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Horn SA, Dasgupta PK. The Air Quality Index (AQI) in historical and analytical perspective a tutorial review. Talanta 2024; 267:125260. [PMID: 37852126 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.125260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
The Air Quality Index (AQI), developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), has been providing the public with crucial information regarding the status of contamination of the atmosphere for the past 45 years. Prior to introduction of the AQI, only a handful of metropolitan areas reported on air quality, and each region decided on its own metric. The inception of a single AQI helped homogenize the air quality metrics across the nation and indeed served as an important future template for other governmental and regulatory agencies across the world. The formulators had the foresight to recognize that our understanding of air pollution and its effects may change over time, which are likely to change regulatory limits. They used a dynamic framework to define the AQI, such that the broad definition or principle does not need to change with every change in regulatory limits or policy, and the fundamental goal of alerting the public to deleterious air quality is not affected. The establishment of the AQI increased public awareness of the importance of clean air and has helped muster support for air quality and emission regulations. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) set forth by the USEPA provides acceptable levels of criteria pollutants - namely carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. A comparison of the actual levels, as compared to the regulatory limits (since the cessation of leaded gasoline, lead is no longer included in the index), are used as the basis for the AQI. As the regulatory limits change, so does the exact evaluation of the AQI, making it a living index. In this paper, we provide a historical overview of the Air Quality Index, the Federal Reference Methods (FRMs) vs. Federal Equivalent Methods (FEMs) for measuring them, and as an illustrative example, we discuss the air quality for Dallas-Ft. Worth, currently the fourth most populous metropolitan region in the United States, vis-a-vis the reported AQI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth A Horn
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019-0065, USA.
| | - Purnendu K Dasgupta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019-0065, USA.
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2
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Cromar K, Gladson L, Gohlke J, Li Y, Tong D, Ewart G. Adverse Health Impacts of Outdoor Air Pollution, Including from Wildland Fires, in the United States: "Health of the Air," 2018-2020. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2024; 21:76-87. [PMID: 37906164 PMCID: PMC10867920 DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.202305-455oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Adverse health impacts from outdoor air pollution occur across the United States, but the magnitude of these impacts varies widely by geographic region. Ambient pollutant concentrations, emission sources, baseline health conditions, and population sizes and distributions are all important factors that need to be taken into account to quantify local health burdens. Objectives: To determine health impacts from ambient air pollution concentrations in the United States that exceed the levels recommended by the American Thoracic Society. Methods: Using a methodology that has been well established in previous "Health of the Air" reports, this study provides policy-relevant estimates for every monitored county and city in the United States for the adverse health impacts of outdoor pollution concentrations using U.S. Environmental Protection Agency design values for years 2018-2020. Additionally, for the first time, the report includes adverse birth outcomes as well as estimates of health impacts specifically attributable to wildland fires using an exposure dataset generated through Community Multiscale Air Quality simulations. Results: The adverse health burdens attributable to air pollution occur across the entire age spectrum, including adverse birth outcomes (10,660 preterm and/or low-weight births; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3,180-18,330), in addition to mortality impacts (21,300 avoidable deaths; 95% CI, 16,180-26,200), lung cancer incidence (3,000 new cases; 95% CI, 1,550-4,390), multiple types of cardiovascular and respiratory morbidity (748,660 events; 95% CI, 326,050-1,057,080), and adversely impacted days (52.4 million days; 95% CI, 7.9-92.4 million days). Two different estimates of mortality impacts from wildland fires were created based on assumptions regarding the underlying toxicity of particles from wildland fires (low estimate of 4,080 deaths, 95% CI, 240-7,890; middle estimate of 28,000 deaths, 95% CI, 27,300-28,700). Conclusions: This year's report identified sizable health benefits that would be expected to occur across the United States with compliance with more health-protective air quality standards such as those recommended by the American Thoracic Society. This study also indicates that a large number of excess deaths are attributable to emissions from wildland fires; air quality management strategies outside what is required by the Clean Air Act will be needed to best address this important source of air pollution and its associated health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Cromar
- Marron Institute of Urban Management, New York University, New York, New York
- New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | - Laura Gladson
- Marron Institute of Urban Management, New York University, New York, New York
- New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York
| | | | - Yunyao Li
- Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Earth Sciences and
| | - Daniel Tong
- Department of Atmospheric, Oceanic and Earth Sciences and
- Center for Spatial Information Science and Systems, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia; and
| | - Gary Ewart
- American Thoracic Society, Washington, DC
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Raab H, Moyer J, Afrin S, Garcia-Menendez F, Ward-Caviness CK. Prescribed fires, smoke exposure, and hospital utilization among heart failure patients. Environ Health 2023; 22:86. [PMID: 38087300 PMCID: PMC10717133 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-023-01032-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prescribed fires often have ecological benefits, but their environmental health risks have been infrequently studied. We investigated associations between residing near a prescribed fire, wildfire smoke exposure, and heart failure (HF) patients' hospital utilization. METHODS We used electronic health records from January 2014 to December 2016 in a North Carolina hospital-based cohort to determine HF diagnoses, primary residence, and hospital utilization. Using a cross-sectional study design, we associated the prescribed fire occurrences within 1, 2, and 5 km of the patients' primary residence with the number of hospital visits and 7- and 30-day readmissions. To compare prescribed fire associations with those observed for wildfire smoke, we also associated zip code-level smoke density data designed to capture wildfire smoke emissions with hospital utilization amongst HF patients. Quasi-Poisson regression models were used for the number of hospital visits, while zero-inflated Poisson regression models were used for readmissions. All models were adjusted for age, sex, race, and neighborhood socioeconomic status and included an offset for follow-up time. The results are the percent change and the 95% confidence interval (CI). RESULTS Associations between prescribed fire occurrences and hospital visits were generally null, with the few associations observed being with prescribed fires within 5 and 2 km of the primary residence in the negative direction but not the more restrictive 1 km radius. However, exposure to medium or heavy smoke (primarily from wildfires) at the zip code level was associated with both 7-day (8.5% increase; 95% CI = 1.5%, 16.0%) and 30-day readmissions (5.4%; 95% CI = 2.3%, 8.5%), and to a lesser degree, hospital visits (1.5%; 95% CI: 0.0%, 3.0%) matching previous studies. CONCLUSIONS Area-level smoke exposure driven by wildfires is positively associated with hospital utilization but not proximity to prescribed fires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Raab
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, US Environmental Protection Agency, Human Studies Building, 104 Mason Farm Rd, Chapel Hill, NC, 27514, USA
| | - Joshua Moyer
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, US Environmental Protection Agency, Human Studies Building, 104 Mason Farm Rd, Chapel Hill, NC, 27514, USA
| | - Sadia Afrin
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
- Present address: MIT Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Fernando Garcia-Menendez
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
| | - Cavin K Ward-Caviness
- Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, US Environmental Protection Agency, Human Studies Building, 104 Mason Farm Rd, Chapel Hill, NC, 27514, USA.
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4
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Byanova KL, Abelman R, North CM, Christenson SA, Huang L. COPD in People with HIV: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Management, and Prevention Strategies. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2023; 18:2795-2817. [PMID: 38050482 PMCID: PMC10693779 DOI: 10.2147/copd.s388142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive respiratory disorder characterized by airflow limitation and persistent respiratory symptoms. People with HIV (PWH) are particularly vulnerable to COPD development; PWH have demonstrated both higher rates of COPD and an earlier and more rapid decline in lung function than their seronegative counterparts, even after accounting for differences in cigarette smoking. Factors contributing to this HIV-associated difference include chronic immune activation and inflammation, accelerated aging, a predilection for pulmonary infections, alterations in the lung microbiome, and the interplay between HIV and inhalational toxins. In this review, we discuss what is known about the epidemiology and pathobiology of COPD among PWH and outline screening, diagnostic, prevention, and treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina L Byanova
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Allergy, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Rebecca Abelman
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases, and Global Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Crystal M North
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Stephanie A Christenson
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Allergy, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Laurence Huang
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Allergy, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Division of HIV, Infectious Diseases, and Global Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Sundar IK, Duraisamy SK, Choudhary I, Saini Y, Silveyra P. Acute and Repeated Ozone Exposures Differentially Affect Circadian Clock Gene Expression in Mice. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2023; 7:e2300045. [PMID: 37204107 PMCID: PMC10657336 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202300045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Circadian rhythms have an established role in regulating physiological processes, such as inflammation, immunity, and metabolism. Ozone, a common environmental pollutant with strong oxidative potential, is implicated in lung inflammation/injury in asthmatics. However, whether O3 exposure affects the expression of circadian clock genes in the lungs is not known. In this study, changes in the expression of core clock genes are analyzed in the lungs of adult female and male mice exposed to filtered air (FA) or O3 using qRT-PCR. The findings are confirmed using an existing RNA-sequencing dataset from repeated FA- and O3 -exposed mouse lungs and validated by qRT-PCR. Acute O3 exposure significantly alters the expression of clock genes in the lungs of females (Per1, Cry1, and Rora) and males (Per1). RNA-seq data revealing sex-based differences in clock gene expression in the airway of males (decreased Nr1d1/Rev-erbα) and females (increased Skp1), parenchyma of females and males (decreased Nr1d1 and Fbxl3 and increased Bhlhe40 and Skp1), and alveolar macrophages of males (decreased Arntl/Bmal1, Per1, Per2, Prkab1, and Prkab2) and females (increased Cry2, Per1, Per2, Csnk1d, Csnk1e, Prkab2, and Fbxl3). These findings suggest that lung inflammation caused by O3 exposure affects clock genes which may regulate key signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Kirubakaran Sundar
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Santhosh Kumar Duraisamy
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Ishita Choudhary
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Yogesh Saini
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Patricia Silveyra
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Indiana University, School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, USA
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6
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Zhou J, Gladson L, Díaz Suárez V, Cromar K. Respiratory Health Impacts of Outdoor Air Pollution and the Efficacy of Local Risk Communication in Quito, Ecuador. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6326. [PMID: 37510559 PMCID: PMC10379231 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20146326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Relatively few studies on the adverse health impacts of outdoor air pollution have been conducted in Latin American cities, whose pollutant mixtures and baseline health risks are distinct from North America, Europe, and Asia. This study evaluates respiratory morbidity risk associated with ambient air pollution in Quito, Ecuador, and specifically evaluates if the local air quality index accurately reflects population-level health risks. Poisson generalized linear models using air pollution, meteorological, and hospital admission data from 2014 to 2015 were run to quantify the associations of air pollutants and index values with respiratory outcomes in single- and multi-pollutant models. Significant associations were observed for increased respiratory hospital admissions and ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2), although some of these associations were attenuated in two-pollutant models. Significant associations were also observed for index values, but these values were driven almost entirely by daily O3 concentrations. Modifications to index formulation to more fully incorporate the health risks of multiple pollutants, particularly for NO2, have the potential to greatly improve risk communication in Quito. This work also increases the equity of the existing global epidemiological literature by adding new air pollution health risk values from a highly understudied region of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Zhou
- Marron Institute of Urban Management, New York University, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA
| | - Laura Gladson
- Marron Institute of Urban Management, New York University, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10010, USA
| | - Valeria Díaz Suárez
- Secretaría de Ambiente del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, Quito 170138, Ecuador
| | - Kevin Cromar
- Marron Institute of Urban Management, New York University, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10010, USA
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
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7
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Peck A, Handy RG, Sleeth DK, Schaefer C, Zhang Y, Pahler LF, Ramsay J, Collingwood SC. Aerosol Measurement Degradation in Low-Cost Particle Sensors Using Laboratory Calibration and Field Validation. TOXICS 2023; 11:56. [PMID: 36668782 PMCID: PMC9862639 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11010056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Increasing concern over air pollution has led to the development of low-cost sensors suitable for wide-scale deployment and use by citizen scientists. This project investigated the AirU low-cost particle sensor using two methods: (1) a comparison of pre- and post-deployment calibration equations for 24 devices following use in a field study, and (2) an in-home comparison between 3 AirUs and a reference instrument, the GRIMM 1.109. While differences (and therefore some sensor degradation) were found in the pre- and post-calibration equation comparison, absolute value changes were small and unlikely to affect the quality of results. Comparison tests found that while the AirU did tend to underestimate minimum and overestimate maximum concentrations of particulate matter, ~88% of results fell within ±1 μg/m3 of the GRIMM. While these tests confirm that low-cost sensors such as the AirU do experience some sensor degradation over multiple months of use, they remain a valuable tool for exposure assessment studies. Further work is needed to examine AirU performance in different environments for a comprehensive survey of capability, as well as to determine the source of sensor degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Peck
- Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Rodney G. Handy
- Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Darrah K. Sleeth
- Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Camie Schaefer
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Yue Zhang
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Leon F. Pahler
- Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
| | - Joemy Ramsay
- Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
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Qiu AY, Leng S, McCormack M, Peden DB, Sood A. Lung Effects of Household Air Pollution. THE JOURNAL OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY. IN PRACTICE 2022; 10:2807-2819. [PMID: 36064186 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaip.2022.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Biomass fuel smoke, secondhand smoke, and oxides of nitrogen are common causes of household air pollution (HAP). Almost 2.4 billion people worldwide use solid fuels for cooking and heating, mostly in low- and middle-income countries. Wood combustion for household heating is also common in many areas of high-income countries, and minorities are particularly vulnerable. HAP in low- and middle-income countries is associated with asthma, acute respiratory tract infections in adults and children, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, tuberculosis, and respiratory mortality. Although wood smoke exposure levels in high-income countries are typically lower than in lower-income countries, it is similarly associated with accelerated lung function decline, higher prevalence of airflow obstruction and chronic bronchitis, and higher all-cause and respiratory cause-specific mortality. Household air cleaners with high-efficiency particle filters have mixed effects on asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease outcomes. Biomass fuel interventions in low-income countries include adding chimneys to cookstoves, improving biomass fuel combustion stoves, and switching fuel to liquid petroleum gas. Still, the impact on health outcomes is inconsistent. In high-income countries, strategies for reducing biomass fuel-related HAP are centered on community-level woodstove changeout programs, although the results are again inconsistent. In addition, initiatives to encourage home smoking bans have mixed success in households with children. Environmental solutions to reduce HAP have varying success in reducing pollutants and health problems. Improved understanding of indoor air quality factors and actions that prevent degradation or improve polluted indoor air may lead to enhanced environmental health policies, but health outcomes must be rigorously examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Y Qiu
- Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Md
| | - Shuguang Leng
- University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM; University of New Mexico Comprehensive Cancer Center, Albuquerque, NM
| | | | - David B Peden
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Akshay Sood
- University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM; Miners Colfax Medical Center, Raton, NM.
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9
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Mathur R, Kang D, Napelenok SL, Xing J, Hogrefe C, Sarwar G, Itahashi S, Henderson BH. How have Divergent Global Emission Trends Influenced Long-range Transported Ozone to North America? JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. ATMOSPHERES : JGR 2022; 127:0. [PMID: 36275858 PMCID: PMC9580341 DOI: 10.1029/2022jd036926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Several locations across the United States in non-compliance with the national standard for ground-level ozone (O3) are thought to have sizeable influences from distant extra-regional emission sources or natural stratospheric O3, which complicates design of local emission control measures. To quantify the amount of long-range transported O3 (LRT O3), its origin, and change over time, we conduct and analyze detailed sensitivity calculations characterizing the response of O3 to emissions from different source regions across the Northern Hemisphere in conjunction with multi-decadal simulations of tropospheric O3 distributions and changes. Model calculations show that the amount of O3 at any location attributable to sources outside North America varies both spatially and seasonally. On a seasonal-mean basis, during 1990-2010, LRT O3 attributable to international sources steadily increased by 0.06-0.2 ppb yr-1 at locations across the United States and arose from superposition of unequal and contrasting trends in individual source-region contributions, which help inform attribution of the trend evident in O3 measurements. Contributions of emissions from Europe steadily declined through 2010, while those from Asian emissions increased and remained dominant. Steadily rising NOx emissions from international shipping resulted in increasing contributions to LRT O3, comparable to those from Asian emissions in recent years. Central American emissions contribute a significant fraction of LRT O3 in southwestern United States. In addition to the LRT O3 attributable to emissions outside of North America, background O3 across the continental United States is comprised of a sizeable and spatially variable fraction that is of stratospheric origin (29-78%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Mathur
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Daiwen Kang
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Sergey L. Napelenok
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Jia Xing
- Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Christian Hogrefe
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Golam Sarwar
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, NC, USA
| | - Syuichi Itahashi
- Environmental Science Research Laboratory, Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI), Japan
| | - Barron H. Henderson
- Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, RTP, NC, USA
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10
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Liang D, Yan H, Tian Y, Liu Y, Hao S, Bai H, Zhang G, Deng W. Identification of key controlling factors of ozone pollution in Jinan, northern China over 2013–2020. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.930569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Urban ozone (O3) pollution has become a prominent environmental threat to public health while the relationship between O3 formation and driving factors remains elusive, particularly for megacities in the Shandong Peninsula of China. In this study, we use intensive ambient measurements of trace gases to comprehensively investigate the magnitude of O3 pollution in Jinan city from 2013 to 2020. Further, emission inventory and OMI NO2 columns are used for probing changes in precursor emissions. Ground-level measurements indicate degraded O3 air quality afterward in 2015 and depict city-wide elevated O3 levels (higher than 140 μg/m3 in the warm season). For precursor emissions, it is found that NOx emissions have decreased more than 30% due to successful regulation efforts, which is in excellent agreement with NO2 columns from OMI. The method of objective synoptic weather pattern classification [T-Mode principal component analysis (PCT)] is adopted to distinguish the associated meteorological parameters under various synoptic patterns which govern the variability in regional O3 levels. Among identified synoptic patterns, Type 2 and Type 8 featured by low sea level pressure (SLP), high temperature, and strong ultraviolet radiation are the most prevalent synoptic patterns in spring and summer, respectively, which are prone to the occurrence of O3 exceedances. This work provides a detailed view of long-term O3 levels and the relationship between precursors and meteorological conditions in a typical densely populated city in northern China, showing implications for developing O3 mitigation strategies.
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11
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Air Quality Index and Emergency Department Visits and Hospitalizations for Childhood Asthma. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2022; 19:1139-1148. [DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.202105-539oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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12
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Reyes-Angel J, Han YY, Forno E, Celedón JC, Rosser FJ. Parental knowledge and usage of air quality in childhood asthma management. Front Pediatr 2022; 10:966372. [PMID: 36440347 PMCID: PMC9687089 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2022.966372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The current United States asthma management guidelines recommend usage of the Air Quality Index (AQI) for outdoor activity modification when air pollution is high. Little is known about parental knowledge and usage of air quality including the AQI in managing childhood asthma. METHODS Forty parents (or legal guardians) of children with persistent asthma completed a questionnaire designed to assess 4 areas related to outdoor air pollution: awareness, perception, behavioral modification, and prior healthcare provider discussion. Descriptive statistics were obtained and Fisher's exact test was used for analysis of behavioral change by selected variables. RESULTS Almost all parents reported awareness of air quality alerts or AQI, however, only 20% checked the AQI on the AirNow app or website. Most parents reported air pollution as a trigger (65%), yet few parents reported behavioral modification of their child's outdoor activity based on the perception of poor air quality (43%) or based on AQI or alerts (40%). Over half of parents reported a healthcare provider had ever discussed air pollution as a trigger, with few parents (23%) reporting recommendations for behavior change. Perception of air pollution as a trigger, healthcare provider discussion and recommendations, and usage of AirNow were associated with increased reported activity change. CONCLUSION Healthcare providers should discuss outdoor air pollution during asthma management in children and should discuss AirNow as a source for AQI information and behavioral recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Reyes-Angel
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Yueh-Ying Han
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Erick Forno
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Juan C Celedón
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Franziska J Rosser
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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Abstract
Unhealthy levels of air pollution are breathed by billions of people worldwide, and air pollution is the leading environmental cause of death and disability globally. Efforts to reduce air pollution at its many sources have had limited success, and in many areas of the world, poor air quality continues to worsen. Personal interventions to reduce exposure to air pollution include avoiding sources, staying indoors, filtering indoor air, using face masks, and limiting physical activity when and where air pollution levels are elevated. The effectiveness of these interventions varies widely with circumstances and conditions of use. Compared with upstream reduction or control of emissions, personal interventions place burdens and risk of adverse unintended consequences on individuals. We review evidence regarding the balance of benefits and potential harms of personal interventions for reducing exposure to outdoor air pollution, which merit careful consideration before making public health recommendations with regard to who should use personal interventions and where, when, and how they should be used. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Public Health, Volume 43 is April 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Laumbach
- Rutgers School of Public Health, and Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA;
| | - Kevin R Cromar
- Marron Institute of Urban Management, New York University, New York, NY, USA.,Departments of Environmental Medicine and Population Health, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, USA;
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14
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Wan Q, Ding T, Xu Y, Zheng C, Tu M, Zhao T. Urban fine particulate air pollution exposure promotes atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice by activating perivascular adipose tissue inflammation via the Wnt5a/Ror2 signaling pathway. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 227:112912. [PMID: 34673409 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Urban fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a deleterious risk factor in the ambient air and is recognized to exacerbate atherosclerosis. Perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) secretes a large number of inflammatory cytokines and plays a crucial role in the pathogenic microenvironment of atherogenesis. However, there is a lack of knowledge about the role of PVAT inflammation in the genesis of PM2.5-related atherosclerosis. The aim of this research was to probe the latent links between PM2.5 exposure and PVAT inflammation and further discovered the underlying mechanisms of PM2.5-triggered atherosclerosis pathogenesis. Apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice were exposed to real-world atmospheric PM2.5 or filtered clean air for three months, the Wnt5a inhibitor Box5 and the Ror2 inhibitor β-Arrestin2 were applied to verify the possible mechanisms. We noticed that the average daily PM2.5 mass concentration was 84.27 ± 28.84 μg/m3. PM2.5 inhalation might significantly expedite the deterioration of atherosclerosis, increase the protein and mRNA expressions of MCP-1, IL-6, TNF-α, Wnt5a, and Ror2 in PVAT tissues, upregulate the distributions of IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1, and leptin in the histological sections of PVAT, promote lipid deposition in the aorta, elevate the plasma levels of leptin, MCP-1, IL-6, TNF-α, LDL-C, TC, and TG, however, decrease the plasma levels of adiponectin and HDL-C, downregulate the distribution of adiponectin. Nevertheless, these effects caused by PM2.5 exposure were dramatically diminished after the administration of Box5 or β-Arrestin2. This research illuminated that PVAT inflammation was involved in the PM2.5-induced atherosclerosis process, as well as lipid deposition, which was closely associated with the activation of the Wnt5a/Ror2 signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Wan
- The Affiliated Hospital of Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330006, China; Clinical Medical College, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330006, China.
| | - Tao Ding
- Graduate School, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Yulin Xu
- Graduate School, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Cuicui Zheng
- Graduate School, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Mengting Tu
- Graduate School, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
| | - Tong Zhao
- Graduate School, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang 330004, China
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15
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Smith GJ, Tovar A, McFadden K, Moran TP, Wagner JG, Harkema JR, Kelada SNP. A Murine Model of Ozone-induced Nonatopic Asthma from the Collaborative Cross. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2021; 65:672-674. [PMID: 34851239 PMCID: PMC8641798 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2020-0577le] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory J. Smith
- University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Adelaide Tovar
- University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Kathryn McFadden
- University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Timothy P. Moran
- University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel Hill, North Carolina
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16
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Excess Morbidity and Mortality Associated with Air Pollution above American Thoracic Society Recommended Standards, 2017-2019. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2021; 19:603-613. [PMID: 34847333 DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.202107-860oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Over the past year, the American Thoracic Society (ATS), led by its Environmental Health Policy Committee, has reviewed the most current air quality scientific evidence and has revised their recommendations to 8 µg/m3 and 25 µg/m3 for long- and short-term fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and reaffirmed the recommendation of 60 ppb for ozone to protect the American public from the known adverse health effects of air pollution. The current EPA standards, in contrast, expose the American public to pollution levels that are known to result in significant morbidity and mortality. Objectives: To provide county-level estimates of annual air pollution-related health outcomes across the United States using the most recent federal air quality data, and to support the ATS's recent update to the long-term PM2.5 recommended standard. This study is presented as part of the annual ATS/Marron Institute "Health of the Air" report. Methods: Daily air pollution values were obtained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Air Quality System for monitored counties in the United States from 2017-2019. Concentration-response functions used in the EPA's regulatory review process were applied to pollution increments corresponding to differences between the rolling 3-year design values and ATS-recommended levels for long-term PM2.5 (8 µg/m3), short-term PM2.5 (25 µg/m3), and ground-level ozone (O3; 60 ppb). Health impacts were estimated at the county level in locations with valid monitoring data. Results: Meeting ATS recommendations throughout the country prevents an estimated 14,650 (95% CI: 8,660 - 22,610) deaths; 2,950 (95% CI: 1,530 - 4,330) lung cancer incidence events; 33,100 (95% CI: 7,300 - 71,000) morbidities, and 39.8 million (95% CI: 14.6 - 63.3 million) impacted days annually (see Table 1). This prevents 11,850 more deaths; 2,580 more lung cancer incidence events; 25,400 more morbidities; and 27.2 million more impacted days than meeting EPA standards alone. Conclusions: Significant health benefits to be gained by U.S. communities that work to meet ATS-recommended air quality standards have now been identified under scenarios meeting the new ATS recommendation for long-term PM2.5 (8 µg/m3). The "Health of the Air" report presents an opportunity for air quality managers to quantify local health burdens and EPA officials to update their standards to reflect the latest science.
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17
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Indoor Air Quality Prior to and Following School Building Renovation in a Mid-Atlantic School District. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182212149. [PMID: 34831903 PMCID: PMC8624555 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182212149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Children spend the majority of their time indoors, and a substantial portion of this time in the school environment. Air pollution has been shown to adversely impact lung development and has effects that extend beyond respiratory health. The goal of this study was to evaluate the indoor environment in public schools in the context of an ongoing urban renovation program to investigate the impact of school building renovation and replacement on indoor air quality. Indoor air quality (CO2, PM2.5, CO, and temperature) was assessed for two weeks during fall, winter, and spring seasons in 29 urban public schools between December 2015 and March 2020. Seven schools had pre- and post-renovation data available. Linear mixed models were used to examine changes in air quality outcomes by renovation status in the seven schools with pre- and post-renovation data. Prior to renovation, indoor CO measurements were within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, and indoor PM2.5 measurements rarely exceeded them. Within the seven schools with pre- and post-renovation data, over 30% of indoor CO2 measurements and over 50% of indoor temperatures exceeded recommended guidelines from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers. Following renovation, 10% of indoor CO2 measurements and 28% of indoor temperatures fell outside of the recommended ranges. Linear mixed models showed significant improvement in CO2, indoor PM2.5, and CO following school renovation. Even among schools that generally met recommendations on key guidelines, school renovation improved the indoor air quality. Our findings suggest that school renovation may benefit communities of children, particularly those in low-income areas with aging school infrastructure, through improvements in the indoor environment.
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18
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Yaeger MJ, Reece SW, Kilburg-Basnyat B, Hodge MX, Pal A, Dunigan-Russell K, Luo B, You DJ, Bonner JC, Spangenburg EE, Tokarz D, Hannan J, Armstrong M, Manke J, Reisdorph N, Tighe RM, Shaikh SR, Gowdy KM. Sex Differences in Pulmonary Eicosanoids and Specialized Pro-Resolving Mediators in Response to Ozone Exposure. Toxicol Sci 2021; 183:170-183. [PMID: 34175951 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfab081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Ozone (O3) is a criteria air pollutant known to increase the morbidity and mortality of cardiopulmonary diseases. This occurs through a pulmonary inflammatory response characterized by increased recruitment of immune cells into the airspace, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and pro-inflammatory lipid mediators. Recent evidence has demonstrated sex-dependent differences in the O3-induced pulmonary inflammatory response. However, it is unknown if this dimorphic response is evident in pulmonary lipid mediator metabolism. We hypothesized that there are sex-dependent differences in lipid mediator production following acute O3 exposure. Male and female C57BL/6J mice were exposed to 1 part per million O3 for 3 hours and were necropsied at 6 or 24 hours following exposure. Lung lavage was collected for cell differential and total protein analysis, and lung tissue was collected for mRNA analysis, metabololipidomics, and immunohistochemistry. Compared to males, O3-exposed female mice had increases in airspace neutrophilia, neutrophil chemokine mRNA, pro-inflammatory eicosanoids such as prostaglandin E2, and specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) such as resolvin D5 in lung tissue. Likewise, precursor fatty acids (arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid; DHA) were increased in female lung tissue following O3 exposure compared to males. Experiments with ovariectomized females revealed that loss of ovarian hormones exacerbates pulmonary inflammation and injury. However, eicosanoid and SPM production were not altered by ovariectomy despite depleted pulmonary DHA concentrations. Taken together, these data indicate that O3 drives an increased pulmonary inflammatory and bioactive lipid mediator response in females. Furthermore, ovariectomy increases susceptibility to O3-induced pulmonary inflammation and injury, as well as decreases pulmonary DHA concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Yaeger
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Columbus, OH, 43210
| | - S W Reece
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858
| | - B Kilburg-Basnyat
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858
| | - M X Hodge
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858
| | - A Pal
- Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health and School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599
| | - K Dunigan-Russell
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Columbus, OH, 43210
| | - B Luo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858
| | - D J You
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27107
| | - J C Bonner
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27107
| | - E E Spangenburg
- Department of Physiology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858
| | - D Tokarz
- Experimental Pathology Laboratories, Inc, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709
| | - J Hannan
- Department of Physiology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, 27858
| | - M Armstrong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado-AMC, Aurora, CO, 80045
| | - J Manke
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado-AMC, Aurora, CO, 80045
| | - N Reisdorph
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado-AMC, Aurora, CO, 80045
| | - R M Tighe
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, 27710
| | - S R Shaikh
- Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health and School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599
| | - K M Gowdy
- Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Columbus, OH, 43210
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19
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Tome J, Richmond HL, Rahman M, Karmacharya D, Schwind JS. Climate change and health vulnerability in Nepal: A systematic review of the literature since 2010. Glob Public Health 2021; 17:1406-1419. [PMID: 34061709 DOI: 10.1080/17441692.2021.1924824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The Nepali population is among those most vulnerable to the health impacts of climate change. We conducted a systematic literature review to document the health effects of climate change in Nepal and identify knowledge gaps by examining vulnerability categories related to health. Three databases were searched for journal articles that addressed health and vulnerability related to climate change in Nepal from 2010 onwards. Of the 1063 articles identified, 37 were eligible for inclusion. The findings suggested the health of the population was affected mostly by food insecurity, floods, droughts, and reduced water levels. Studies revealed both morbidity and mortality increased due to climate change, with the most impacted populations being women, children, and the elderly. At greatest risk for impacts from climate change were those from poor and marginal populations, especially impoverished women. The public health sector, healthcare, and potable water sources were some of the least mentioned vulnerability subcategories, indicating more research is needed to better understand their adaptation capacities. We propose that identifying vulnerabilities and areas of limited research are critical steps in the prioritization of health policy and interventions for the most vulnerable populations in Nepal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Tome
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology, and Environmental Health Sciences, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia, USA
| | - Holly L Richmond
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology, and Environmental Health Sciences, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia, USA
| | - Munshi Rahman
- Department of Geology and Geography, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia, USA
| | | | - Jessica S Schwind
- Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology, and Environmental Health Sciences, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia, USA
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20
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Development of a Health-Based Index to Identify the Association between Air Pollution and Health Effects in Mexico City. ATMOSPHERE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos12030372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Health risks from air pollution continue to be a major concern for residents in Mexico City. These health burdens could be partially alleviated through individual avoidance behavior if accurate information regarding the daily health risks of multiple pollutants became available. A split sample approach was used in this study to create and validate a multi-pollutant, health-based air quality index. Poisson generalized linear models were used to assess the impacts of ambient air pollution (i.e., fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ground-level ozone (O3)) on a total of 610,982 daily emergency department (ED) visits for respiratory disease obtained from 40 facilities in the metropolitan area of Mexico City from 2010 to 2015. Increased risk of respiratory ED visits was observed for interquartile increases in the 4-day average concentrations of PM2.5 (Risk Ratio (RR) 1.03, 95% CI 1.01–1.04), O3 (RR 1.03, 95% CI 1.01–1.05), and to a lesser extent NO2 (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.99–1.02). An additive, multi-pollutant index was created using coefficients for these three pollutants. Positive associations of index values with daily respiratory ED visits was observed among children (ages 2–17) and adults (ages 18+). The use of previously unavailable daily health records enabled an assessment of short-term ambient air pollution concentrations on respiratory morbidity in Mexico City and the creation of a health-based air quality index, which is now currently in use in Mexico City.
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21
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Raju S, Siddharthan T, McCormack MC. Indoor Air Pollution and Respiratory Health. Clin Chest Med 2021; 41:825-843. [PMID: 33153698 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2020.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Worldwide, more than 4 million deaths annually are attributed to indoor air pollution. This largely preventable exposure represents a key target for reducing morbidity and mortality worldwide. Significant respiratory health effects are observed, ranging from attenuated lung growth and development in childhood to accelerated lung function decline and is determined by chronic obstructive pulmonary disease later in life. Personal exposure to household air pollutants include household characteristics, combustion of solid fuels, cooking practices, and household pest allergens. This review outlines important sources of indoor air pollution, their respiratory health effects, and strategies to reduce household pollution and improve lung health across the globe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarath Raju
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 1830 East Monument Street Fifth Floor, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA.
| | - Trishul Siddharthan
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 1830 East Monument Street Fifth Floor, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Meredith C McCormack
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 1830 East Monument Street Fifth Floor, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
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22
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Human Health and Economic Costs of Air Pollution in Utah: An Expert Assessment. ATMOSPHERE 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos11111238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Air pollution causes more damage to health and economy than previously understood, contributing to approximately one in six deaths globally. However, pollution reduction policies remain controversial even when proven effective and cost negative, partially because of misunderstanding and growing mistrust in science. We used an expert assessment to bridge these research–policy divides in the State of Utah, USA, combining quantitative estimates from 23 local researchers and specialists on the human health and economic costs of air pollution. Experts estimated that air pollution in Utah causes 2480 to 8000 premature deaths annually (90% confidence interval) and decreases the median life expectancy by 1.1 to 3.6 years. Economic costs of air pollution in Utah totaled $0.75 to $3.3 billion annually, up to 1.7% of the state’s gross domestic product. Though these results were generally in line with available estimates from downscaled national studies, they were met with surprise in the state legislature, where there had been an almost complete absence of quantitative health and economic cost estimates. We discuss the legislative and personal responses of Utah policy makers to these results and present a framework for increasing the assimilation of data into decision making via regional expert assessment. In conclusion, combining quantitative assessments from local experts is a responsive and cost-effective tool to increase trust and information uptake during time-sensitive policy windows.
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Abstract
Air pollution is a grave risk to human health that affects nearly everyone in the world and nearly every organ in the body. Fortunately, it is largely a preventable risk. Reducing pollution at its source can have a rapid and substantial impact on health. Within a few weeks, respiratory and irritation symptoms, such as shortness of breath, cough, phlegm, and sore throat, disappear; school absenteeism, clinic visits, hospitalizations, premature births, cardiovascular illness and death, and all-cause mortality decrease significantly. The interventions are cost-effective. Reducing factors causing air pollution and climate change have strong cobenefits. Although regions with high air pollution have the greatest potential for health benefits, health improvements continue to be associated with pollution decreases even below international standards. The large response to and short time needed for benefits of these interventions emphasize the urgency of improving global air quality and the importance of increasing efforts to reduce pollution at local levels.
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Awokola BI, Okello G, Mortimer KJ, Jewell CP, Erhart A, Semple S. Measuring Air Quality for Advocacy in Africa (MA3): Feasibility and Practicality of Longitudinal Ambient PM 2.5 Measurement Using Low-Cost Sensors. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E7243. [PMID: 33023037 PMCID: PMC7579047 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17197243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ambient air pollution in urban cities in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is an important public health problem with models and limited monitoring data indicating high concentrations of pollutants such as fine particulate matter (PM2.5). On most global air quality index maps, however, information about ambient pollution from SSA is scarce. We evaluated the feasibility and practicality of longitudinal measurements of ambient PM2.5 using low-cost air quality sensors (Purple Air-II-SD) across thirteen locations in seven countries in SSA. Devices were used to gather data over a 30-day period with the aim of assessing the efficiency of its data recovery rate and identifying challenges experienced by users in each location. The median data recovery rate was 94% (range: 72% to 100%). The mean 24 h concentration measured across all sites was 38 µg/m3 with the highest PM2.5 period average concentration of 91 µg/m3 measured in Kampala, Uganda and lowest concentrations of 15 µg/m3 measured in Faraja, The Gambia. Kampala in Uganda and Nnewi in Nigeria recorded the longest periods with concentrations >250µg/m3. Power outages, SD memory card issues, internet connectivity problems and device safety concerns were important challenges experienced when using Purple Air-II-SD sensors. Despite some operational challenges, this study demonstrated that it is reasonably practicable and feasible to establish a network of low-cost devices to provide data on local PM2.5 concentrations in SSA countries. Such data are crucially needed to raise public, societal and policymaker awareness about air pollution across SSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babatunde I. Awokola
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing & Statistics (CHICAS), Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK;
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK;
- Department of Clinical Services, Medical Research Council Gambia at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 273 Banjul, Gambia
| | - Gabriel Okello
- Institute for Sustainability Leadership, University of Cambridge, 2 Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1QA, UK;
- African Centre for Clean Air, P.O. Box 4357 Kampala, Uganda
| | - Kevin J. Mortimer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK;
- Respiratory Medicine Department, Aintree University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool L9 7AL, UK
| | - Christopher P. Jewell
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing & Statistics (CHICAS), Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK;
| | - Annette Erhart
- Disease Control & Elimination Theme, Medical Research Council Gambia at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, P.O. Box 273 Banjul, Gambia;
| | - Sean Semple
- Institute for Social Marketing and Health, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK;
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25
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Hwang J, Kwon J, Yi H, Bae HJ, Jang M, Kim N. Association between long-term exposure to air pollutants and cardiopulmonary mortality rates in South Korea. BMC Public Health 2020; 20:1402. [PMID: 32928163 PMCID: PMC7491133 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-020-09521-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The association between long-term exposure to air pollutants, including nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ozone (O3), and particulate matter 10 μm or less in diameter (PM10), and mortality by ischemic heart disease (IHD), cerebrovascular disease (CVD), pneumonia (PN), and chronic lower respiratory disease (CLRD) is unclear. We investigated whether living in an administrative district with heavy air pollution is associated with an increased risk of mortality by the diseases through an ecological study using South Korean administrative data over 19 years. Methods A total of 249 Si-Gun-Gus, unit of administrative districts in South Korea were studied. In each district, the daily concentrations of CO, SO2, NO2, O3, and PM10 were averaged over 19 years (2001–2018). Age-adjusted mortality rates by IHD, CVD, PN and CLRD for each district were averaged for the same study period. Multivariate beta-regression analysis was performed to estimate the associations between air pollutant concentrations and mortality rates, after adjusting for confounding factors including altitude, population density, higher education rate, smoking rate, obesity rate, and gross regional domestic product per capita. Associations were also estimated for two subgrouping schema: Capital and non-Capital areas (77:172 districts) and urban and rural areas (168:81 districts). Results For IHD, higher SO2 concentrations were significantly associated with a higher mortality rate, whereas other air pollutants had null associations. For CVD, SO2 and PM10 concentrations were significantly associated with a higher mortality rate. For PN, O3 concentrations had significant positive associations with a higher mortality rate, while SO2, NO2, and PM10 concentrations had significant negative associations. For CLRD, O3 concentrations were associated with an increased mortality rate, while CO, NO2, and PM10 concentrations had negative associations. In the subgroup analysis, positive associations between SO2 concentrations and IHD mortality were consistently observed in all subgroups, while other pollutant-disease pairs showed null, or mixed associations. Conclusion Long-term exposure to high SO2 concentration was significantly and consistently associated with a high mortality rate nationwide and in Capital and non-Capital areas, and in urban and rural areas. Associations between other air pollutants and disease-related mortalities need to be investigated in further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongeun Hwang
- Department of Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinhee Kwon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hahn Yi
- Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Jin Bae
- Department of Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Miso Jang
- Department of Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Namkug Kim
- Department of Convergence Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, 88, Olympic-ro 43-gil, Songpa-gu, Seoul, 05505, South Korea. .,Department of Radiology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine. Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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26
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Alter P, Baker JR, Dauletbaev N, Donnelly LE, Pistenmaa C, Schmeck B, Washko G, Vogelmeier CF. Update in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 2019. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 202:348-355. [PMID: 32407642 PMCID: PMC8054880 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202002-0370up] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Alter
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL)
| | - Jonathan R. Baker
- Airway Disease, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nurlan Dauletbaev
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL),Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada,Faculty of Medicine and Healthcare, al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; and
| | - Louise E. Donnelly
- Airway Disease, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carrie Pistenmaa
- Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Bernd Schmeck
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL),Institute for Lung Research, Member of the DZL and of the German Center of Infection Research (DZIF), and,Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO), Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - George Washko
- Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Claus F. Vogelmeier
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL)
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27
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Fu X, Li L, Lei Y, Wu S, Yan D, Luo X, Luo H. The economic loss of health effect damages from PM 2.5 pollution in the Central Plains Urban Agglomeration. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:25434-25449. [PMID: 32350830 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08560-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The Central Plains Urban Agglomeration is an important growth pole of China's economy, but the rapid economic growth is accompanied by serious air pollution problems. In this paper, the latest available PM2.5 monitoring data in 2015-2017 and exposure-response relationship model are used to quantitatively analyze the health effect damages due to PM2.5 pollution. The way of disease cost, adjusted human capital, and willingness to pay were adopted to estimate the economic loss of health effect damages. The results show that health effect damages of PM2.5 pollution in 2015-2017 were 11.9251 million, 11.4292 million, and 11.1012 million, respectively, accounting for 7.41%, 7.05%, and 6.94% of the total population of this area. The health effect economic loss was 97.398 billion RMB, 93.516 billion RMB, and 94.485 billion RMB, accounting for 1.73%, 1.53%, and 1.41% of the GDP. Chronic bronchitis and premature death due to PM2.5 are the main sources of health effect economic loss. Elderly people and infants are vulnerable groups of PM2.5 pollution. Affected by economic growth level, population density, and economic structure, Heze, Zhengzhou, Handan, and Liaocheng were greatly affected by PM2.5 pollution, and their health effect damages was larger. The health effect damages and health effect economic loss due to PM2.5 pollution in this area show a downward trend, indicating that air pollution reduction measures have played a positive role. However, the whole effect is still large. According to the results, this paper puts forward the policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangshan Fu
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Carrying Capacity Assessment for Resource and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Li Li
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China.
- Key Laboratory of Carrying Capacity Assessment for Resource and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, 100083, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Water Resource Protection and Utilization in Coal Mining, Beijing, 100011, China.
| | - Yalin Lei
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Carrying Capacity Assessment for Resource and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Sanmang Wu
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Carrying Capacity Assessment for Resource and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Dan Yan
- Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Ximing Luo
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Carrying Capacity Assessment for Resource and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Hui Luo
- School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
- Key Laboratory of Carrying Capacity Assessment for Resource and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, 100083, China
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28
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Wang C, Zhu G, Zhang L, Chen K. Particulate matter pollution and hospital outpatient visits for endocrine, digestive, urological, and dermatological diseases in Nanjing, China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 261:114205. [PMID: 32113107 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Clinical or pathological evidence demonstrated that air pollution could undermine other organ systems of human body besides respiratory and circulation systems. Investigations that directly relate hospital outpatient visits for endocrine (ENDO), digestive (DIGE), urological (UROL), and dermatological (DERM) diseases categories with ambient particulate matter (PM) are still lacking, particularly in heavily polluted cities. Here, we conducted a time-series analysis using 812,624, 1,111,342, 539,803, and 741,662 hospital visits for ENDO, DIGE, UROL, and DERM, respectively, in Nanjing, China from 2013 to 2019. A generalized additive model was applied to estimate the exposure-response associations. Results showed that a 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 concentration on lag 0 day was significantly associated with 0.59% (95% CI: 0.30%, 0.88%), 0.43% (0.15%, 0.70%), 0.36% (0.06%, 0.66%), and 0.65% (0.42%, 0.87%) increase for ENDO, DIGE, UROL, and DERM hospital visits, respectively. The estimated effects of PM10 were slightly smaller but still statistically significant. The magnitude and significance of the associations between PM and four health outcomes were sensitive to additional adjustment for co-pollutants. Exposure-response relationships were linear for PM concentrations lower than 100 μg/m3 but the curves became nonlinear across the full range of exposures due to a flatten slope at higher concentrations. We also explored the effect modifications by season (cold or warm), age (5-18, 18-64, 65-74, or 75+ years), and sex (male or female). Results showed that the DERM-related population aged 65 years or older was more vulnerable to PM exposure, compared with the 5 to 17-year age group; the DERM-related population aged 75 years or older and 65 years or older was more vulnerable to PM2.5 and PM10 exposure, respectively, compared with the 18 to 64-year age group. Our study provided suggestive evidence that ambient PM pollution was associated with ENDO, DIGE, UROL, and DERM outpatient hospital visits in Nanjing, China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ce Wang
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, PR China.
| | - Guangcan Zhu
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, PR China.
| | - Lei Zhang
- Outpatient Department, Zhongda Hospital of Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, PR China.
| | - Kai Chen
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06520-8034, USA.
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29
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Tovar A, Smith GJ, Thomas JM, Crouse WL, Harkema JR, Kelada SNP. Transcriptional Profiling of the Murine Airway Response to Acute Ozone Exposure. Toxicol Sci 2020; 173:114-130. [PMID: 31626304 PMCID: PMC6944221 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Ambient ozone (O3) exposure has serious consequences on respiratory health, including airway inflammation and injury. Decades of research have yielded thorough descriptions of these outcomes; however, less is known about the molecular processes that drive them. The aim of this study was to further describe the cellular and molecular responses to O3 exposure in murine airways, with a particular focus on transcriptional responses in 2 critical pulmonary tissue compartments: conducting airways (CA) and airway macrophages (AM). After exposing adult, female C57BL/6J mice to filtered air, 1 or 2 ppm O3, we assessed hallmark responses including airway inflammation (cell counts and cytokine secretion) and injury (epithelial permeability), followed by gene expression profiling of CA and AM by RNA-seq. As expected, we observed concentration-dependent increases in airway inflammation and injury. Conducting airways and AM both exhibited changes in gene expression to both 1 and 2 ppm O3 that were largely compartment-specific. In CA, genes associated with epithelial barrier function, detoxification processes, and cellular proliferation were altered, while O3 affected genes involved in innate immune signaling, cytokine production, and extracellular matrix remodeling in AM. Further, CA and AM also exhibited notable differences in concentration-response expression patterns for large numbers of genes. Overall, our study has described transcriptional responses to acute O3 exposure, revealing both shared and unique gene expression patterns across multiple concentrations of O3 and in 2 important O3-responsive tissues. These profiles provide broad mechanistic insight into pulmonary O3 toxicity, and reveal a variety of targets for focused follow-up studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adelaide Tovar
- Department of Genetics
- Curriculum in Genetics & Molecular Biology
| | - Gregory J Smith
- Department of Genetics
- Curriculum in Toxicology & Environmental Medicine
| | | | - Wesley L Crouse
- Department of Genetics
- Curriculum in Bioinformatics & Computational Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
| | - Jack R Harkema
- Department of Pathology & Diagnostic Investigation and Institute for Integrated Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Samir N P Kelada
- Department of Genetics
- Curriculum in Genetics & Molecular Biology
- Curriculum in Toxicology & Environmental Medicine
- Curriculum in Bioinformatics & Computational Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
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30
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Limaye VS, Max W, Constible J, Knowlton K. Estimating the Health-Related Costs of 10 Climate-Sensitive U.S. Events During 2012. GEOHEALTH 2019; 3:245-265. [PMID: 32159045 PMCID: PMC7007172 DOI: 10.1029/2019gh000202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 06/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Climate change threatens human health, but there remains a lack of evidence on the economic toll of climate-sensitive public health impacts. We characterize human mortality and morbidity costs associated with 10 climate-sensitive case study events spanning 11 US states in 2012: wildfires in Colorado and Washington, ozone air pollution in Nevada, extreme heat in Wisconsin, infectious disease outbreaks of tick-borne Lyme disease in Michigan and mosquito-borne West Nile virus in Texas, extreme weather in Ohio, impacts of Hurricane Sandy in New Jersey and New York, allergenic oak pollen in North Carolina, and harmful algal blooms on the Florida coast. Applying a consistent economic valuation approach to published studies and state estimates, we estimate total health-related costs from 917 deaths, 20,568 hospitalizations, and 17,857 emergency department visits of $10.0 billion in 2018 dollars, with a sensitivity range of $2.7-24.6 billion. Our estimates indicate that the financial burden of deaths, hospitalizations, emergency department visits, and associated medical care is a key dimension of the overall economic impact of climate-sensitive events. We found that mortality costs (i.e., the value of a statistical life) of $8.4 billion exceeded morbidity costs and lost wages ($1.6 billion combined). By better characterizing health damages in economic terms, this work helps to shed light on the burden climate-sensitive events already place on U.S. public health each year. In doing so, we provide a conceptual framework for broader estimation of climate-sensitive health-related costs. The high health-related costs associated with climate-sensitive events highlight the importance of actions to mitigate climate change and adapt to its unavoidable impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Wendy Max
- Institute for Health & AgingUniversity of CaliforniaSan FranciscoCAUSA
| | | | - Kim Knowlton
- Natural Resources Defense CouncilNew YorkNYUSA
- Mailman School of Public HealthColumbia UniversityNew YorkNYUSA
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