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Granzotto A, McQuade A, Chadarevian JP, Davtyan H, Sensi SL, Parker I, Blurton-Jones M, Smith IF. ER and SOCE Ca 2+ signals are not required for directed cell migration in human iPSC-derived microglia. Cell Calcium 2024; 123:102923. [PMID: 38970922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2024.102923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is constantly surveilled by microglia, highly motile and dynamic cells deputed to act as the first line of immune defense in the brain and spinal cord. Alterations in the homeostasis of the CNS are detected by microglia that respond by extending their processes or - following major injuries - by migrating toward the affected area. Understanding the mechanisms controlling directed cell migration of microglia is crucial to dissect their responses to neuroinflammation and injury. We used a combination of pharmacological and genetic approaches to explore the involvement of calcium (Ca2+) signaling in the directed migration of human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived microglia challenged with a purinergic stimulus. This approach mimics cues originating from injury of the CNS. Unexpectedly, simultaneous imaging of microglia migration and intracellular Ca2+ changes revealed that this phenomenon does not require Ca2+ signals generated from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) pathways. Instead, we find evidence that human microglial chemotaxis to purinergic signals is mediated by cyclic AMP in a Ca2+-independent manner. These results challenge prevailing notions, with important implications in neurological conditions characterized by perturbation in Ca2+ homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Granzotto
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States; Center for Advanced Sciences and Technology (CAST), University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy; Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy.
| | - Amanda McQuade
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States; Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States; Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Jean Paul Chadarevian
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States; Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Hayk Davtyan
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States; Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Stefano L Sensi
- Center for Advanced Sciences and Technology (CAST), University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy; Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy; Institute for Advanced Biomedical Technologies (ITAB), "G. d'Annunzio" University, Chieti-Pescara, Italy
| | - Ian Parker
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States; Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Mathew Blurton-Jones
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States; Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States; Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Ian F Smith
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
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Moreira R, Nóbrega C, de Almeida LP, Mendonça L. Brain-targeted drug delivery - nanovesicles directed to specific brain cells by brain-targeting ligands. J Nanobiotechnology 2024; 22:260. [PMID: 38760847 PMCID: PMC11100082 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-024-02511-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by extensive loss of function or death of brain cells, hampering the life quality of patients. Brain-targeted drug delivery is challenging, with a low success rate this far. Therefore, the application of targeting ligands in drug vehicles, such as lipid-based and polymeric nanoparticles, holds the promise to overcome the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and direct therapies to the brain, in addition to protect their cargo from degradation and metabolization. In this review, we discuss the barriers to brain delivery and the different types of brain-targeting ligands currently in use in brain-targeted nanoparticles, such as peptides, proteins, aptamers, small molecules, and antibodies. Moreover, we present a detailed review of the different targeting ligands used to direct nanoparticles to specific brain cells, like neurons (C4-3 aptamer, neurotensin, Tet-1, RVG, and IKRG peptides), astrocytes (Aquaporin-4, D4, and Bradykinin B2 antibodies), oligodendrocytes (NG-2 antibody and the biotinylated DNA aptamer conjugated to a streptavidin core Myaptavin-3064), microglia (CD11b antibody), neural stem cells (QTRFLLH, VPTQSSG, and NFL-TBS.40-63 peptides), and to endothelial cells of the BBB (transferrin and insulin proteins, and choline). Reports demonstrated enhanced brain-targeted delivery with improved transport to the specific cell type targeted with the conjugation of these ligands to nanoparticles. Hence, this strategy allows the implementation of high-precision medicine, with reduced side effects or unwanted therapy clearance from the body. Nevertheless, the accumulation of some of these nanoparticles in peripheral organs has been reported indicating that there are still factors to be improved to achieve higher levels of brain targeting. This review is a collection of studies exploring targeting ligands for the delivery of nanoparticles to the brain and we highlight the advantages and limitations of this type of approach in precision therapies.
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Grants
- under BrainHealth2020 projects (CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-000008), through the COMPETE 2020 - Operational Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalization and Portuguese national funds via FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, under projects - UIDB/04539/2020 and UIDP/04539/2020, POCI-01-0145-FEDER-030737 (NeuroStemForMJD, PTDC/BTM-ORG/30737/2017), CEECIND/04242/2017, and PhD Scholarship European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Centro 2020 Regional Operational Programme
- under BrainHealth2020 projects (CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-000008), through the COMPETE 2020 - Operational Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalization and Portuguese national funds via FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, under projects - UIDB/04539/2020 and UIDP/04539/2020, POCI-01-0145-FEDER-030737 (NeuroStemForMJD, PTDC/BTM-ORG/30737/2017), CEECIND/04242/2017, and PhD Scholarship European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Centro 2020 Regional Operational Programme
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Moreira
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, polo 1, Coimbra, FMUC, 3004-504, Portugal
- CIBB - Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3004-504, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Clévio Nóbrega
- Algarve Biomedical Center Research Institute (ABC-RI), University of Algarve, Faro, 8005-139, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, 8005-139, Portugal
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, polo 1, Coimbra, FMUC, 3004-504, Portugal
- CIBB - Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3004-504, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-548, Portugal
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3030-789, Portugal
| | - Liliana Mendonça
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, polo 1, Coimbra, FMUC, 3004-504, Portugal.
- CIBB - Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3004-504, Portugal.
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3030-789, Portugal.
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Munan S, Mondal A, Shailja S, Pati S, Samanta A. Unique Synthetic Strategy for Probing in Situ Lysosomal NO for Screening Neuroinflammatory Phenotypes against SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Phagocytotic Microglia. Anal Chem 2024; 96:7479-7486. [PMID: 38689560 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
In the pathogenesis of microglia, brain immune cells promote nitrergic stress by overproducing nitric oxide (NO), leading to neuroinflammation. Furthermore, NO has been linked to COVID-19 progression, which has caused significant morbidity and mortality. SARS-CoV-2 infection activates inflammation by releasing excess NO and causing cell death in human microglial clone 3 (HMC3). In addition, NO regulates lysosomal functions and complex machinery to neutralize pathogens through phagocytosis. Therefore, developing lysosome-specific NO probes to monitor phagocytosis in microglia during the COVID-19 infection would be a significant study. Herein, a unique synthetic strategy was adopted to develop a NO selective fluorescent probe, PDM-NO, which can discriminate activated microglia from their resting state. The nonfluorescent PDM-NO exhibits a turn-on response toward NO only at lysosomal pH (4.5-5.5). Quantum chemical calculations (DFT/TD-DFT/PCM) and photophysical study revealed that the photoinduced electron transfer (PET) process is pivotal in tuning optical properties. PDM-NO demonstrated good biocompatibility and lysosomal specificity in activated HMC3 cells. Moreover, it can effectively map the dynamics of lysosomal NO against SARS-CoV-2 RNA-induced neuroinflammation in HMC3. Thus, PDM-NO is a potential fluorescent marker for detecting RNA virus infection and monitoring phagocytosis in HMC3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subrata Munan
- Molecular Sensors and Therapeutics (MST) Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence Deemed to be University (SNIoE), Delhi NCR, NH 91, Tehsil Dadri, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Abir Mondal
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence Deemed to be University (SNIoE), Delhi NCR, NH 91, Tehsil Dadri, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Singh Shailja
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Soumya Pati
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence Deemed to be University (SNIoE), Delhi NCR, NH 91, Tehsil Dadri, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
| | - Animesh Samanta
- Molecular Sensors and Therapeutics (MST) Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar Institution of Eminence Deemed to be University (SNIoE), Delhi NCR, NH 91, Tehsil Dadri, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201314, India
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4
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Chen R, Xie L, Fan Y, Hua X, Chung CY. Vesicular translocation of PARP-1 to cytoplasm causes ADP-ribosylation and disassembly of vimentin filaments during microglia activation induced by LPS. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 18:1363154. [PMID: 38590714 PMCID: PMC10999663 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2024.1363154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation plays a significant role in various biological processes including genomic stability maintenance, transcriptional regulation, energy metabolism, and cell death. Using macrodomain pull-down assay with microglia lysates and MALDI-TOF-MS analysis, we identified vimentin as a major protein highly ADP-ribosylated by the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases-1 (PARP-1) in response to LPS. ABT-888, a potent inhibitor of PARP-1/2 blocks the disassembly and ADP-ribosylation of vimentin. PARP-1 is a highly abundant nuclear protein. Its nuclear functions in repairing DNA damages induced by various stress signals, such as inflammatory stresses, have been well studied. In contrast, limited studies have been done on the cytoplasmic role(s) of PARP-1. Our study focuses on the cytoplasmic role of PARP-1 during microglia activation. Using immunofluorescence microscopy and Western blotting, we showed that a significant amount of PARP-1 is present in the cytosol of microglia cells stimulated and activated by LPS. Live cell imaging showed the translocation of nuclear PARP-1-EGFP to the cytoplasm in vesicular structures upon LPS stimulation. ABT-888 and U0126 can block this translocation. Immunofluorescence staining with various organelle marker antibodies revealed that PARP-1 vesicles show colocalization with Lamin A/C, suggesting they might be derived from the nuclear envelope through nuclear envelope budding. In conclusion, we demonstrated that PARP-1 is translocated from the nucleus to cytoplasm via vesicles upon LPS stimulation and that cytoplasmic PARP-1 causes ADP-ribosylation and disassembly of vimentin filaments during microglia activation induced by LPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiqi Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Lirui Xie
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yang Fan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiangmei Hua
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Chang Y. Chung
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Columbus, GA, United States
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5
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Poshtkohi A, Wade J, McDaid L, Liu J, Dallas ML, Bithell A. Mathematical Modeling of PI3K/Akt Pathway in Microglia. Neural Comput 2024; 36:645-676. [PMID: 38457763 DOI: 10.1162/neco_a_01643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
The motility of microglia involves intracellular signaling pathways that are predominantly controlled by changes in cytosolic Ca2+ and activation of PI3K/Akt (phosphoinositide-3-kinase/protein kinase B). In this letter, we develop a novel biophysical model for cytosolic Ca2+ activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway in microglia where Ca2+ influx is mediated by both P2Y purinergic receptors (P2YR) and P2X purinergic receptors (P2XR). The model parameters are estimated by employing optimization techniques to fit the model to phosphorylated Akt (pAkt) experimental modeling/in vitro data. The integrated model supports the hypothesis that Ca2+ influx via P2YR and P2XR can explain the experimentally reported biphasic transient responses in measuring pAkt levels. Our predictions reveal new quantitative insights into P2Rs on how they regulate Ca2+ and Akt in terms of physiological interactions and transient responses. It is shown that the upregulation of P2X receptors through a repetitive application of agonist results in a continual increase in the baseline [Ca2+], which causes the biphasic response to become a monophasic response which prolongs elevated levels of pAkt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Poshtkohi
- School of Physics, Engineering and Computer Science, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, U.K.
| | - John Wade
- School of Computing, Engineering and Intelligent Systems, University of Ulster, Londonderry, U.K.
| | - Liam McDaid
- School of Computing, Engineering and Intelligent Systems, University of Ulster, Londonderry, U.K.
| | - Junxiu Liu
- School of Computing, Engineering and Intelligent Systems, University of Ulster, Londonderry, U.K.
| | - Mark L Dallas
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, U.K.
| | - Angela Bithell
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, U.K.
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6
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You Y, An DD, Wan YS, Zheng BX, Dai HB, Zhang SH, Zhang XN, Wang RR, Shi P, Jin M, Wang Y, Jiang L, Chen Z, Hu WW. Cell-specific IL-1R1 regulates the regional heterogeneity of microglial displacement of GABAergic synapses and motor learning ability. Cell Mol Life Sci 2024; 81:116. [PMID: 38438808 PMCID: PMC10912170 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-05111-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
Microglia regulate synaptic function in various ways, including the microglial displacement of the surrounding GABAergic synapses, which provides important neuroprotection from certain diseases. However, the physiological role and underlying mechanisms of microglial synaptic displacement remain unclear. In this study, we observed that microglia exhibited heterogeneity during the displacement of GABAergic synapses surrounding neuronal soma in different cortical regions under physiological conditions. Through three-dimensional reconstruction, in vitro co-culture, two-photon calcium imaging, and local field potentials recording, we found that IL-1β negatively modulated microglial synaptic displacement to coordinate regional heterogeneity in the motor cortex, which impacted the homeostasis of the neural network and improved motor learning ability. We used the Cre-Loxp system and found that IL-1R1 on glutamatergic neurons, rather than that on microglia or GABAergic neurons, mediated the negative effect of IL-1β on synaptic displacement. This study demonstrates that IL-1β is critical for the regional heterogeneity of synaptic displacement by coordinating different actions of neurons and microglia via IL-1R1, which impacts both neural network homeostasis and motor learning ability. It provides a theoretical basis for elucidating the physiological role and mechanism of microglial displacement of GABAergic synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi You
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Da-Dao An
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yu-Shan Wan
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Bai-Xiu Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Hai-Bin Dai
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - She-Hong Zhang
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Huzhou Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Xiang-Nan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Rong-Rong Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peng Shi
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Mingjuan Jin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Zhejiang University School of Public Health, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China
| | - Lei Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Zhong Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, 310053, China
| | - Wei-Wei Hu
- Department of Pharmacology and Department of Pharmacy of the Second Affiliated Hospital, Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of The Ministry of Health of China, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
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7
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Li M, Hu B, Wu Z, Wang Z, Weng J, Zheng H, Sun L. Sporopollenin exine capsules modulate the function of microglial cells. Biomater Sci 2024; 12:710-724. [PMID: 38099812 DOI: 10.1039/d3bm01154b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
Immune cells are the housekeepers of the human body. They protect the body from pathogens, cellular damage, and foreign matter. Proper activation of immune cells is of great significance to diseases such as infection, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. However, excessive activation of cells can be detrimental. An ideal biomaterial could enhance the cellular immune function without proinflammation. In this work, we used sporopollenin exine capsules (SEC) from pollen to promote functions of primary microglia, a typical resident immune cell of the brain. We found that microglia aggregated around SEC and did not undergo any proinflammation. SEC improved the viability, migration, phagocytosis, and anti-inflammatory ability of microglia. By exploring the underlying mechanism of microglial activation without the production of cytotoxic pro-inflammatory cytokines, we found that SEC protects microglia against inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), an immunostimulatory factor, through the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway in a myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent manner. These findings might shed light on the potential application of SEC in microglia transplantation for treatment of microglia-associated degenerative central nervous system diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengwei Li
- The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Fujian Province, Research Center of Biomedical Engineering of Xiamen, Department of Biomaterials, College of Materials, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China.
| | - Banglian Hu
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Brain Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China.
| | - Zhaojie Wu
- The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Fujian Province, Research Center of Biomedical Engineering of Xiamen, Department of Biomaterials, College of Materials, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China.
| | - Ziwei Wang
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Brain Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China.
| | - Jian Weng
- The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Fujian Province, Research Center of Biomedical Engineering of Xiamen, Department of Biomaterials, College of Materials, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China.
| | - Honghua Zheng
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Brain Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China.
| | - Liping Sun
- The Higher Educational Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Fujian Province, Research Center of Biomedical Engineering of Xiamen, Department of Biomaterials, College of Materials, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China.
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Granzotto A, McQuade A, Chadarevian JP, Davtyan H, Sensi SL, Parker I, Blurton-Jones M, Smith I. ER and SOCE Ca 2+ signals are not required for directed cell migration in human microglia. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.18.576126. [PMID: 38293075 PMCID: PMC10827168 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.18.576126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is constantly surveilled by microglia, highly motile and dynamic cells deputed to act as the first line of immune defense in the brain and spinal cord. Alterations in the homeostasis of the CNS are detected by microglia that respond by migrating toward the affected area. Understanding the mechanisms controlling directed cell migration of microglia is crucial to dissect their responses to neuroinflammation and injury. We used a combination of pharmacological and genetic approaches to explore the involvement of calcium (Ca2+) signaling in the directed migration of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived microglia challenged with a purinergic stimulus. This approach mimics cues originating from injury of the CNS. Unexpectedly, simultaneous imaging of microglia migration and intracellular Ca2+ changes revealed that this phenomenon does not require Ca2+ signals generated from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) pathways. Instead, we find evidence that human microglial chemotaxis to purinergic signals is mediated by cyclic AMP in a Ca2+-independent manner. These results challenge prevailing notions, with important implications in neurological conditions characterized by perturbation in Ca2+ homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Granzotto
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States
- Center for Advanced Sciences and Technology (CAST), University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G d’Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Amanda McQuade
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Jean Paul Chadarevian
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Hayk Davtyan
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Stefano L. Sensi
- Center for Advanced Sciences and Technology (CAST), University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University G d’Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Institute for Advanced Biomedical Technologies (ITAB), “G. d’Annunzio” University, Chieti-Pescara, Italy
| | - Ian Parker
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Mathew Blurton-Jones
- UCI Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, United States
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
- Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
| | - Ian Smith
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, United States
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Carrillo GL, Su J, Cawley ML, Wei D, Gill SK, Blader IJ, Fox MA. Complement-dependent loss of inhibitory synapses on pyramidal neurons following Toxoplasma gondii infection. J Neurochem 2023:10.1111/jnc.15770. [PMID: 36683435 PMCID: PMC10363253 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii has developed mechanisms to establish a central nervous system infection in virtually all warm-blooded animals. Acute T. gondii infection can cause neuroinflammation, encephalitis, and seizures. Meanwhile, studies in humans, nonhuman primates, and rodents have linked chronic T. gondii infection with altered behavior and increased risk for neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. These observations and associations raise questions about how this parasitic infection may alter neural circuits. We previously demonstrated that T. gondii infection triggers the loss of inhibitory perisomatic synapses, a type of synapse whose dysfunction or loss has been linked to neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. We showed that phagocytic cells (including microglia and infiltrating monocytes) contribute to the loss of these inhibitory synapses. Here, we show that these phagocytic cells specifically ensheath excitatory pyramidal neurons, leading to the preferential loss of perisomatic synapses on these neurons and not those on cortical interneurons. Moreover, we show that infection induces an increased expression of the complement C3 gene, including by populations of these excitatory neurons. Infecting C3-deficient mice with T. gondii revealed that C3 is required for the loss of perisomatic inhibitory synapses. Interestingly, loss of C1q did not prevent the loss of perisomatic synapses following infection. Together, these findings provide evidence that T. gondii induces changes in excitatory pyramidal neurons that trigger the selective removal of inhibitory perisomatic synapses and provide a role for a nonclassical complement pathway in the remodeling of inhibitory circuits in the infected brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela L. Carrillo
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061, USA
| | - Jianmin Su
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
- School of Neuroscience, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061, USA
| | - Mikel L. Cawley
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061, USA
| | - Derek Wei
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
- School of Neuroscience, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061, USA
| | - Simran K. Gill
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
- Department of Psychology, Roanoke College, Salem, Virginia, 24153, USA
- NeuroSURF Program, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
| | - Ira J. Blader
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, 14203, USA
| | - Michael A. Fox
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
- School of Neuroscience, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, Virginia, 24016, USA
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10
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Vijaya AK, Iešmantaitė M, Mela V, Baltriukienė D, Burokas A. Microglia isolation from aging mice for cell culture: A beginner's guide. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1082180. [PMID: 36744004 PMCID: PMC9893793 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1082180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the innate immune cell of the central nervous system, play significant roles in brain development, maintenance, homeostasis, and neuroinflammation. Although numerous methods have been developed to isolate microglia from embryonic or postnatal mouse brains, still major difficulties exist in isolating microglia from adult mice, often resulting in low yield and risk of cellular activation. Therefore, there is a need for a more efficient method to isolate pure and high-yield microglia from adult mice to study various neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this study was to develop a fully functional protocol for the isolation of microglia by comparing different protocols. We investigated the efficacy of three protocols in terms of cell yield, purity, cellular activation, cellular aging, and migration properties and proposed the modified protocol (PROTOCOL 1), which provides an optimal yield of functional microglial cells with a minimum of material and equipment and allows young researchers with little experience to isolate microglia and helps them to delve deeper into the world of neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Kumar Vijaya
- Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Monika Iešmantaitė
- Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Virginia Mela
- Department of Medicine and Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Málaga, Spain
| | - Daiva Baltriukienė
- Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania,*Correspondence: Daiva Baltriukienė,
| | - Aurelijus Burokas
- Department of Biological Models, Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania,Aurelijus Burokas,
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11
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Zhu T, Guo J, Wu Y, Lei T, Zhu J, Chen H, Kala S, Wong KF, Cheung CP, Huang X, Zhao X, Yang M, Sun L. The mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo1 modulates the migration and immune response of microglia. iScience 2023; 26:105993. [PMID: 36798430 PMCID: PMC9926228 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.105993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the brain's resident immune cells, performing surveillance to promote homeostasis and healthy functioning. While microglial chemical signaling is well-studied, mechanical cues regulating their function are less well-understood. Here, we investigate the role of the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo1 in microglia migration, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and stiffness sensing. In Piezo1 knockout transgenic mice, we demonstrated the functional expression of Piezo1 in microglia and identified genes whose expression was consequently affected. Functional assays revealed that Piezo1 deficiency in microglia enhanced migration toward amyloid β-protein, and decreased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines produced upon stimulation by lipopolysaccharide, both in vitro and in vivo. The phenomenon could be mimicked or reversed chemically using a Piezo1-specific agonist or antagonist. Finally, we also showed that Piezo1 mediated the effect of substrate stiffness-induced migration and cytokine expression. Altogether, we show that Piezo1 is an important molecular mediator for microglia, its activation modulating microglial migration and immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Jinghui Guo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Yong Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Ting Lei
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Jiejun Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Hui Chen
- Biotherapy Centre, the Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,Cell-gene Therapy Translational Medicine Research Centre, the Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shashwati Kala
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Kin Fung Wong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Chi Pong Cheung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Xiaohui Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Xinyi Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Minyi Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China
| | - Lei Sun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong SAR 999077, P. R. China,Corresponding author
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12
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Chun BJ, Aryal SP, Varughese P, Sun B, Bruno JA, Richards CI, Bachstetter AD, Kekenes-Huskey PM. Purinoreceptors and ectonucleotidases control ATP-induced calcium waveforms and calcium-dependent responses in microglia: Roles of P2 receptors and CD39 in ATP-stimulated microglia. Front Physiol 2023; 13:1037417. [PMID: 36699679 PMCID: PMC9868579 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1037417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its metabolites drive microglia migration and cytokine production by activating P2X- and P2Y- class purinergic receptors. Purinergic receptor activation gives rise to diverse intracellular calcium (Ca2+ signals, or waveforms, that differ in amplitude, duration, and frequency. Whether and how these characteristics of diverse waveforms influence microglia function is not well-established. We developed a computational model trained with data from published primary murine microglia studies. We simulate how purinoreceptors influence Ca2+ signaling and migration, as well as, how purinoreceptor expression modifies these processes. Our simulation confirmed that P2 receptors encode the amplitude and duration of the ATP-induced Ca2+ waveforms. Our simulations also implicate CD39, an ectonucleotidase that rapidly degrades ATP, as a regulator of purinergic receptor-induced Ca2+ responses. Namely, it was necessary to account for CD39 metabolism of ATP to align the model's predicted purinoreceptor responses with published experimental data. In addition, our modeling results indicate that small Ca2+ transients accompany migration, while large and sustained transients are needed for cytokine responses. Lastly, as a proof-of-principal, we predict Ca2+ transients and cell membrane displacements in a BV2 microglia cell line using published P2 receptor mRNA data to illustrate how our computer model may be extrapolated to other microglia subtypes. These findings provide important insights into how differences in purinergic receptor expression influence microglial responses to ATP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Byeong J. Chun
- Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States,*Correspondence: Byeong J. Chun, ; Peter M. Kekenes-Huskey,
| | - Surya P. Aryal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Peter Varughese
- Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Bin Sun
- Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Joshua A. Bruno
- Department of Physics, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Chris I. Richards
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | | | - Peter M. Kekenes-Huskey
- Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States,*Correspondence: Byeong J. Chun, ; Peter M. Kekenes-Huskey,
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13
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Drug-induced microglial phagocytosis in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and the underlying mechanisms. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 50:749-759. [PMID: 36309614 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-022-07968-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS). It plays a significant role in immune surveillance under physiological conditions. On stimulation by pathogens, microglia change their phenotypes, phagocytize toxic molecules, secrete pro-inflammatory/anti-inflammatory factors, promotes tissue repair, and maintain the homeostasis in CNS. Accumulation of myelin debris in multiple sclerosis (MS)/experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) inhibits remyelination by decreasing the phagocytosis by microglia and prevent the recovery of MS/EAE. Drug induced microglia phagocytosis could be a novel therapeutic intervention for the treatment of MS/EAE. But the abnormal phagocytosis of neurons and synapses by activated microglia will lead to neuronal damage and degeneration. It indicates that the phagocytosis of microglia has many beneficial and harmful effects in central neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, simply promoting or inhibiting the phagocytic activity of microglia may not achieve ideal therapeutic results. However, limited reports are available to elucidate the microglia mediated phagocytosis and its underlying molecular mechanisms. On this basis, the present review describes microglia-mediated phagocytosis, drug-induced microglia phagocytosis, molecular mechanism, and novel approach for MS/EAE treatment.
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14
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Liu T, Zhu W, Zhang X, He C, Liu X, Xin Q, Chen K, Wang H. Recent Advances in Cell and Functional Biomaterial Treatment for Spinal Cord Injury. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 2022:5079153. [PMID: 35978649 PMCID: PMC9377911 DOI: 10.1155/2022/5079153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating central nervous system disease caused by accidental events, resulting in loss of sensory and motor function. Considering the multiple effects of primary and secondary injuries after spinal cord injury, including oxidative stress, tissue apoptosis, inflammatory response, and neuronal autophagy, it is crucial to understand the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, local microenvironment changes, and neural tissue functional recovery for preparing novel treatment strategies. Treatment based on cell transplantation has become the forefront of spinal cord injury therapy. The transplanted cells provide physical and nutritional support for the damaged tissue. At the same time, the implantation of biomaterials with specific biological functions at the site of the SCI has also been proved to improve the local inhibitory microenvironment and promote axonal regeneration, etc. The combined transplantation of cells and functional biomaterials for SCI treatment can result in greater neuroprotective and regenerative effects by regulating cell differentiation, enhancing cell survival, and providing physical and directional support for axon regeneration and neural circuit remodeling. This article reviews the pathophysiology of the spinal cord, changes in the microenvironment after injury, and the mechanisms and strategies for spinal cord regeneration and repair. The article will focus on summarizing and discussing the latest intervention models based on cell and functional biomaterial transplantation and the latest progress in combinational therapies in SCI repair. Finally, we propose the future prospects and challenges of current treatment regimens for SCI repair, to provide references for scientists and clinicians to seek better SCI repair strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyi Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Wenhao Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Chuan He
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Xiaolong Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Qiang Xin
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Kexin Chen
- Institute of Translational Medicine, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
| | - Haifeng Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
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15
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Shin TH, Lee DY, Jang YE, Kwon DH, Hwang JS, Kim SG, Seo C, Paik MJ, Lee JY, Kim JY, Park S, Choi SE, Basith S, Kim MO, Lee G. Reduction in the Migration Activity of Microglia Treated with Silica-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles and their Recovery Using Citrate. Cells 2022; 11:cells11152393. [PMID: 35954236 PMCID: PMC9368468 DOI: 10.3390/cells11152393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles have garnered significant interest in neurological research in recent years owing to their efficient penetration of the blood–brain barrier (BBB). However, significant concerns are associated with their harmful effects, including those related to the immune response mediated by microglia, the resident immune cells in the brain, which are exposed to nanoparticles. We analysed the cytotoxic effects of silica-coated magnetic nanoparticles containing rhodamine B isothiocyanate dye [MNPs@SiO2(RITC)] in a BV2 microglial cell line using systems toxicological analysis. We performed the invasion assay and the exocytosis assay and transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and integrated triple-omics analysis, generating a single network using a machine learning algorithm. The results highlight alteration in the mechanisms of the nanotoxic effects of nanoparticles using integrated omics analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Hwan Shin
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (T.H.S.); (D.Y.L.); (Y.E.J.); (D.H.K.); (S.-E.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Da Yeon Lee
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (T.H.S.); (D.Y.L.); (Y.E.J.); (D.H.K.); (S.-E.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Yong Eun Jang
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (T.H.S.); (D.Y.L.); (Y.E.J.); (D.H.K.); (S.-E.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Do Hyeon Kwon
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (T.H.S.); (D.Y.L.); (Y.E.J.); (D.H.K.); (S.-E.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Ji Su Hwang
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (J.S.H.); (S.G.K.)
| | - Seok Gi Kim
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (J.S.H.); (S.G.K.)
| | - Chan Seo
- College of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Suncheon 57922, Korea; (C.S.); (M.J.P.)
| | - Man Jeong Paik
- College of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Suncheon 57922, Korea; (C.S.); (M.J.P.)
| | - Ju Yeon Lee
- Research Center of Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute, 162 Yeongudanji-ro, Cheongju 28119, Korea; (J.Y.L.); (J.Y.K.)
| | - Jin Young Kim
- Research Center of Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute, 162 Yeongudanji-ro, Cheongju 28119, Korea; (J.Y.L.); (J.Y.K.)
| | - Seokho Park
- Department of Biomedical Science, Graduate School of Ajou University, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea;
| | - Sung-E Choi
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (T.H.S.); (D.Y.L.); (Y.E.J.); (D.H.K.); (S.-E.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Shaherin Basith
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (T.H.S.); (D.Y.L.); (Y.E.J.); (D.H.K.); (S.-E.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Myeong Ok Kim
- Division of Life Science and Applied Life Science (BK21 FOUR), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, 501 Jinjudae-ro, Jinju 52828, Korea;
| | - Gwang Lee
- Department of Physiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (T.H.S.); (D.Y.L.); (Y.E.J.); (D.H.K.); (S.-E.C.); (S.B.)
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, 206 World Cup-ro, Suwon 16499, Korea; (J.S.H.); (S.G.K.)
- Correspondence:
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16
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Wicks EE, Ran KR, Kim JE, Xu R, Lee RP, Jackson CM. The Translational Potential of Microglia and Monocyte-Derived Macrophages in Ischemic Stroke. Front Immunol 2022; 13:897022. [PMID: 35795678 PMCID: PMC9251541 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.897022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune response to ischemic stroke is an area of study that is at the forefront of stroke research and presents promising new avenues for treatment development. Upon cerebral vessel occlusion, the innate immune system is activated by danger-associated molecular signals from stressed and dying neurons. Microglia, an immune cell population within the central nervous system which phagocytose cell debris and modulate the immune response via cytokine signaling, are the first cell population to become activated. Soon after, monocytes arrive from the peripheral immune system, differentiate into macrophages, and further aid in the immune response. Upon activation, both microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages are capable of polarizing into phenotypes which can either promote or attenuate the inflammatory response. Phenotypes which promote the inflammatory response are hypothesized to increase neuronal damage and impair recovery of neuronal function during the later phases of ischemic stroke. Therefore, modulating neuroimmune cells to adopt an anti-inflammatory response post ischemic stroke is an area of current research interest and potential treatment development. In this review, we outline the biology of microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages, further explain their roles in the acute, subacute, and chronic stages of ischemic stroke, and highlight current treatment development efforts which target these cells in the context of ischemic stroke.
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17
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Damianakis EI, Benetos IS, Evangelopoulos DS, Kotroni A, Vlamis J, Pneumaticos SG. Stem Cell Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury: A Review of Recent Clinical Trials. Cureus 2022; 14:e24575. [PMID: 35664388 PMCID: PMC9148387 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.24575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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18
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Long JY, Wang XJ, Li XY, Kong XH, Yang G, Zhang D, Yang YT, Shi Z, Ma XP. Spinal Microglia and Astrocytes: Two Key Players in Chronic Visceral Pain Pathogenesis. Neurochem Res 2022; 47:545-551. [PMID: 34797501 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-021-03486-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Chronic visceral pain (CVP) is one of the common symptoms of many diseases triggered by underlying diseases of the internal organs of the human body. Its causes include vascular mechanisms, mechanical factors, persistent inflammation, and unexplained functional mechanisms. Although the pathogenesis is unclear, more and more research has begun to shift from the neuronal aspect to the glial cells in recent years. Some data highlight that the spinal glial cells, particularly the microglia and astrocytes, play an essential role in CVP. Based on this, we highlight the mechanisms of microglia and astrocytes in CVP concerning the release of cytokines, chemokines, and neuroactive substances and alterations in intracellular signaling pathways during the process. Finally, because CVP is widespread in various diseases, we present future perspectives targeting microglia and astrocytes for treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Yi Long
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Xue-Jun Wang
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Xiao-Ying Li
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Xie-He Kong
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Guang Yang
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Dan Zhang
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Yan-Ting Yang
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Zheng Shi
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China
| | - Xiao-Peng Ma
- Shanghai Research Institute of Acupuncture and Meridian, No.650 South Wanping Road, Xuhui District, Shanghai, 200030, China.
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 200120, China.
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19
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Bettegazzi B, Bellani S, Cattaneo S, Codazzi F, Grohovaz F, Zacchetti D. Gα13 Contributes to LPS-Induced Morphological Alterations and Affects Migration of Microglia. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:6397-6414. [PMID: 34529232 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02553-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are the resident immune cells of the CNS that are activated in response to a variety of stimuli. This phenotypical change is aimed to maintain the local homeostasis, also by containing the insults and repair the damages. All these processes are tightly regulated and coordinated and a failure in restoring homeostasis by microglia can result in the development of neuroinflammation that can facilitate the progression of pathological conditions. Indeed, chronic microglia activation is commonly recognized as a hallmark of many neurological disorders, especially at an early stage. Many complex pathways, including cytoskeletal remodeling, are involved in the control of the microglial phenotypical and morphological changes that occur during activation. In this work, we focused on the small GTPase Gα13 and its role at the crossroad between RhoA and Rac1 signaling when microglia is exposed to pro-inflammatory stimulation. We propose the direct involvement of Gα13 in the cytoskeletal rearrangements mediated by FAK, LIMK/cofilin, and Rac1 during microglia activation. In fact, we show that Gα13 knockdown significantly inhibited LPS-induced microglial cell activation, in terms of both changes in morphology and migration, through the modulation of FAK and one of its downstream effectors, Rac1. In conclusion, we propose Gα13 as a critical factor in the regulation of morphological and functional properties of microglia during activation, which might become a target of intervention for the control of microglia inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Bettegazzi
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy.
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, via Olgettina 58, 20132, Milan, Italy.
| | - Serena Bellani
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Cattaneo
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, via Olgettina 58, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Franca Codazzi
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, via Olgettina 58, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabio Grohovaz
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, via Olgettina 58, 20132, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Zacchetti
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, via Olgettina 60, 20132, Milan, Italy.
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20
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Endo Y, Asanuma D, Namiki S, Sugihara K, Hirose K, Uemura A, Kubota Y, Miura T. Quantitative modeling of regular retinal microglia distribution. Sci Rep 2021; 11:22671. [PMID: 34811401 PMCID: PMC8608893 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01820-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are resident immune cells in the central nervous system, showing a regular distribution. Advancing microscopy and image processing techniques have contributed to elucidating microglia’s morphology, dynamics, and distribution. However, the mechanism underlying the regular distribution of microglia remains to be elucidated. First, we quantitatively confirmed the regularity of the distribution pattern of microglial soma in the retina. Second, we formulated a mathematical model that includes factors that may influence regular distribution. Next, we experimentally quantified the model parameters (cell movement, process formation, and ATP dynamics). The resulting model simulation from the measured parameters showed that direct cell–cell contact is most important in generating regular cell spacing. Finally, we tried to specify the molecular pathway responsible for the repulsion between neighboring microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshie Endo
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Daisuke Asanuma
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeyuki Namiki
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kei Sugihara
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kenzo Hirose
- Department of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Akiyoshi Uemura
- Department of Retinal Vascular Biology, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Aichi, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kubota
- Department of Anatomy, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Miura
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
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21
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Gage M, Putra M, Gomez-Estrada C, Golden M, Wachter L, Gard M, Thippeswamy T. Differential Impact of Severity and Duration of Status Epilepticus, Medical Countermeasures, and a Disease-Modifier, Saracatinib, on Brain Regions in the Rat Diisopropylfluorophosphate Model. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:772868. [PMID: 34720886 PMCID: PMC8555467 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.772868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute organophosphate (OP) toxicity poses a significant threat to both military and civilian personnel as it can lead to a variety of cholinergic symptoms including the development of status epilepticus (SE). Depending on its severity, SE can lead to a spectrum of neurological changes including neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. In this study, we determined the impact of SE severity and duration on disease promoting parameters such as gliosis and neurodegeneration and the efficacy of a disease modifier, saracatinib (AZD0530), a Src/Fyn tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Animals were exposed to 4 mg/kg diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP, s.c.) followed by medical countermeasures. We had five experimental groups: controls (no DFP), animals with no continuous convulsive seizures (CS), animals with ∼20-min continuous CS, 31-60-min continuous CS, and > 60-min continuous CS. These groups were then assessed for astrogliosis, microgliosis, and neurodegeneration 8 days after DFP exposure. The 31-60-min and > 60-min groups, but not ∼20-min group, had significantly upregulated gliosis and neurodegeneration in the hippocampus compared to controls. In the piriform cortex and amygdala, however, all three continuous CS groups had significant upregulation in both gliosis and neurodegeneration. In a separate cohort of animals that had ∼20 and > 60-min of continuous CS, we administered saracatinib for 7 days beginning three hours after DFP. There was bodyweight loss and mortality irrespective of the initial SE severity and duration. However, in survived animals, saracatinib prevented spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS) during the first week in both severity groups. In the ∼20-min CS group, compared to the vehicle, saracatinib significantly reduced neurodegeneration in the piriform cortex and amygdala. There were no significant differences in the measured parameters between the naïve control and saracatinib on its own (without DFP) groups. Overall, this study demonstrates the differential effects of the initial SE severity and duration on the localization of gliosis and neurodegeneration. We have also demonstrated the disease-modifying potential of saracatinib. However, its’ dosing regimen should be optimized based on initial severity and duration of CS during SE to maximize therapeutic effects and minimize toxicity in the DFP model as well as in other OP models such as soman.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Gage
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States.,Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Marson Putra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States.,Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Crystal Gomez-Estrada
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Madison Golden
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Logan Wachter
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Megan Gard
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Thimmasettappa Thippeswamy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States.,Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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22
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Wang Y, Zhao X, Gao M, Wan X, Guo Y, Qu Y, Chen Y, Li T, Liu H, Jiang M, Wang F, Sun X. Myosin 1f-mediated activation of microglia contributes to the photoreceptor degeneration in a mouse model of retinal detachment. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:926. [PMID: 34628463 PMCID: PMC8502177 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03983-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Photoreceptor death and neurodegeneration is the leading cause of irreversible vision loss. The inflammatory response of microglia plays an important role in the process of neurodegeneration. In this study, we chose retinal detachment as the model of photoreceptor degeneration. We found Myosin 1f was upregulated after retinal detachment, and it was specifically expressed in microglia. Deficiency of myosin 1f protected against photoreceptor apoptosis by inhibiting microglia activation. The elimination of microglia can abolish the protective effect of myosin 1f deficiency. After stimulation by LPS, microglia with myosin 1f deficiency showed downregulation of the MAPK and AKT pathways. Our results demonstrated that myosin 1f plays a crucial role in microglia-induced neuroinflammation after retinal injury and photoreceptor degeneration by regulating two classic inflammatory pathways and thereby decreasing the expression of inflammatory cytokines. Knockout of myosin 1f reduces the intensity of the immune response and prevents cell death of photoreceptor, suggesting that myosin 1f can be inhibited to prevent a decline in visual acuity after retinal detachment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yimin Wang
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaohuan Zhao
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Gao
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoling Wan
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Yinong Guo
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Yingying Qu
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Translational Medicine Center, Shanghai General Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuhong Chen
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Tong Li
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Haiyun Liu
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
| | - Mei Jiang
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Translational Medicine Center, Shanghai General Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xiaodong Sun
- Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
- National Clinical Research Center for Eye Disease, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China.
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23
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An enriched environment prevents cognitive impairment in an Alzheimer's disease model by enhancing the secretion of exosomal microRNA-146a from the choroid plexus. Brain Behav Immun Health 2021; 9:100149. [PMID: 34589894 PMCID: PMC8474441 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the extensive deposition of amyloid-β plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. We previously found that preserved function of astrocytes is associated with cognitively normal subjects with AD pathology. Here we show that an enriched environment (EE) can prevent cognitive impairment in AD model mice by ameliorating astrocytic inflammation and increasing synaptic density in the subiculum area of the hippocampus. In AD model mice treated with an EE, increased levels of microRNA (miR)-146a and down-regulation of NF-κB were observed in the hippocampus. In addition, increased levels of interferon (IFN)-γ were seen in serum from mice exposed to an EE. In vitro, enhanced miR-146a expression was observed in exosomes derived from the choroid plexus (CP) after IFN-γ treatment. In further in vitro experiments, we transfected miR-146a into Aβ/lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory astrocytes and showed that miR-146a ameliorated astrocytic inflammation by down-regulating tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 and NF-κB. The present study indicates that following an EE, exosomal miR-146a derived from the CP cells is a key factor in ameliorating astrocytic inflammation, leading to synaptogenesis and correction of cognitive impairment. An enriched environment (EE) prevented the cognitive impairment in 5 × FAD mice. An EE inhibited astrocytic inflammation and increased miR-146a in hippocampus. An EE increased the levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in serum. IFN-γ increased the secretion of exosomal miR-146a from cultured choroid plexus. Transfection of miR-146a down-regulated NF-κB in cultured astrocytes.
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24
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Porro C, Pennella A, Panaro MA, Trotta T. Functional Role of Non-Muscle Myosin II in Microglia: An Updated Review. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22136687. [PMID: 34206505 PMCID: PMC8267657 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Myosins are a remarkable superfamily of actin-based motor proteins that use the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to translocate actin filaments and to produce force. Myosins are abundant in different types of tissues and involved in a large variety of cellular functions. Several classes of the myosin superfamily are expressed in the nervous system; among them, non-muscle myosin II (NM II) is expressed in both neurons and non-neuronal brain cells, such as astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, endothelial cells, and microglia. In the nervous system, NM II modulates a variety of functions, such as vesicle transport, phagocytosis, cell migration, cell adhesion and morphology, secretion, transcription, and cytokinesis, as well as playing key roles during brain development, inflammation, repair, and myelination functions. In this review, we will provide a brief overview of recent emerging roles of NM II in resting and activated microglia cells, the principal regulators of immune processes in the central nervous system (CNS) in both physiological and pathological conditions. When stimulated, microglial cells react and produce a number of mediators, such as pro-inflammatory cytokines, free radicals, and nitric oxide, that enhance inflammation and contribute to neurodegenerative diseases. Inhibition of NM II could be a new therapeutic target to treat or to prevent CNS diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Porro
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71121 Foggia, Italy; (C.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Antonio Pennella
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71121 Foggia, Italy; (C.P.); (A.P.)
| | - Maria Antonietta Panaro
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, 70125 Bari, Italy;
| | - Teresa Trotta
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Foggia, 71121 Foggia, Italy; (C.P.); (A.P.)
- Correspondence:
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25
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Fan Y, Bi Y, Chen H. Salidroside Improves Chronic Stress Induced Depressive Symptoms Through Microglial Activation Suppression. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:635762. [PMID: 34168556 PMCID: PMC8217647 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.635762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a severe neurological disorder highly associated with chronic mental stress stimulation, which involves chronic inflammation and microglial activation in the central nervous system (CNS). Salidroside (SLDS) has been reported to exhibit anti-neuroinflammatory and protective properties on neurological diseases. However, the mechanism underlying the effect of SLDS on depressive symptoms has not been well elaborated. In the present study, the effects of SLDS on depressive behaviors and microglia activation in mice CNS were investigated. Behavioral tests, including Forced swimming test (FST), Open field test (OFT) and Morris water maze (MWM) revealed that SLDS treatment attenuated the depressive behaviors in stress mice. SLDS treatment significantly reduced the microglial immunoreactivity for both Iba-1 and CD68, characteristic of deleterious M1 phenotype in hippocampus of stress mice. Additionally, SLDS inhibited microglial activation involving the suppression of ERK1/2, P38 MAPK and p65 NF-κB activation and thus reduced the expression and release of neuroinflammatory cytokines in stress mice as well as in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced primary microglia. Also, SLDS changed microglial morphology, attachment and reduced the phagocytic ability in LPS-induced primary microglia. The results demonstrated that SLDS treatment could improve the depressive symptoms caused by unpredictable chronic stress, indicating a potential therapeutic application of SLDS in depression treatment by interfering microglia-mediated neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Fan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Yajuan Bi
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Haixia Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
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26
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You JE, Jung SH, Kim PH. The Effect of Annexin A1 as a Potential New Therapeutic Target on Neuronal Damage by Activated Microglia. Mol Cells 2021; 44:195-206. [PMID: 33935041 PMCID: PMC8112165 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2021.0020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain disease is known to cause irrevocable and fatal loss of biological function once damaged. One of various causes of its development is damage to neuron cells caused by hyperactivated microglia, which function as immune cells in brain. Among the genes expressed in microglia stimulated by various antigens, annexin A1 (ANXA1) is expressed in the early phase of the inflammatory response and plays an important role in controlling the immune response. In this study, we assessed whether ANXA1 can be a therapeutic target gene for the initial reduction of the immune response induced by microglia to minimize neuronal damage. To address this, mouse-origin microglial cells were stimulated to mimic an immune response by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment. The LPS treatment caused activation of ANXA1 gene and expression of inflammatory cytokines. To assess the biological function in microglia by the downregulation of ANXA1 gene, cells were treated with short hairpin RNA-ANXA1. Downregulated ANXA1 affected the function of mitochondria in the microglia and showed reduced neuronal damage when compared to the control group in the co-culture system. Taken together, our results showed that ANXA1 could be used as a potential therapeutic target for inflammation-related neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Eun You
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Korea
| | - Se-Hwa Jung
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Korea
| | - Pyung-Hwan Kim
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Konyang University, Daejeon 35365, Korea
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27
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The BET inhibitor attenuates the inflammatory response and cell migration in human microglial HMC3 cell line. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8828. [PMID: 33893325 PMCID: PMC8065145 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87828-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, resident macrophages of the brain that act as primary immune cells, play essential roles in innate immunity and neuroinflammatory pathologies. Microglial cells are rapidly activated in response to infection and inflammation/injury, associated with the expression of proinflammatory genes and secretion of cytokines. The bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) inhibitor JQ1 has been shown to be an epigenetic agent that reduces inflammation. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory and anti-migratory functions of JQ1 and the genes targeted by JQ1 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated human microglial clone 3 (HMC3) cells using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). We analyzed the pattern of inflammation-related genes (chemokines, cytokines, and interferon-stimulated genes) and migration-related genes with JQ1 treatment from differentially expressed genes analysis in HMC3 cells. We found that LPS-induced IRF1 directly regulated inflammation- and migration-related genes and that JQ1 significantly reduced IRF1 and its target genes. Additionally, IRF1 attenuation significantly downregulated target genes and inhibited microglial migration. Our data suggest that the BET inhibitor JQ1 can modulate the inflammatory response and migration through the regulation of LPS-induced IRF1 in human microglia.
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28
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Alternative Targets to Fight Alzheimer's Disease: Focus on Astrocytes. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11040600. [PMID: 33921556 PMCID: PMC8073475 DOI: 10.3390/biom11040600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The available treatments for patients affected by Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are not curative. Numerous clinical trials have failed during the past decades. Therefore, scientists need to explore new avenues to tackle this disease. In the present review, we briefly summarize the pathological mechanisms of AD known so far, based on which different therapeutic tools have been designed. Then, we focus on a specific approach that is targeting astrocytes. Indeed, these non-neuronal brain cells respond to any insult, injury, or disease of the brain, including AD. The study of astrocytes is complicated by the fact that they exert a plethora of homeostatic functions, and their disease-induced changes could be context-, time-, and disease specific. However, this complex but fervent area of research has produced a large amount of data targeting different astrocytic functions using pharmacological approaches. Here, we review the most recent literature findings that have been published in the last five years to stimulate new hypotheses and ideas to work on, highlighting the peculiar ability of palmitoylethanolamide to modulate astrocytes according to their morpho-functional state, which ultimately suggests a possible potential disease-modifying therapeutic approach for AD.
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29
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Kim YJ, Park SY, Koh YJ, Lee JH. Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effects and Mechanism of Action of Fructus ligustri lucidi Extract in BV2 Microglia. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10040688. [PMID: 33918375 PMCID: PMC8066913 DOI: 10.3390/plants10040688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
For centuries, Fructus ligustri lucidi (FLL; the fruit of Ligustrum lucidum Aiton or Ligustrum japonicum Thunb.) has been commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating hepatitis and aging-related symptoms and in traditional Korean medicine to detoxify kidneys and the liver. Pharmacological research has shown FLL has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-osteoporosis, and hepatoprotective activities. This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of FLL extract (FLLE) on neuroinflammation. After setting a non-toxic concentration using MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide] assay data, we investigated the effects of FLLE using Western blotting, cell migration, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, a nitric oxide (NO) assay, and immunofluorescence staining in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine BV2 microglial cells. FLLE was non-toxic to BV2 cells up to a concentration of 500 μg/mL and concentration-dependently inhibited the production of NO and prostaglandin E2 and the protein levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 under LPS-induced inflammatory conditions. It also inhibited the secretion of the inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Furthermore, FLLE pretreatment attenuated LPS-induced increases of CD68 (a marker of microglia activation) and suppressed the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells, and significantly increased heme oxygenase (HO)-1 levels. FLLE also reduced the LPS-induced increase in the migratory ability of BV2 cells and the phosphorylation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1. Collectively, FLLE effectively inhibited inflammatory response by suppressing the MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways and inducing HO-1 in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells. Our findings provide a scientific basis for further study of FLL as a candidate for preventing or alleviating neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeon Ju Kim
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, Korea;
| | - Sung Yun Park
- College of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, Goyang 10326, Korea;
| | - Young Jun Koh
- GI Innovation, Inc., Seoul 05855, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.J.K.); (J.-H.L.); Tel.: +82-31-961-5839 (J.-H.L.)
| | - Ju-Hee Lee
- College of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, Goyang 10326, Korea;
- Correspondence: (Y.J.K.); (J.-H.L.); Tel.: +82-31-961-5839 (J.-H.L.)
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30
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Ernest James Phillips T, Maguire E. Phosphoinositides: Roles in the Development of Microglial-Mediated Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 15:652593. [PMID: 33841102 PMCID: PMC8032904 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2021.652593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are increasingly recognized as vital players in the pathology of a variety of neurodegenerative conditions including Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s (PD) disease. While microglia have a protective role in the brain, their dysfunction can lead to neuroinflammation and contributes to disease progression. Also, a growing body of literature highlights the seven phosphoinositides, or PIPs, as key players in the regulation of microglial-mediated neuroinflammation. These small signaling lipids are phosphorylated derivates of phosphatidylinositol, are enriched in the brain, and have well-established roles in both homeostasis and disease.Disrupted PIP levels and signaling has been detected in a variety of dementias. Moreover, many known AD disease modifiers identified via genetic studies are expressed in microglia and are involved in phospholipid metabolism. One of these, the enzyme PLCγ2 that hydrolyzes the PIP species PI(4,5)P2, displays altered expression in AD and PD and is currently being investigated as a potential therapeutic target.Perhaps unsurprisingly, neurodegenerative conditions exhibiting PIP dyshomeostasis also tend to show alterations in aspects of microglial function regulated by these lipids. In particular, phosphoinositides regulate the activities of proteins and enzymes required for endocytosis, toll-like receptor signaling, purinergic signaling, chemotaxis, and migration, all of which are affected in a variety of neurodegenerative conditions. These functions are crucial to allow microglia to adequately survey the brain and respond appropriately to invading pathogens and other abnormalities, including misfolded proteins. AD and PD therapies are being developed to target many of the above pathways, and although not yet investigated, simultaneous PIP manipulation might enhance the beneficial effects observed. Currently, only limited therapeutics are available for dementia, and although these show some benefits for symptom severity and progression, they are far from curative. Given the importance of microglia and PIPs in dementia development, this review summarizes current research and asks whether we can exploit this information to design more targeted, or perhaps combined, dementia therapeutics. More work is needed to fully characterize the pathways discussed in this review, but given the strength of the current literature, insights in this area could be invaluable for the future of neurodegenerative disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Emily Maguire
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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31
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Desale SE, Chinnathambi S. Phosphoinositides signaling modulates microglial actin remodeling and phagocytosis in Alzheimer's disease. Cell Commun Signal 2021; 19:28. [PMID: 33627135 PMCID: PMC7905611 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-021-00715-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is one of the neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by the accumulation of abnormal protein deposits, which disrupts signal transduction in neurons and other glia cells. The pathological protein in neurodegenerative diseases, Tau and amyloid-β contribute to the disrupted microglial signaling pathways, actin cytoskeleton, and cellular receptor expression. The important secondary messenger lipids i.e., phosphatidylinositols are largely affected by protein deposits of amyloid-β in Alzheimer's disease. Phosphatidylinositols are the product of different phosphatidylinositol kinases and the state of phosphorylation at D3, D4, and D5 positions of inositol ring. Phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate (PI 3, 4, 5-P3) involves in phagocytic cup formation, cell polarization, whereas Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI 4, 5-P2)-mediates the process of phagosomes formation and further its fusion with early endosome.. The necessary activation of actin-binding proteins such as Rac, WAVE complex, and ARP2/3 complex for the actin polymerization in the process of phagocytosis, migration is regulated and maintained by PI 3, 4, 5-P3 and PI 4, 5-P2. The ratio and types of fatty acid intake can influence the intracellular secondary lipid messengers along with the cellular content of phaphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. The Amyloid-β deposits and extracellular Tau seeds disrupt phosphatidylinositides level and actin cytoskeletal network that hamper microglial-signaling pathways in AD. We hypothesize that being a lipid species intracellular levels of phosphatidylinositol would be regulated by dietary fatty acids. Further we are interested to understand phosphoinositide-based signaling cascades in phagocytosis and actin remodeling. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smita Eknath Desale
- Neurobiology Group, Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002 India
| | - Subashchandrabose Chinnathambi
- Neurobiology Group, Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory (CSIR-NCL), Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 India
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Microglia and Neuroinflammation: What Place for P2RY12? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041636. [PMID: 33561958 PMCID: PMC7915979 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are immune brain cells involved in neuroinflammation. They express a lot of proteins on their surface such as receptors that can be activated by mediators released in the microglial environment. Among these receptors, purinergic receptor expression could be modified depending on the activation status of microglia. In this review, we focus on P2Y receptors and more specifically on P2RY12 that is involved in microglial motility and migration, the first step of neuroinflammation process. We describe the purinergic receptor families, P2RY12 structure, expression and physiological functions. The pharmacological and genetic tools for studying this receptor are detailed thereafter. Last but not least, we report the contribution of microglial P2RY12 to neuroinflammation in acute and chronic brain pathologies in order to better understand P2RY12 microglial role.
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Gage MC, Thippeswamy T. Inhibitors of Src Family Kinases, Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase, and NADPH Oxidase as Potential CNS Drug Targets for Neurological Diseases. CNS Drugs 2021; 35:1-20. [PMID: 33515429 PMCID: PMC7893831 DOI: 10.1007/s40263-020-00787-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neurological diseases share common neuroinflammatory and oxidative stress pathways. Both phenotypic and molecular changes in microglia, astrocytes, and neurons contribute to the progression of disease and present potential targets for disease modification. Src family kinases (SFKs) are present in both neurons and glial cells and are upregulated following neurological insults in both human and animal models. In neurons, SFKs interact with post-synaptic protein domains to mediate hyperexcitability and neurotoxicity. SFKs are upstream of signaling cascades that lead to the modulation of neurotransmitter receptors and the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as producers of free radicals through the activation of glia. Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS/NOS-II) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 2 (NOX2), the major mediators of reactive nitrogen/oxygen species (RNS/ROS) production in the brain, are also upregulated along with the pro-inflammatory cytokines following neurological insult and contribute to disease progression. Persistent neuronal hyperexcitability, RNS/ROS, and cytokines can exacerbate neurodegeneration, a common pathognomonic feature of the most prevalent neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and epilepsy. Using a wide variety of preclinical disease models, inhibitors of the SFK-iNOS-NOX2 signaling axis have been tested to cure or modify disease progression. In this review, we discuss the SFK-iNOS-NOX2 signaling pathway and their inhibitors as potential CNS targets for major neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan C. Gage
- Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
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Barinov EF, Statinova EA, Sokhina VS, Faber TI. [Risks of progression of cerebrovascular pathology associated with the activity of the brain purinergic system]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2020; 120:118-124. [PMID: 33244967 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro2020120101118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Until now, there is no understanding of the relationship between risk factors and the progression of cerebrovascular pathology. The review presents facts that confirm the involvement of various subtypes of purine P2 receptors in neuron activation, growth and myelination of axons, migration and microglia phagocytosis, astrogliosis, regulation of vascular tone, thrombosis and angiogenesis, neuroinflammation and immune responses. The data suggest the possibility of the activation of purinergic system of the brain during the development of main risk factors for cerebrovascular pathology (age, arterial hypertension, diabetes), as a stereotypical mechanism that can affect the homeostasis of the ensemble "neuron-glia-capillary". Purinergic P2 receptors may be a potential target for the development of pharmacological methods to limit the progression of cerebrovascular pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- E F Barinov
- Gorky Donetsk National Medical University, Donetsk, Ukraina
| | - E A Statinova
- Gorky Donetsk National Medical University, Donetsk, Ukraina
| | - V S Sokhina
- Gorky Donetsk National Medical University, Donetsk, Ukraina
| | - T I Faber
- Gorky Donetsk National Medical University, Donetsk, Ukraina
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Zahiri D, Burow P, Großmann C, Müller CE, Klapperstück M, Markwardt F. Sphingosine-1-phosphate induces migration of microglial cells via activation of volume-sensitive anion channels, ATP secretion and activation of purinergic receptors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2020; 1868:118915. [PMID: 33271273 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2020.118915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Microglia cells are versatile players coordinating inflammatory and regenerative processes in the central nervous system in which sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)-mediated migration is essential. We investigated the involved signaling cascade by means of voltage clamp, measurement of ATP secretion, and wound healing assay in murine microglial BV-2 cells. S1P and extracellular hypoosmolar solution evoked an anion conductance of the cell membrane. The corresponding ion currents were inhibited by intracellular hypoosmolar solution and by the anion channel antagonists NPPB, tamoxifen, and carbenoxolone, pointing to the activation of volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC). The knockdown by siRNA indicates the involvement of LRRC8A subunits. The S1PR1-antagonist W123 and pertussis-toxin prevented the S1P-induced currents, showing the involvement of the Gi-protein-coupled S1P receptor 1 (S1PR1). Furthermore, S1P and hypoosmolar extracellular solution induced an increase of ATP levels in the supernatants of BV-2 cells, which was inhibited by NPPB, tamoxifen, and W123. S1P, ATP, and ADP stimulated cell migration into the scratch area. The inhibition of S1PR1 and the downstream Gi proteins hampered cell migration. Antagonists of VRAC were also able to diminish the migration of BV-2 cells. Furthermore, direct inhibition of ATP-gated P2X4 or P2X7 receptors or ADP-stimulated P2Y12 receptors blocked the stimulating effects of S1P on BV-2 cell migration. We conclude that there is an interaction between S1P receptors and purinergic receptors mediated by an S1P-induced ATP release via VRAC and that the amount of released ATP is capable of stimulating cell migration of BV-2 microglia cells via activation of P2X4, P2X7, and P2Y12 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danyal Zahiri
- Julius-Bernstein-Institute for Physiology, Martin-Luther-University Halle, Magdeburger Straße 6, D-06097 Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Philipp Burow
- Julius-Bernstein-Institute for Physiology, Martin-Luther-University Halle, Magdeburger Straße 6, D-06097 Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Claudia Großmann
- Julius-Bernstein-Institute for Physiology, Martin-Luther-University Halle, Magdeburger Straße 6, D-06097 Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Christa E Müller
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, Germany
| | - Manuela Klapperstück
- Julius-Bernstein-Institute for Physiology, Martin-Luther-University Halle, Magdeburger Straße 6, D-06097 Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - Fritz Markwardt
- Julius-Bernstein-Institute for Physiology, Martin-Luther-University Halle, Magdeburger Straße 6, D-06097 Halle/Saale, Germany.
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Chen K, Wellman SM, Yaxiaer Y, Eles JR, Kozai TD. In vivo spatiotemporal patterns of oligodendrocyte and myelin damage at the neural electrode interface. Biomaterials 2020; 268:120526. [PMID: 33302121 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Intracortical microelectrodes with the ability to detect intrinsic electrical signals and/or deliver electrical stimulation into local brain regions have been a powerful tool to understand brain circuitry and for therapeutic applications to neurological disorders. However, the chronic stability and sensitivity of these intracortical microelectrodes are challenged by overwhelming biological responses, including severe neuronal loss and thick glial encapsulation. Unlike microglia and astrocytes whose activity have been extensively examined, oligodendrocytes and their myelin processes remain poorly studied within the neural interface field. Oligodendrocytes have been widely recognized to modulate electrical signal conductance along axons through insulating myelin segments. Emerging evidence offers an alternative perspective on neuron-oligodendrocyte coupling where oligodendrocytes provide metabolic and neurotrophic support to neurons through cytoplasmic myelin channels and monocarboxylate transporters. This study uses in vivo multi-photon microscopy to gain insights into the dynamics of oligodendrocyte soma and myelin processes in response to chronic device implantation injury over 4 weeks. We observe that implantation induces acute oligodendrocyte injury including initial deformation and substantial myelinosome formation, an early sign of myelin injury. Over chronic implantation periods, myelin and oligodendrocyte soma suffer severe degeneration proximal to the interface. Interestingly, wound healing attempts such as oligodendrogenesis are initiated over time, however they are hampered by continued degeneration near the implant. Nevertheless, this detailed characterization of oligodendrocyte spatiotemporal dynamics during microelectrode-induced inflammation may provide insights for novel intervention targets to facilitate oligodendrogenesis, enhance the integration of neural-electrode interfaces, and improve long-term functional performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keying Chen
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University, USA
| | - Steven M Wellman
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University, USA
| | - Yalikun Yaxiaer
- Eberly College of Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
| | - James R Eles
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University, USA
| | - Takashi Dy Kozai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, USA; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University, USA; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, USA; McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, USA; NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, USA.
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High-resolution and differential analysis of rat microglial markers in traumatic brain injury: conventional flow cytometric and bioinformatics analysis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11991. [PMID: 32686718 PMCID: PMC7371644 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68770-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in a cascade of cellular responses, which produce neuroinflammation, partly due to microglial activation. Transforming from surveying to primed phenotypes, microglia undergo considerable molecular changes. However, specific microglial profiles in rat remain elusive due to tedious methodology and limited availability of reagents. Here, we present a flow cytometry-based analysis of rat microglia 24 h after TBI using the controlled cortical impact model, validated with a bioinformatics approach. Isolated microglia are analyzed for morphological changes and their expression of activation markers using flow cytometry, traditional gating-based analysis methods and support the data by employing bioinformatics statistical tools. We use CD45, CD11b/c, and p2y12 receptor to identify microglia and evaluate their activation state using CD32, CD86, RT1B, CD200R, and CD163. The results from logic-gated flow cytometry analysis was validated with bioinformatics-based analysis and machine learning algorithms to detect quantitative changes in morphology and marker expression in microglia due to activation following TBI.
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O'Grady BJ, Lippmann ES. Recent Advancements in Engineering Strategies for Manipulating Neural Stem Cell Behavior. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 1:41-47. [PMID: 33748772 DOI: 10.1007/s43152-020-00003-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Purpose of Review Stem cells are exquisitely sensitive to biophysical and biochemical cues within the native microenvironment. This review focuses on emerging strategies to manipulate neural cell behavior using these influences in three-dimensional (3D) culture systems. Recent Findings Traditional systems for neural cell differentiation typically produce heterogeneous populations with limited diversity rather than the complex, organized tissue structures observed in vivo. Advancements in developing engineering tools to direct neural cell fates can enable new applications in basic research, disease modeling, and regenerative medicine. Summary This review article highlights engineering strategies that facilitate controlled presentation of biophysical and biochemical cues to guide differentiation and impart desired phenotypes on neural cell populations. Specific highlighted examples include engineered biomaterials and microfluidic platforms for spatiotemporal control over the presentation of morphogen gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J O'Grady
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ethan S Lippmann
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
- Interdisciplinary Materials Science Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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O'Brien JJ, O'Callaghan JP, Miller DB, Chalgeri S, Wennogle LP, Davis RE, Snyder GL, Hendrick JP. Inhibition of calcium-calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterase (PDE1) suppresses inflammatory responses. Mol Cell Neurosci 2019; 102:103449. [PMID: 31770590 PMCID: PMC7783477 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2019.103449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel, potent, and highly specific inhibitor of calcium-calmodulin-dependent phosphodiesterases (PDE) of the PDE1 family, ITI-214, was used to investigate the role of PDE1 in inflammatory responses. ITI-214 dose-dependently suppressed lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in an immortalized murine microglial cell line, BV2 cells. RNA profiling (RNA-Seq) was used to analyze the impact of ITI-214 on the BV2 cell transcriptome in the absence and the presence of LPS. ITI-214 was found to regulate classes of genes that are involved in inflammation and cell migration responses to LPS exposure. The gene expression changes seen with ITI-214 treatment were distinct from those elicited by inhibitors of other PDEs with anti-inflammatory activity (e.g., a PDE4 inhibitor), indicating a distinct mechanism of action for PDE1. Functionally, ITI-214 inhibited ADP-induced migration of BV2 cells through a P2Y12-receptor-dependent pathway, possibly due to increases in the extent of cAMP and VASP phosphorylation downstream of receptor activation. Importantly, this effect was recapitulated in P2 rat microglial cells in vitro, indicating that these pathways are active in native microglial cells. These studies are the first to demonstrate that inhibition of PDE1 exerts anti-inflammatory effects through effects on microglia signaling pathways. The ability of PDE1 inhibitors to prevent or dampen excessive inflammatory responses of BV2 cells and microglia provides a basis for exploring their therapeutic utility in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases associated with increased inflammation and microglia proliferation such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J O'Brien
- Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., The Alexandria Center for Life Sciences, 430 East 29th St Suite 900, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
| | - James P O'Callaghan
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, United States of America
| | - Diane B Miller
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV 26505, United States of America
| | - Suman Chalgeri
- Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., The Alexandria Center for Life Sciences, 430 East 29th St Suite 900, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
| | - Lawrence P Wennogle
- Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., The Alexandria Center for Life Sciences, 430 East 29th St Suite 900, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
| | - Robert E Davis
- Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., The Alexandria Center for Life Sciences, 430 East 29th St Suite 900, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
| | - Gretchen L Snyder
- Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., The Alexandria Center for Life Sciences, 430 East 29th St Suite 900, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.
| | - Joseph P Hendrick
- Intra-Cellular Therapies, Inc., The Alexandria Center for Life Sciences, 430 East 29th St Suite 900, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
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Da Pozzo E, Tremolanti C, Costa B, Giacomelli C, Milenkovic VM, Bader S, Wetzel CH, Rupprecht R, Taliani S, Da Settimo F, Martini C. Microglial Pro-Inflammatory and Anti-Inflammatory Phenotypes Are Modulated by Translocator Protein Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184467. [PMID: 31510070 PMCID: PMC6770267 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A key role of the mitochondrial Translocator Protein 18 KDa (TSPO) in neuroinflammation has been recently proposed. However, little is known about TSPO-activated pathways underlying the modulation of reactive microglia. In the present work, the TSPO activation was explored in an in vitro human primary microglia model (immortalized C20 cells) under inflammatory stimulus. Two different approaches were used with the aim to (i) pharmacologically amplify or (ii) silence, by the lentiviral short hairpin RNA, the TSPO physiological function. In the TSPO pharmacological stimulation model, the synthetic steroidogenic selective ligand XBD-173 attenuated the activation of microglia. Indeed, it reduces and increases the release of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, respectively. Such ligand-induced effects were abolished when C20 cells were treated with the steroidogenesis inhibitor aminoglutethimide. This suggests a role for neurosteroids in modulating the interleukin production. The highly steroidogenic ligand XBD-173 attenuated the neuroinflammatory response more effectively than the poorly steroidogenic ones, which suggests that the observed modulation on the cytokine release may be influenced by the levels of produced neurosteroids. In the TSPO silencing model, the reduction of TSPO caused a more inflamed phenotype with respect to scrambled cells. Similarly, during the inflammatory response, the TSPO silencing increased and reduced the release of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, respectively. In conclusion, the obtained results are in favor of a homeostatic role for TSPO in the context of dynamic balance between anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory mediators in the human microglia-mediated inflammatory response. Interestingly, our preliminary results propose that the TSPO expression could be stimulated by NF-κB during activation of the inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Da Pozzo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (E.D.P.); (C.T.); (C.G.); (S.T.); (F.D.S.); (C.M.)
| | - Chiara Tremolanti
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (E.D.P.); (C.T.); (C.G.); (S.T.); (F.D.S.); (C.M.)
| | - Barbara Costa
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (E.D.P.); (C.T.); (C.G.); (S.T.); (F.D.S.); (C.M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Chiara Giacomelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (E.D.P.); (C.T.); (C.G.); (S.T.); (F.D.S.); (C.M.)
| | - Vladimir M. Milenkovic
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Molecular Neurosciences, University of Regensburg, 93059 Regensburg, Germany; (V.M.M.); (S.B.); (C.H.W.); (R.R.)
| | - Stefanie Bader
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Molecular Neurosciences, University of Regensburg, 93059 Regensburg, Germany; (V.M.M.); (S.B.); (C.H.W.); (R.R.)
| | - Christian H. Wetzel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Molecular Neurosciences, University of Regensburg, 93059 Regensburg, Germany; (V.M.M.); (S.B.); (C.H.W.); (R.R.)
| | - Rainer Rupprecht
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Molecular Neurosciences, University of Regensburg, 93059 Regensburg, Germany; (V.M.M.); (S.B.); (C.H.W.); (R.R.)
| | - Sabrina Taliani
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (E.D.P.); (C.T.); (C.G.); (S.T.); (F.D.S.); (C.M.)
| | - Federico Da Settimo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (E.D.P.); (C.T.); (C.G.); (S.T.); (F.D.S.); (C.M.)
| | - Claudia Martini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (E.D.P.); (C.T.); (C.G.); (S.T.); (F.D.S.); (C.M.)
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Akhmetzyanova E, Kletenkov K, Mukhamedshina Y, Rizvanov A. Different Approaches to Modulation of Microglia Phenotypes After Spinal Cord Injury. Front Syst Neurosci 2019; 13:37. [PMID: 31507384 PMCID: PMC6718713 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2019.00037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglial cells, which are highly plastic, immediately respond to any change in the microenvironment by becoming activated and shifting the phenotype toward neurotoxicity or neuroprotection. The polarization of microglia/macrophages after spinal cord injury (SCI) seems to be a dynamic process and can change depending on the microenvironment, stage, course, and severity of the posttraumatic process. Effective methods to modulate microglia toward a neuroprotective phenotype in order to stimulate neuroregeneration are actively sought for. In this context, available approaches that can selectively impact the polarization of microglia/macrophages regulate synthesis of trophic factors and cytokines/chemokines in them, and their phagocytic function and effects on the course and outcome of SCI are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvira Akhmetzyanova
- OpenLab Gene and Cell Technologies, Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
| | - Konstantin Kletenkov
- OpenLab Gene and Cell Technologies, Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
| | - Yana Mukhamedshina
- OpenLab Gene and Cell Technologies, Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia.,Department of Histology, Cytology and Embryology, Kazan State Medical University, Kazan, Russia
| | - Albert Rizvanov
- OpenLab Gene and Cell Technologies, Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
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Carcolé M, Zamanillo D, Merlos M, Fernández-Pastor B, Cabañero D, Maldonado R. Blockade of the Sigma-1 Receptor Relieves Cognitive and Emotional Impairments Associated to Chronic Osteoarthritis Pain. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:468. [PMID: 31130863 PMCID: PMC6510262 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis is the most common musculoskeletal disease worldwide, often characterized by degradation of the articular cartilage, chronic joint pain and disability. Cognitive dysfunction, anxiety and depression are common comorbidities that impact the quality of life of these patients. In this study, we evaluated the involvement of sigma-1 receptor (σ1R) on the nociceptive, cognitive and emotional alterations associated with chronic osteoarthritis pain. Monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) was injected into the knee of Swiss-albino CD1 mice to induce osteoarthritis pain, which then received a repeated treatment with the σ1R antagonist E-52862 or its vehicle. Nociceptive responses and motor performance were assessed with the von Frey and the Catwalk gait tests. Cognitive alterations were evaluated using the novel object recognition task, anxiety-like behavior with the elevated plus maze and the zero-maze tests, whereas depressive-like responses were determined using the forced swimming test. We also studied the local effect of the σ1R antagonist on cartilage degradation, and its central effects on microglial reactivity in the medial prefrontal cortex. MIA induced mechanical allodynia and gait abnormalities that were prevented by the chronic treatment with the σ1R antagonist. E-52862 also reduced the memory impairment and the depressive-like behavior associated to osteoarthritis pain. Interestingly, the effect of E-52862 on depressive-like behavior was not accompanied by a modification of anxiety-like behavior. The pain-relieving effects of the σ1R antagonist were not due to a local effect on the articular cartilage, since E-52862 treatment did not modify the histological alterations of the knee joints. However, E-52862 induced central effects revealed by a reduction of the cortical microgliosis observed in mice with osteoarthritis pain. These findings show that σ1R antagonism inhibits mechanical hypersensitivity, cognitive deficits and depressive-like states associated with osteoarthritis pain in mice. These effects are associated with central modulation of glial activity but are unrelated to changes in cartilage degradation. Therefore, targeting the σ1R with E-52862 represents a promising pharmacological approach with effects on multiple aspects of chronic osteoarthritis pain that may go beyond the strict inhibition of nociception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mireia Carcolé
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Zamanillo
- Drug Discovery and Preclinical Development, Laboratories Esteve, Barcelona Science Park, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuel Merlos
- Drug Discovery and Preclinical Development, Laboratories Esteve, Barcelona Science Park, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Begoña Fernández-Pastor
- Drug Discovery and Preclinical Development, Laboratories Esteve, Barcelona Science Park, Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Cabañero
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael Maldonado
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
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43
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Zhang X, Ye P, Wang D, Liu Y, Cao L, Wang Y, Xu Y, Zhu C. Involvement of RhoA/ROCK Signaling in Aβ-Induced Chemotaxis, Cytotoxicity and Inflammatory Response of Microglial BV2 Cells. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2019; 39:637-650. [PMID: 30852720 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-019-00668-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Reactive microglia clustering around amyloid plaques in brain is a histopathological feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and reflects the contribution of neuroinflammation in AD pathogenesis. β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ) has been shown to induce a range of microglial responses including chemotaxis, cytotoxicity and inflammation, but the underlying mechanism is poorly understood. Considering the fundamental role of RhoA/ROCK signaling in cell migration and its broad implication in AD and neuroinflammation, we hypothesized that RhoA/ROCK signaling might be involved in Aβ-induced microglial responses. From in vivo mouse models including APP/PS1 transgene and fibrillar Aβ stereotactic injection, we observed the elevated expression level of RhoA in reactive microglia. Through a series in vitro cell migration, cytotoxicity and biochemistry assays, we found that RhoA/ROCK signaling plays an essential role in Aβ-induced responses of microglial BV2 cells. Small molecular agents Fasudil and Y27632 showed prominent beneficial effects, which implies the therapeutic potential of RhoA/ROCK signaling inhibitors in AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxu Zhang
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Piao Ye
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Dandan Wang
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yunsheng Liu
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Lan Cao
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yancong Wang
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yuxia Xu
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Cuiqing Zhu
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology & Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, 138 Yi-Xue-Yuan Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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44
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Fan Y, Chen Z, Pathak JL, Carneiro AMD, Chung CY. Differential Regulation of Adhesion and Phagocytosis of Resting and Activated Microglia by Dopamine. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:309. [PMID: 30254570 PMCID: PMC6141656 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the immune competent cells of the central nervous system (CNS), normally exist in a resting state characterized by a ramified morphology with many processes, and become activated to amoeboid morphology in response to brain injury, infection, and a variety of neuroinflammatory stimuli. Many studies focused on how neurotransmitters affect microglia activation in pathophysiological circumstances. In this study, we tried to gain mechanistic insights on how dopamine (DA) released from neurons modulates cellular functions of resting and activated microglia. DA induced the reduction of the number of cellular processes, the increase of cell adhesion/spreading, and the increase of vimentin filaments in resting primary and BV2 microglia. In contrast to resting cells, DA downregulated the cell spreading and phagocytosis of microglia activated by LPS. DA also significantly downregulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation in activated microglia, but not in resting microglia. Downregulation of ERK1/2 by DA in activated microglia required receptor signaling. In contrast, we found a significant increase of p38MAPK activity by DA treatment in resting, but not in activated microglia. These latter effects required the uptake of DA through the high-affinity transporter but did not require receptor signaling. Activation of p38MAPK resulted in the increase of focal adhesion number via phosphorylation of paxillin at Ser83. These results indicate that DA might have a differential, depending upon the activation stage of microglia, impact on cellular functions such as adhesion and phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Fan
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhilu Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Janak L Pathak
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Ana M D Carneiro
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Chang Y Chung
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China.,Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
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45
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Ramesh S, Govindarajulu M, Suppiramaniam V, Moore T, Dhanasekaran M. Autotaxin⁻Lysophosphatidic Acid Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19071827. [PMID: 29933579 PMCID: PMC6073975 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19071827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain contains various forms of lipids that are important for maintaining its structural integrity and regulating various signaling cascades. Autotaxin (ATX) is an ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase-2 enzyme that hydrolyzes extracellular lysophospholipids into the lipid mediator lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). LPA is a major bioactive lipid which acts through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and plays an important role in mediating cellular signaling processes. The majority of synthesized LPA is derived from membrane phospholipids through the action of the secreted enzyme ATX. Both ATX and LPA are highly expressed in the central nervous system. Dysfunctional expression and activity of ATX with associated changes in LPA signaling have recently been implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This review focuses on the current understanding of LPA signaling, with emphasis on the importance of the autotaxin–lysophosphatidic acid (ATX–LPA) pathway and its alterations in AD and a brief note on future therapeutic applications based on ATX–LPA signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sindhu Ramesh
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Manoj Govindarajulu
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Vishnu Suppiramaniam
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Timothy Moore
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Muralikrishnan Dhanasekaran
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
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46
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McCarthy RC, Sosa JC, Gardeck AM, Baez AS, Lee CH, Wessling-Resnick M. Inflammation-induced iron transport and metabolism by brain microglia. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:7853-7863. [PMID: 29610275 PMCID: PMC5961037 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.001949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are immune cells of the central nervous system and are implicated in brain inflammation. However, how brain microglia modulate transport and metabolism of the essential metal iron in response to pro- and anti-inflammatory environmental cues is unclear. Here, we characterized uptake of transferrin (Tf)-bound iron (TBI) and non-Tf-bound iron (NTBI) by immortalized microglial (IMG) cells. We found that these cells preferentially take up NTBI in response to the proinflammatory stimulus lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or β-amyloid (Aβ). In contrast, the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 4 (IL-4) promoted TBI uptake. Concordant with these functional data, levels of the Tf receptor (TfR) in IMG cells were up-regulated in response to IL-4, whereas divalent metal transporter-1 (DMT1) and ferritin levels increased in response to LPS or Aβ. Similar changes in expression were confirmed in isolated primary adult mouse microglia treated with pro- or anti-inflammatory inducers. LPS-induced changes in IMG cell iron metabolism were accompanied by notable metabolic changes, including increased glycolysis and decreased oxidative respiration. Under these conditions, the extracellular acidification rate was increased, compatible with changes in the cellular microenvironment that would support the pH-dependent function of DMT1. Moreover, LPS increased heme oxygenase-1 (HO1) expression in IMG cells, and iron released because of HO1 activity increased the intracellular labile free-iron pool. Together, this evidence indicates that brain microglia preferentially acquire iron from Tf or from non-Tf sources, depending on their polarization state; that NTBI uptake is enhanced by the proinflammatory response; and that under these conditions microglia sequester both extra- and intracellular iron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan C McCarthy
- From the Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Jose Carlo Sosa
- From the Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Andrew M Gardeck
- From the Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Andrew S Baez
- From the Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Chih-Hao Lee
- From the Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Marianne Wessling-Resnick
- From the Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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47
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Acute Neuroinflammatory Response in the Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta of Rats after a Local Injection of Lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol Res 2018; 2018:1838921. [PMID: 29854828 PMCID: PMC5964493 DOI: 10.1155/2018/1838921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Models of Parkinson's disease with neurotoxins have shown that microglial activation does not evoke a typical inflammatory response in the substantia nigra, questioning whether neuroinflammation leads to neurodegeneration. To address this issue, the archetypal inflammatory stimulus, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), was injected into the rat substantia nigra. LPS induced fever, sickness behavior, and microglial activation (OX42 immunoreactivity), followed by astrocyte activation and leukocyte infiltration (GFAP and CD45 immunoreactivities). During the acute phase of neuroinflammation, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-4, and IL-10) responded differentially at mRNA and protein level. Increased NO production and lipid peroxidation occurred at 168 h after LPS injection. At this time, evidence of neurodegeneration could be seen, entailing decreased tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity, irregular body contour, and prolongation discontinuity of TH+ cells, as well as apparent phagocytosis of TH+ cells by OX42+ cells. Altogether, these results show that LPS evokes a typical inflammatory response in the substantia nigra that is followed by dopaminergic neurodegeneration.
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48
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Wellman SM, Kozai TDY. In vivo spatiotemporal dynamics of NG2 glia activity caused by neural electrode implantation. Biomaterials 2018; 164:121-133. [PMID: 29501892 PMCID: PMC5951685 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.02.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neural interface technology provides direct sampling and analysis of electrical and chemical events in the brain in order to better understand neuronal function and treat neurodegenerative disease. However, intracortical electrodes experience inflammatory reactions that reduce long-term stability and functionality and are understood to be facilitated by activated microglia and astrocytes. Emerging studies have identified another cell type that participates in the formation of a high-impedance glial scar following brain injury; the oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC). These cells maintain functional synapses with neurons and are a crucial source of neurotrophic support. Following injury, OPCs migrate toward areas of tissue injury over the course of days, similar to activated microglia. The delayed time course implicates these OPCs as key components in the formation of the outer layers of the glial scar around the implant. In vivo two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM) was employed to observe fluorescently-labeled OPC and microglia reactivity up to 72 h following probe insertion. OPCs initiated extension of cellular processes (2.5 ± 0.4 μm h-1) and cell body migration (1.6 ± 0.3 μm h-1) toward the probe beginning 12 h after insertion. By 72 h, OPCs became activated at a radius of about 190.3 μm away from the probe surface. This study characterized the early spatiotemporal dynamics of OPCs involved in the inflammatory response induced by microelectrode insertion. OPCs are key mediators of tissue health and are understood to have multiple fate potentials. Detailed spatiotemporal characterization of glial behavior under pathological conditions may allow identification of alternative intervention targets for mitigating the formation of a glial scar and subsequent neurodegeneration that debilitates chronic neural interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven M Wellman
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States; Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, United States
| | - Takashi D Y Kozai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, United States; Center for the Basis of Neural Cognition, United States; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, United States; McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, United States; NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, United States.
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49
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Plastira I, Bernhart E, Goeritzer M, DeVaney T, Reicher H, Hammer A, Lohberger B, Wintersperger A, Zucol B, Graier WF, Kratky D, Malle E, Sattler W. Lysophosphatidic acid via LPA-receptor 5/protein kinase D-dependent pathways induces a motile and pro-inflammatory microglial phenotype. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:253. [PMID: 29258556 PMCID: PMC5735906 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-1024-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extracellular lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) species transmit signals via six different G protein-coupled receptors (LPAR1-6) and are indispensible for brain development and function of the nervous system. However, under neuroinflammatory conditions or brain damage, LPA levels increase, thereby inducing signaling cascades that counteract brain function. We describe a critical role for 1-oleyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (termed "LPA" throughout our study) in mediating a motile and pro-inflammatory microglial phenotype via LPAR5 that couples to protein kinase D (PKD)-mediated pathways. METHODS Using the xCELLigence system and time-lapse microscopy, we investigated the migrational response of microglial cells. Different M1 and M2 markers were analyzed by confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and immunoblotting. Using qPCR and ELISA, we studied the expression of migratory genes and quantitated the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, respectively. Different transcription factors that promote the regulation of pro-inflammatory genes were analyzed by western blot. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) production, phagocytosis, and microglial cytotoxicity were determined using commercially available assay kits. RESULTS LPA induces MAPK family and AKT activation and pro-inflammatory transcription factors' phosphorylation (NF-κB, c-Jun, STAT1, and STAT3) that were inhibited by both LPAR5 and PKD family antagonists. LPA increases migratory capacity, induces secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and expression of M1 markers, enhances production of ROS and NO by microglia, and augments cytotoxicity of microglial cell-conditioned medium towards neurons. The PKD family inhibitor blunted all of these effects. We propose that interference with this signaling axis could aid in the development of new therapeutic approaches to control neuroinflammation under conditions of overshooting LPA production. CONCLUSIONS In the present study, we show that inflammatory LPA levels increased the migratory response of microglia and promoted a pro-inflammatory phenotype via the LPAR5/PKD axis. Interference with this signaling axis reduced microglial migration, blunted microglial cytotoxicity, and abrogated the expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. Plastira
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - E. Bernhart
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - M. Goeritzer
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria ,grid.452216.6BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - T. DeVaney
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Biophysics, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - H. Reicher
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - A. Hammer
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Cell Biology, Histology and Embryology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - B. Lohberger
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - A. Wintersperger
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - B. Zucol
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - W. F. Graier
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria ,grid.452216.6BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - D. Kratky
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria ,grid.452216.6BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - E. Malle
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - W. Sattler
- 0000 0000 8988 2476grid.11598.34Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6/6, 8010 Graz, Austria ,grid.452216.6BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
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50
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Clayton KA, Van Enoo AA, Ikezu T. Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Microglia in Brain Homeostasis and Proteopathy. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:680. [PMID: 29311768 PMCID: PMC5733046 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain aging is central to late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD), although the mechanisms by which it occurs at protein or cellular levels are not fully understood. Alzheimer's disease is the most common proteopathy and is characterized by two unique pathologies: senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, the former accumulating earlier than the latter. Aging alters the proteostasis of amyloid-β peptides and microtubule-associated protein tau, which are regulated in both autonomous and non-autonomous manners. Microglia, the resident phagocytes of the central nervous system, play a major role in the non-autonomous clearance of protein aggregates. Their function is significantly altered by aging and neurodegeneration. This is genetically supported by the association of microglia-specific genes, TREM2 and CD33, and late onset Alzheimer's disease. Here, we propose that the functional characterization of microglia, and their contribution to proteopathy, will lead to a new therapeutic direction in Alzheimer's disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Clayton
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Alicia A Van Enoo
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Tsuneya Ikezu
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Neurology, Medical School, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
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