employer health benefit changes that included measures of both health spending and quality. The most promising efforts were those that lowered or eliminated cost sharing for primary care or medications for chronic illnesses. High deductible health plans with a savings option appeared less promising.

CONCLUSIONS

More research is needed on the characteristics and contexts in which these benefit changes were implemented, and on actions that address employers' current concerns.

Getting to 100%: Research Priorities and Unanswered Questions to Inform the US Debate on Universal Health Insurance Coverage

A majority of Americans favor universal health insurance, but there is uncertainty over how best to achieve this goal. Whatever the insurance design that is implemented, additional details that must be considered include breadth of services covered, restrictions and limits on volumes of services, cost-sharing for individuals, and pricing. In the hopes that research can inform this ongoing debate, we review evidence supporting different models for achieving universal coverage in the US and identify areas where additional research and stakeholder input is needed. Key areas in need of further research include how care should be organized, how costs can be reduced, and what healthcare services universal insurance should cover.

Do high-deductible health plans affect price paid for childbirth?

OBJECTIVE

To test whether out-of-pocket costs and negotiated hospital prices for childbirth change after enrollment in high-deductible health plans (HDHPs) and whether price effects differ in markets with more hospitals.

DATA SOURCES

Administrative medical claims data from 2010 to 2014 from three large commercial insurers with plans in all U.S. states provided by the Health Care Cost Institute (HCCI).

STUDY DESIGN

I identify employer groups that switched from non-HDHPs in 1 year to HDHPs in a subsequent year. I estimate enrollees' change in out-of-pocket costs and negotiated hospital prices for childbirth after HDHP switch, relative to a comparison group of employers that do not switch plans. I use a triple-difference design to estimate price changes for enrollees in markets with more hospital choices. Finally, I re-estimate models with hospital-fixed effects.

DATA COLLECTION

From the HCCI sample, childbearing women enrolled in an employer-sponsored plan with at least 10 people.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Switching to an HDHP increases out-of-pocket cost $227 (p < 0.001; comparison group base $790) and has no meaningful effect on hospital-negotiated prices (-$26, p = 0.756; comparison group base $5821). HDHP switch is associated with a marginally statistically significant price increase in markets with three or fewer hospitals ($343, p = 0.096; comparison group base $5806) and, relative to those markets, with a price decrease in markets with more than three hospitals (-$512; p = 0.028). Predicted prices decrease from $5702 to $5551 after HDHP switch in markets with more than three hospitals due primarily to lower prices conditional on using the same hospital.

CONCLUSIONS

Prices for childbirth in markets with more hospitals decrease after HDHP switch due to lower hospital prices for HDHPs relative to prices at those same hospitals for non-HDHPs. These results reinforce previous findings that HDHPs do not promote price shopping but suggest negotiated prices may be lower for HDHP enrollees.

Out-of-Pocket Costs Among Patients With a New Cancer Diagnosis Enrolled in High-Deductible Health Plans vs Traditional Insurance

IMPORTANCE

The financial burden of a cancer diagnosis is increasing rapidly with advances in cancer care. Simultaneously, more individuals are enrolling in high-deductible health plans (HDHPs) vs traditional insurance than ever before.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the out-of-pocket costs (OOPCs) of cancer care for individuals in HDHPs vs traditional insurance plans.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This retrospective cohort study used the administrative claims data of a single national insurer in the US for 134 826 patients aged 18 to 63 years with a new diagnosis of breast, colorectal, lung, or other cancer from 2008 to 2018 with 24 months or more of continuous enrollment. Propensity score matching was performed to create comparator groups based on the presence or absence of an incident cancer diagnosis.

EXPOSURES

A new cancer diagnosis and enrollment in an HDHP vs a traditional health insurance plan.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome was OOPCs among individuals with breast, colon, lung, or all other types of cancer combined compared with those with no cancer diagnosis. A triple difference-in-differences analysis was performed to identify incremental OOPCs based on cancer diagnosis and enrollment in HDHPs vs traditional plans.

RESULTS

After propensity score matching, 134 826 patients remained in each of the cancer (73 572 women [55%]; median age, 53 years [IQR, 46-58 years]; 110 071 non-Hispanic White individuals [82%]) and noncancer (66 619 women [49%]; median age, 53 years [IQR, 46-59 years]; 105 023 non-Hispanic White individuals [78%]) cohorts. Compared with baseline costs of medical care among individuals without cancer, a breast cancer diagnosis was associated with the highest incremental OOPC ($714.68; 95% CI, $664.91-$764.45), followed by lung ($475.51; 95% CI, $340.16-$610.86), colorectal ($361.41; 95% CI, $294.34-$428.48), and all other types of cancer combined ($90.51; 95% CI, $74.22-$106.79). Based on the triple difference-in-differences analysis, compared with patients without cancer enrolled in HDHPs, those with breast cancer paid $1683.36 in additional yearly OOPCs (95% CI, $1576.66-$1790.07), those with colorectal cancer paid $1420.06 more (95% CI, $1232.31-$1607.80), those with lung cancer paid $467.25 more (95% CI, $130.13-$804.37), and those with other types of cancer paid $550.87 more (95% CI, $514.75-$586.99).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Patients with cancer and private insurance experienced sharp increases in OOPCs compared with those without cancer, which was amplified among those with HDHPs. These findings illustrate the degree to which HDHPs offer poorer protection than traditional insurance against unexpected health care expenses. Coupled with the increasing cost of cancer care, higher cost sharing in the form of increasing enrollment in HDHPs requires further research on the potential clinical consequences through delayed or foregone care.

Impacts of high-deductible health plans on patients with diabetes: A systematic review of the literature

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

High-deductible health plans (HDHPs) as a type of consumer-directed health insurance plan aim to control unnecessary service utilization and share the responsibility in payments and care with the patient. Our objective was to systematically pool the medical and non-medical impacts of HDHPs on patients with diabetes.

METHODS

We searched databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Wiley, to identify relevant published studies. We outlined the eligibility criteria based on the study population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and types of studies (PICOT). We included peer-reviewed quantitative studies published in English, including quasi-experimental, observational, and cross-sectional studies in this review. We used the narrative data synthesis method to categorize and interpret the results.

RESULTS

Initial search yielded 149 results. After removing duplicates and screening for relevant titles and abstracts, and reviewing full texts, 11 studies met eligibility criteria. Overall, diabetic patients with HDHP were less likely to adhere to treatment and prescription refills, utilize fewer healthcare services and medications, and more likely to have acute emergency visits than their counterparts enrolled in low-deductible plans. However, the results on overall healthcare costs and the final health outcome were unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

It appears that HDHPs negatively impact low-income diabetic patients by leading them to forgo preventive and primary care services and experience excessive preventable emergency department visits. The socioeconomic characteristics of patients must be considered when developing HDHP policies, and adjustments should be made to HDHPs accordingly.

Impact of High Deductible Health Plans on Diabetes Care Quality and Outcomes: Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To provide a review of the impact of high deductible health plans (HDHPs) on the utilizations of services required for optimal management of diabetes and subsequent health outcomes.

METHODS

Systematic literature review of studies published between January 1, 2000, and May 7, 2021, was conducted that examined the impact of HDHP on diabetes monitoring (eg, recommended laboratory and surveillance testing), routine care (eg, ambulatory appointments), medication management (eg, medication initiation, adherence), and acute health care utilization (eg, emergency department visits, hospitalizations, incident complications).

RESULTS

Of the 303 reviewed articles, 8 were relevant. These studies demonstrated that HDHPs lower spending at the expense of reduced high-value diabetes monitoring, routine care, and medication adherence, potentially contributing to the observed increases in acute health care utilization. Additionally, patient out-of-pocket costs for recommended screenings doubled, and total health care expenditures increased by 49.4% for HDHP enrollees compared with enrollees in traditional health plans. Reductions in disease monitoring and routine care and increases in acute health care utilization were greatest in lower-income patients. None of the studies examined the impact of HDHPs on access to diabetes self-management education, technology use, or glycemic control.

CONCLUSION

Although HDHPs reduce some health care utilization and costs, they appear to do so at the expense of limiting high-value care and medication adherence. Policymakers, providers, and payers should be more cognizant of the potential for negative consequences of HDHPs on patients' health.