1
|
Gopal V, Koh MCY, Ngiam JN, Hang-Cheng O, Somani J, Tambyah PA, Tey J. Does Prior Respiratory Viral Infection Provide Cross-Protection Against Subsequent Respiratory Viral Infections? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Viruses 2024; 16:982. [PMID: 38932273 PMCID: PMC11209343 DOI: 10.3390/v16060982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The epidemiology of different respiratory viral infections is believed to be affected by prior viral infections in addition to seasonal effects. This PROSPERO-registered systematic review identified 7388 studies, of which six met our criteria to answer the question specifically. The purpose of this review was to compare the prevalence of sequential viral infections in those with previously documented positive versus negative swabs. The pooled prevalence of sequential viral infections over varying periods from 30-1000 days of follow-up was higher following a negative respiratory viral swab at 0.15 than following a positive swab at 0.08, indicating the potential protective effects of prior respiratory viral infections. However, significant heterogeneity and publication biases were noted. There is some evidence, albeit of low quality, of a possible protective effect of an initial viral infection against subsequent infections by a different virus, which is possibly due to broad, nonspecific innate immunity. Future prospective studies are needed to validate our findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vennila Gopal
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore (P.A.T.)
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia
| | - Matthew Chung Yi Koh
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore 119228, Singapore; (M.C.Y.K.); (J.N.N.)
| | - Jinghao Nicholas Ngiam
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore 119228, Singapore; (M.C.Y.K.); (J.N.N.)
| | - Ong Hang-Cheng
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia;
| | - Jyoti Somani
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore (P.A.T.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore 119228, Singapore; (M.C.Y.K.); (J.N.N.)
| | - Paul Anatharajah Tambyah
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore (P.A.T.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, National University Health System, Singapore 119228, Singapore; (M.C.Y.K.); (J.N.N.)
| | - Jeremy Tey
- Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Singapore (P.A.T.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, National University Cancer Institute, Singapore 119074, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mycoplasma pneumoniae multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis genotypes are associated with inflammatory biomarker levels in children with lower respiratory tract infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2022; 41:1099-1105. [PMID: 35767121 PMCID: PMC9244052 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-022-04467-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) typing method is commonly used in Mycoplasma pneumoniae (M. pneumoniae) epidemiology. It remains unknown if clinical manifestations of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) in children differ between different MLVA genotypes. We aimed to determine if specific M. pneumoniae MLVA genotypes indicate the severity of LRTI in children. We performed a retrospective study of children younger than 18 years with signs of acute M. pneumoniae LRTI from January 1, 2009, to December 31, 2014. All patients who were PCR-positive for M. pneumoniae from pharyngeal swabs and had MLVA genotype successfully defined were included in the study. We compared the epidemiological and clinical data of children infected with different MLVA genotypes. In total, 429 patients (mean age 7.4 years, SD 3.4 years; 54% boys) met the study inclusion criteria. We compared the data of patients infected with the three most common MLVA types: MLVA-3,5,6,2 (86/429), MLVA-3,6,6,2 (71/429) and MLVA-4,5,7,2 (256/429). MLVA-3,5,6,2-infected patients over 5 years of age presented with a significantly higher median C-reactive protein level (34 vs 23 vs 19 mg/L, p = .008) and a higher median white blood cell count (9.4 vs 7.9 vs 8.5 × 109/L, p = .040) compared to MLVA-3,6,6,2- and MLVA-4,5,7,2-infected patients. No such difference was observed in the group of younger than 5 years. The results from our large cohort indicate that different MLVA genotypes may have different pathogenic potential and that children with MLVA-3,5,6,2 LRTI may present with higher inflammatory marker levels in comparison with other MLVA types.
Collapse
|
3
|
Traxinger BR, Richert-Spuhler LE, Lund JM. Mucosal tissue regulatory T cells are integral in balancing immunity and tolerance at portals of antigen entry. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:398-407. [PMID: 34845322 PMCID: PMC8628059 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-021-00471-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a subset of CD4+ T cells that exert suppressive control over other immune cells. Tregs are critical for preventing systemic autoimmunity and maintaining peripheral tolerance, and yet they also assist in orchestration of immunity to pathogenic insult, wherein they limit collateral immunopathology and assist in facilitating a fine balance between immune tolerance and effector activity. Tregs have been extensively studied in lymphoid tissues, and a growing body of work has characterized phenotypically distinct Tregs localized in various nonlymphoid tissue compartments. These tissue Tregs can perform location-specific, alternative functions, highlighting their dynamic, context-dependent roles. Tregs have also been identified in mucosal tissues where specialized physiological functions are paramount, including helping the host to respond appropriately to pathogenic versus innocuous antigens that are abundant at mucosal portals of antigen entry. As in other tissue Treg compartments, mucosal Tregs in the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts are distinct from circulating counterparts and can carry out mucosa-specific functions as well as classic suppressive functions that are the hallmark of Tregs. In this review, we summarize current knowledge regarding mucosal Tregs in both health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brianna R Traxinger
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Laura E Richert-Spuhler
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jennifer M Lund
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mycoplasma pneumoniae P1 Genotype Indicates Severity of Lower Respiratory Tract Infections in Children. J Clin Microbiol 2021; 59:e0022021. [PMID: 33980654 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00220-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae strains can be classified into two major genetic groups, P1 type 1 (P1-1) and P1 type 2 (P1-2). It remains unknown if clinical manifestations of lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) in children differ between the two genotypes. We aimed to determine if the M. pneumoniae P1 genotype is associated with severity of LRTI in children. Medical charts of 420 children (≤15 years old) with signs of acute LRTI who were PCR positive for M. pneumoniae from pharyngeal swabs in a recent M. pneumoniae epidemic were analyzed. We used a culture and pyrosequencing approach for genotyping PCR-positive samples. We compared epidemiological and clinical data of children with either P1-1 or P1-2 LRTI. P1-2-infected children presented with a significantly higher median baseline C-reactive protein level and were admitted to the hospital more often. The P1 genotype had a significant predictive value in a multiple linear regression model predicting C-reactive protein levels in our study sample. Moreover, the P1 genotype significantly affected the likelihood of hospital admission in a logistic regression model. Our modeling results were also confirmed on an additional independent sample of children with M. pneumoniae LRTI. Results from our large patient group indicate that the two M. pneumoniae P1 genotypes may have different pathogenic potential and that LRTI with P1-2 strains may have a more severe disease course than those with P1-1 strains in children. P1 genotyping is not routinely performed but could be used as a predictor of M. pneumoniae LRTI severity, enabling patient-tailored treatments.
Collapse
|
5
|
Jenkins SJ, Allen JE. The expanding world of tissue-resident macrophages. Eur J Immunol 2021; 51:1882-1896. [PMID: 34107057 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202048881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The term 'macrophage' encompasses tissue cells that typically share dependence on the same transcriptional regulatory pathways (e.g. the transcription factor PU.1) and growth factors (e.g. CSF1/IL-34). They share a core set of functions that largely arise from a uniquely high phagocytic capacity manifest in their ability to clear dying cells, pathogens and scavenge damaged, toxic or modified host molecules. However, macrophages demonstrate a remarkable degree of tissue-specific functionality and have diverse origins that vary by tissue site and inflammation status. With our understanding of this diversity has come an appreciation of the longevity and replicative capacity of tissue-resident macrophages and thus the realisation that macrophages may persist through tissue perturbations and inflammatory events with important consequences for cell function. Here, we discuss our current understanding of the parameters that regulate macrophage survival and function, focusing on the relative importance of the tissue environment versus cell-intrinsic factors, such as origin, how long a cell has been resident within a tissue and prior history of activation. Thus, we reconsider the view of macrophages as wholly plastic cells and raise many unanswered questions about the relative importance of cell life-history versus environment in macrophage programming and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Jenkins
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Judith E Allen
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology & Inflammation, Wellcome Centre for Cell Matrix Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Does tissue imprinting restrict macrophage plasticity? Nat Immunol 2021; 22:118-127. [PMID: 33462453 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-020-00849-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages have long been considered as particularly plastic cells. However, recent work combining fate mapping, single-cell transcriptomics and epigenetics has undermined the macrophage plasticity dogma. Here, we discuss recent studies that have carefully dissected the response of individual macrophage subsets to pulmonary insults and call for an adjustment of the macrophage plasticity concept. We hypothesize that prolonged tissue residency shuts down much of the plasticity of macrophages and propose that the restricted plasticity of resident macrophages has been favored by evolution to safeguard tissue homeostasis. Recruited monocytes are more plastic and their differentiation into resident macrophages during inflammation can result in a dual imprinting from both the ongoing inflammation and the macrophage niche. This results in inflammation-imprinted resident macrophages, and we speculate that rewired niche circuits could maintain this inflammatory state. We believe that this revisited plasticity model offers opportunities to reset the macrophage pool after a severe inflammatory episode.
Collapse
|
7
|
Shanks GD. COVID-19 versus the 1918 influenza pandemic: different virus, different age mortality patterns. J Travel Med 2020; 27:5850342. [PMID: 32490524 PMCID: PMC7313895 DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taaa086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The influenza pandemic of 1918-19 and the SARS-CoV 2 pandemic of 2020 had markedly different age mortality patterns. Influenza in 1918 particularly killed young adults whereas the elderly are most at risk from COVID-19. Mortality depends on complex host-pathogen interactions specific to the viral and human population’s history of infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G Dennis Shanks
- Australian Defence Force Malaria and Infectious Diseases Institute, Enoggera, Australia.,School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Salinas-Zacarias I, Guzman-Bautista ER, Ramírez-Estudillo MDC, Chacón-Salinas R, Vega-López MA. Mucosal and systemic immune responses to Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV) in early vaccinated piglets. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 68:101400. [PMID: 31794953 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2019.101400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Newborn humans and animals are highly susceptible to viral infections. The Aujeszky´s disease virus (ADV) is a porcine herpes virus 1 which infects the respiratory tract and is lethal during the first weeks of life. Current intramuscular vaccines, applied at weaning, induce poor mucosal immunity and frequently fail to prevent and control the disease. Additionally, early vaccination has not been studied thoroughly. Therefore, we studied a systemic/mucosal route of immunization using an inactivated ADV vaccine in two-and fourteen-day-old groups of unweaned SPF miniature Vietnamese pigs, measuring the anti ADV antibody (ELISA) and cytokine (qPCR) responses in systemic and mucosal samples. The results showed that the serum ADV-specific IgG response was higher in the 14-day groups. However, the nasal IgA responses were similar in immunized groups, although the response in saliva was higher in the 2-day old group. Moreover, in vitro ADV stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and lung cells from immunized pigs showed higher IFN-γ mRNA production in the 14-day old group than in younger animals and similar levels of IL-4 and IL-10 transcripts. Our data suggest that early mucosal immunization induce humoral and cellular systemic and mucosal immune responses against ADV in young pigs and younger animals may have compensatory mechanisms to overcome early immaturity and maternal-driven immune interference. Therefore, early protection in susceptible animals could be induced using this immunization protocol, opening the possibility for its application against other viral pathogens of pigs and for traslational studies in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Salinas-Zacarias
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiología de las Mucosas, Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro deInvestigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. IPN # 2508, Colonia Zacatenco, 07360, Ciudad de México, Mexico; Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (ENCB-IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Edgar Rodrigo Guzman-Bautista
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiología de las Mucosas, Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro deInvestigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. IPN # 2508, Colonia Zacatenco, 07360, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - María Del Carmen Ramírez-Estudillo
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiología de las Mucosas, Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro deInvestigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. IPN # 2508, Colonia Zacatenco, 07360, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Rommel Chacón-Salinas
- Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (ENCB-IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico; Unidad de Desarrollo e Investigación en Bioprocesos (UDIBI), Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional (ENCB-IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Marco Antonio Vega-López
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiología de las Mucosas, Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro deInvestigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. IPN # 2508, Colonia Zacatenco, 07360, Ciudad de México, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Rowell J, Lo CY, Price GE, Misplon JA, Crim RL, Jayanti P, Beeler J, Epstein SL. The effect of respiratory viruses on immunogenicity and protection induced by a candidate universal influenza vaccine in mice. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215321. [PMID: 30986224 PMCID: PMC6464343 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Current approaches to influenza control rely on vaccines matched to viruses in circulation. Universal influenza vaccines would offer the advantage of providing broad protection against diverse strains of influenza virus. Candidate universal vaccines are developed using model systems, often testing in naïve animals. Yet the human population is not naïve, having varied immune histories that include exposure to viruses. We studied a candidate universal influenza vaccine (replication deficient adenoviruses expressing the conserved influenza A antigens NP and M2 [A/NP+M2-rAd]) given intranasally, the route previously shown to be most effective. To model recipients exposed to viruses, we used mice given rhinovirus (RV1B), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV-A2), influenza B virus, or influenza A virus before or after universal influenza vaccine. Vaccine performance was assessed by measuring immune responses to NP and M2, and monitoring weight loss and survival following influenza A challenge. Prior influenza A virus infection enhanced the response to the vaccine by priming to conserved influenza A antigens. RSV-A2 or RV1B had no effect on antibody responses to NP and M2 in serum. None of the viruses inhibited the ability of the vaccine to protect against influenza A virus challenge. The study demonstrates that the usefulness of this universal vaccine is not confined to the immunologically naïve and supports possible use in a human population with a varied history of respiratory infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janelle Rowell
- Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Chia-Yun Lo
- Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Graeme E. Price
- Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Julia A. Misplon
- Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Roberta L. Crim
- Office of Vaccines Research and Review, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Priyanka Jayanti
- Office of Vaccines Research and Review, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Judy Beeler
- Office of Vaccines Research and Review, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Suzanne L. Epstein
- Office of Tissues and Advanced Therapies, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Microvesicle Subsets in Sepsis Due to Community Acquired Pneumonia Compared to Faecal Peritonitis. Shock 2019; 49:393-401. [PMID: 28930915 DOI: 10.1097/shk.0000000000000989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Microvesicles (MV) act as a nonsoluble means of intercellular communication, with effector roles in disease pathogenesis and potentially as biomarkers. Previously, we reported that neutrophil MV expressing alpha-2-macroglobulin (A2MG) are protective in experimental sepsis and associate with survival in a small cohort of patients with sepsis due to community acquired pneumonia (CAP). OBJECTIVES To characterize MV profiles in sepsis due to CAP or fecal peritonitis (FP) and determine their relation to outcome. To investigate the effects of novel sepsis treatments (granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interferon-υ (IFN-γ)) on MV production and functions in vitro. METHODS Flow cytometry analysis of MV identified the cell of origin and the proportion of A2MG expression in the plasma of patients with sepsis secondary to CAP (n = 60) or FP (n = 40) and compared with healthy volunteers (HV, n = 10). The association between MV subsets and outcome was examined. The ability of GM-CSF and IFN-γ on A2MG MV production from whole blood was examined together with the assessment of their effect on neutrophil and endothelial functions. RESULTS Circulating cell-derived and A2MG MV were higher in CAP compared with FP and HV. A2MG MV were higher in survivors of CAP, but not in FP. GM-CSF and IFN-γ enhanced A2MG MV production, with these MV eliciting pathogen clearance in vitro. CONCLUSIONS Plasma MV profiles vary according to the source of infection. A2MG MV are associated with survival in CAP but not FP. We propose specific MV subsets as novel biomarkers in sepsis and potential effector for some of the actions of experimental therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
|
11
|
Crowley T, Buckley CD, Clark AR. Stroma: the forgotten cells of innate immune memory. Clin Exp Immunol 2018; 193:24-36. [PMID: 29729109 PMCID: PMC6038004 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
All organisms are exposed constantly to a variety of infectious and injurious stimuli. These induce inflammatory responses tailored to the threat posed. While the innate immune system is the front line of response to each stimulant, it has been considered traditionally to lack memory, acting in a generic fashion until the adaptive immune arm can take over. This outmoded simplification of the roles of innate and acquired arms of the immune system has been challenged by evidence of myeloid cells altering their response to subsequent encounters based on earlier exposure. This concept of 'innate immune memory' has been known for nearly a century, and is accepted among myeloid biologists. In recent years other innate immune cells, such as natural killer cells, have been shown to display memory, suggesting that innate immune memory is a trait common to several cell types. During the last 30 years, evidence has slowly accumulated in favour of not only haematopoietic cells, but also stromal cells, being imbued with memory following inflammatory episodes. A recent publication showing this also to be true in epithelial cells suggests innate immune memory to be widespread, if under-appreciated, in non-haematopoietic cells. In this review, we will examine the evidence supporting the existence of innate immune memory in stromal cells. We will also discuss the ramifications of memory in long-lived tissue-resident cells. Finally, we will pose questions we feel to be important in the understanding of these forgotten cells in the field of innate memory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T. Crowley
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
| | - C. D. Buckley
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UKUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - A. R. Clark
- Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, College of Medical and Dental SciencesUniversity of BirminghamBirmingham, UK
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
The Regulation of Inflammation by Innate and Adaptive Lymphocytes. J Immunol Res 2018; 2018:1467538. [PMID: 29992170 PMCID: PMC6016164 DOI: 10.1155/2018/1467538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammation plays an essential role in the control of pathogens and in shaping the ensuing adaptive immune responses. Traditionally, innate immunity has been described as a rapid response triggered through generic and nonspecific means that by definition lacks the ability to remember. Recently, it has become clear that some innate immune cells are epigenetically reprogrammed or “imprinted” by past experiences. These “trained” innate immune cells display altered inflammatory responses upon subsequent pathogen encounter. Remembrance of past pathogen encounters has classically been attributed to cohorts of antigen-specific memory T and B cells following the resolution of infection. During recall responses, memory T and B cells quickly respond by proliferating, producing effector cytokines, and performing various effector functions. An often-overlooked effector function of memory CD4 and CD8 T cells is the promotion of an inflammatory milieu at the initial site of infection that mirrors the primary encounter. This memory-conditioned inflammatory response, in conjunction with other secondary effector T cell functions, results in better control and more rapid resolution of both infection and the associated tissue pathology. Recent advancements in our understanding of inflammatory triggers, imprinting of the innate immune responses, and the role of T cell memory in regulating inflammation are discussed.
Collapse
|
13
|
Clinical characteristics of infections caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae P1 genotypes in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 37:1265-1272. [PMID: 29603035 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-018-3243-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae (M. pneumoniae) isolates can be classified into two major genetic groups, P1 type 1 (MP1) and P1 type 2 (MP2), based on the DNA sequence of the P1 adhesion protein gene. The aim of our study was to determine if M. pneumoniae P1 genotype is associated with disease manifestation and severity of acute M. pneumoniae infection. We compared epidemiological and clinical data of children infected with either MP1 or MP2. In addition, we separately analysed data of patients presenting with individual manifestations of M. pneumoniae infection. Data of 356 patients infected with MP1 were compared with those of 126 patients infected with MP2. MP2-infected children presented with higher median baseline C-reactive protein levels and were admitted to the hospital more often. The distribution of P1 genotype varied among groups of patients with different manifestations of M. pneumoniae infection. MP2 was more common than MP1 among patients with neurological and cardiovascular manifestations, whereas MP1 was more prevalent in other manifestations. The results from our large cohort indicate that the two P1 subtypes may have different pathogenic potential and that infections with MP2 strains could be more virulent than those with MP1 strains.
Collapse
|
14
|
Continuous Dual Resetting of the Immune Repertoire as a Basic Principle of the Immune System Function. J Immunol Res 2017; 2017:3760238. [PMID: 28246613 PMCID: PMC5299180 DOI: 10.1155/2017/3760238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Idiopathic chronic inflammatory conditions (ICIC) such as allergy, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and various autoimmune conditions are a worldwide health problem. Understanding the pathogenesis of ICIC is essential for their successful therapy and prevention. However, efforts are hindered by the lack of comprehensive understanding of the human immune system function. In line with those efforts, described here is a concept of stochastic continuous dual resetting (CDR) of the immune repertoire as a basic principle that governs the function of immunity. The CDR functions as a consequence of system's thermodynamically determined intrinsic tendency to acquire new states of inner equilibrium and equilibrium against the environment. Consequently, immune repertoire undergoes continuous dual (two-way) resetting: against the physiologic continuous changes of self and against the continuously changing environment. The CDR-based dynamic concept of immunity describes mechanisms of self-regulation, tolerance, and immunosenescence, and emphasizes the significance of immune system's compartmentalization in the pathogenesis of ICIC. The CDR concept's relative simplicity and concomitantly documented congruency with empirical, clinical, and experimental data suggest it may represent a plausible theoretical framework to better understand the human immune system function.
Collapse
|
15
|
Ma Y, Yuan B, Zhuang R, Zhang Y, Liu B, Zhang C, Zhang Y, Yu H, Yi J, Yang A, Jin B. Hantaan virus infection induces both Th1 and ThGranzyme B+ cell immune responses that associated with viral control and clinical outcome in humans. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004788. [PMID: 25836633 PMCID: PMC4383613 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Hantaviruses infection causing severe emerging diseases with high mortality rates in humans has become public health concern globally. The potential roles of CD4(+)T cells in viral control have been extensively studied. However, the contribution of CD4(+)T cells to the host response against Hantaan virus (HTNV) infection remains unclear. Here, based on the T-cell epitopes mapped on HTNV glycoprotein, we studied the effects and characteristics of CD4(+)T-cell responses in determining the outcome of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. A total of 79 novel 15-mer T-cell epitopes on the HTNV glycoprotein were identified, among which 20 peptides were dominant target epitopes. Importantly, we showed the presence of both effective Th1 responses with polyfunctional cytokine secretion and ThGranzyme B(+) cell responses with cytotoxic mediators production against HTNV infection. The HTNV glycoprotein-specific CD4(+)T-cell responses inversely correlated with the plasma HTNV RNA load in patients. Individuals with milder disease outcomes showed broader epitopes targeted and stronger CD4(+)T-cell responses against HTNV glycoproteins compared with more severe patients. The CD4(+)T cells characterized by broader antigenic repertoire, stronger polyfunctional responses, better expansion capacity and highly differentiated effector memory phenotype(CD27-CD28-CCR7-CD45RA-CD127(hi)) would elicit greater defense against HTNV infection and lead to much milder outcome of the disease. The host defense mediated by CD4(+)T cells may through the inducing antiviral condition of the host cells and cytotoxic effect of ThGranzyme B+ cells. Thus, these findings highlight the efforts of CD4(+)T-cell immunity to HTNV control and provide crucial information to better understand the immune defense against HTNV infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ma
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Bin Yuan
- Institute of Orthopaedics of Xijing Hospital, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Ran Zhuang
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yusi Zhang
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Bei Liu
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Chunmei Zhang
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Haitao Yu
- Department of Infectious Diseases of Tangdu Hospital, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Jing Yi
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Angang Yang
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Boquan Jin
- Department of Immunology, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an, China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Lastrucci C, Baillif V, Behar A, Saati TA, Dubourdeau M, Maridonneau‐Parini I, Cougoule C. Molecular and cellular profiles of the resolution phase in a damage‐associated molecular pattern (DAMP)‐mediated peritonitis model and revelation of leukocyte persistence in peritoneal tissues. FASEB J 2015; 29:1914-29. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-259341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claire Lastrucci
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Département Tuberculosis and Infection BiologyToulouseFrance
- Université de Toulouse; Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, IPBSToulouseFrance
| | | | - Annie Behar
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Département Tuberculosis and Infection BiologyToulouseFrance
- Université de Toulouse; Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, IPBSToulouseFrance
| | - Talal Al Saati
- INSERM/UPS—US006/CREFRE, Service d'Histopathologie, CHU PurpanToulouseFrance
| | | | - Isabelle Maridonneau‐Parini
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Département Tuberculosis and Infection BiologyToulouseFrance
- Université de Toulouse; Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, IPBSToulouseFrance
| | - Céline Cougoule
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Pharmacologie et de Biologie Structurale (IPBS)Département Tuberculosis and Infection BiologyToulouseFrance
- Université de Toulouse; Université Paul Sabatier, UPS, IPBSToulouseFrance
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Wack A. Stop the executioners. Nat Immunol 2014; 16:6-8. [PMID: 25521671 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Wack
- Division of Immunoregulation, Medical Research Council, National Institute for Medical Research, Mill Hill, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Yun Y, Srinivas G, Kuenzel S, Linnenbrink M, Alnahas S, Bruce KD, Steinhoff U, Baines JF, Schaible UE. Environmentally determined differences in the murine lung microbiota and their relation to alveolar architecture. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113466. [PMID: 25470730 PMCID: PMC4254600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Commensal bacteria control the micro-ecology of metazoan epithelial surfaces with pivotal effect on tissue homeostasis and host defense. In contrast to the upper respiratory tract, the lower respiratory tract of healthy individuals has largely been considered free of microorganisms. To understand airway micro-ecology we studied microbiota of sterilely excised lungs from mice of different origin including outbred wild mice caught in the natural environment or kept under non-specific-pathogen-free (SPF) conditions as well as inbred mice maintained in non-SPF, SPF or germ-free (GF) facilities. High-throughput pyrosequencing of reverse transcribed 16S rRNA revealed metabolically active murine lung microbiota in all but GF mice. The overall composition across samples was similar at the phylum and family level. However, species richness was significantly different between lung microbiota from SPF and non-SPF mice. Non-cultivatable Betaproteobacteria such as Ralstonia spp. made up the major constituents and were also confirmed by 16S rRNA gene cloning analysis. Additionally, Pasteurellaceae, Enterobacteria and Firmicutes were isolated from lungs of non-SPF mice. Bacterial communities were detectable by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) at alveolar epithelia in the absence of inflammation. Notably, higher bacterial abundance in non-SPF mice correlated with more and smaller size alveolae, which was corroborated by transplanting Lactobacillus spp. lung isolates into GF mice. Our data indicate a common microbial composition of murine lungs, which is diversified through different environmental conditions and affects lung architecture. Identification of the microbiota of murine lungs will pave the path to study their influence on pulmonary immunity to infection and allergens using mouse models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yeojun Yun
- Research Center Borstel, Cellular Microbiology Group, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Borstel, Germany
| | - Girish Srinivas
- MPI for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- Department of Dermatology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Sven Kuenzel
- MPI for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- Evolutionary Genomics, Institute for Experimental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Miriam Linnenbrink
- MPI for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- Evolutionary Genomics, Institute for Experimental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Safa Alnahas
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Kenneth D. Bruce
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ulrich Steinhoff
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - John F. Baines
- MPI for Evolutionary Biology, Plön, Germany
- Evolutionary Genomics, Institute for Experimental Medicine, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ulrich E. Schaible
- Research Center Borstel, Cellular Microbiology Group, Department of Molecular Infection Biology, Borstel, Germany
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Guzek A, Rybicki Z, Korzeniewski K, Mackiewicz K, Saks E, Chciałowski A, Zwolińska E. Etiological factors causing lower respiratory tract infections isolated from hospitalized patients. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2014; 835:37-44. [PMID: 25310945 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2014_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) account for 20-30 % of all hospital-acquired contagions. They are characterized by high mortality of hospitalized patients. The most serious form of LRTI is pneumonia, and the most common etiological factors in such cases are bacteria. The article gives the analysis of bacterial flora samples obtained from lower respiratory tract of hospitalized patients. In vitro susceptibility of pathogens to selected antibiotics has also been assessed. We carried out a retrospective analysis of 1,171 bacterial strains isolated from 1,171 patients treated in clinics of the Military Institute of Medicine in Warsaw, Poland. In most cases the samples were collected from an endotracheal or tracheostomic tube (71.5 %) and from bronchoalveolar lavage (21.7 %). The most commonly isolated pathogens included Acinetobacter baumannii (35.8 %), Staphylococcus aureus (27.6 %), Klebsiella pneumoniae (19.4 %), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (16.2 %). Multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria exhibited 100 % susceptibility to colistin only. Klebsiella pneumoniae ESBL+ and Acinetobacter baumannii were most susceptible to carbapenems, while Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains to ceftazidime. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus were 100 % susceptible to vancomycin, linezolid, and tigecycline. In conclusion, identifying the etiological factors causing infections of the lower respiratory tract and determining their drug-susceptibility is of key importance in empirical treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Guzek
- Department of Medical Diagnostics, Military Institute of Medicine, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Parker LC, Stokes CA, Sabroe I. Rhinoviral infection and asthma: the detection and management of rhinoviruses by airway epithelial cells. Clin Exp Allergy 2014; 44:20-8. [PMID: 24355017 DOI: 10.1111/cea.12182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Human rhinoviruses (HRV) have been linked to the development of childhood asthma and recurrent acute asthma exacerbations throughout life, and contribute considerably to the healthcare and economic burden of this disease. However, the ability of HRV infections to trigger exacerbations, and the link between allergic status and HRV responsiveness, remains incompletely understood. Whilst the receptors on human airway cells that detect and are utilized by most HRV group A and B, but not C serotypes are known, how endosomal pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) detect HRV replication products that are generated within the cytoplasm remains somewhat of an enigma. In this article, we explore a role for autophagy, a cellular homeostatic process that allows the cell to encapsulate its own cytosolic constituents, as the crucial mechanism controlling this process and regulating the innate immune response of airway epithelial cells to viral infection. We will also briefly describe some of the recent insights into the immune responses of the airway to HRV, focusing on neutrophilic inflammation that is a potentially unwanted feature of the acute response to viral infection, and the roles of IL-1 and Pellinos in the regulation of responses to HRV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L C Parker
- Academic Unit of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Infection and Immunity, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Clay CC, Maniar-Hew K, Gerriets JE, Wang TT, Postlethwait EM, Evans MJ, Fontaine JH, Miller LA. Early life ozone exposure results in dysregulated innate immune function and altered microRNA expression in airway epithelium. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90401. [PMID: 24594710 PMCID: PMC3942419 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to ozone has been associated with increased incidence of respiratory morbidity in humans; however the mechanism(s) behind the enhancement of susceptibility are unclear. We have previously reported that exposure to episodic ozone during postnatal development results in an attenuated peripheral blood cytokine response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that persists with maturity. As the lung is closely interfaced with the external environment, we hypothesized that the conducting airway epithelium of neonates may also be a target of immunomodulation by ozone. To test this hypothesis, we evaluated primary airway epithelial cell cultures derived from juvenile rhesus macaque monkeys with a prior history of episodic postnatal ozone exposure. Innate immune function was measured by expression of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8 in primary cultures established following in vivo LPS challenge or, in response to in vitro LPS treatment. Postnatal ozone exposure resulted in significantly attenuated IL-6 mRNA and protein expression in primary cultures from juvenile animals; IL-8 mRNA was also significantly reduced. The effect of antecedent ozone exposure was modulated by in vivo LPS challenge, as primary cultures exhibited enhanced cytokine expression upon secondary in vitro LPS treatment. Assessment of potential IL-6-targeting microRNAs miR-149, miR-202, and miR-410 showed differential expression in primary cultures based upon animal exposure history. Functional assays revealed that miR-149 is capable of binding to the IL-6 3' UTR and decreasing IL-6 protein synthesis in airway epithelial cell lines. Cumulatively, our findings suggest that episodic ozone during early life contributes to the molecular programming of airway epithelium, such that memory from prior exposures is retained in the form of a dysregulated IL-6 and IL-8 response to LPS; differentially expressed microRNAs such as miR-149 may play a role in the persistent modulation of the epithelial innate immune response towards microbes in the mature lung.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Candice C. Clay
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Kinjal Maniar-Hew
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Joan E. Gerriets
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Theodore T. Wang
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Edward M. Postlethwait
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Michael J. Evans
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Justin H. Fontaine
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Lisa A. Miller
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Shanks GD, Hu Z, Waller M, Lee SE, Terfa D, Howard A, van Heyningen E, Brundage JF. Measles epidemics of variable lethality in the early 20th century. Am J Epidemiol 2014; 179:413-22. [PMID: 24284015 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwt282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Until the mid-20th century, mortality rates were often very high during measles epidemics, particularly among previously isolated populations (e.g., islanders), refugees/internees who were forcibly crowded into camps, and military recruits. Searching for insights regarding measles mortality rates, we reviewed historical records of measles epidemics on the Polynesian island of Rotuma (in 1911), in Boer War concentration camps (in 1900-1902), and in US Army mobilization camps during the First World War (in 1917-1918). Records classified measles deaths by date and clinical causes; by demographic characteristics, family relationships (for Rotuma islanders and Boer camp internees), and prior residences; and by camp (for Boer internees and US Army recruits). During the Rotuman and Boer War epidemics, measles-related mortality rates were high (up to 40%); however, mortality rates differed more than 10-fold across camps/districts, even though conditions were similar. During measles epidemics, most deaths among camp internees/military recruits were due to secondary bacterial pneumonias; in contrast, most deaths among Rotuman islanders were due to gastrointestinal complications. The clinical expressions, courses, and outcomes of measles during first-contact epidemics differ from those during camp epidemics. The degree of isolation from respiratory pathogens other than measles may significantly determine measles-related mortality risk.
Collapse
|
23
|
Richert LE, Rynda-Apple A, Harmsen AL, Han S, Wiley JA, Douglas T, Larson K, Morton RV, Harmsen AG. CD11c⁺ cells primed with unrelated antigens facilitate an accelerated immune response to influenza virus in mice. Eur J Immunol 2014; 44:397-408. [PMID: 24222381 PMCID: PMC3926668 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that an individual's unique history and sequence of exposures to pathogens and antigens may dictate downstream immune responses to disparate antigens. We show that the i.n. delivery of nonreplicative virus-like particles (VLPs), which bear structural but no antigenic similarities to respiratory pathogens, acts to prime the lungs of both C56BL/6 and BALB/c mice, facilitating heightened and accelerated primary immune responses to high-dose influenza challenge, thus providing a nonpathogenic model of innate imprinting. These responses correspond closely to those observed following natural infection with the opportunistic fungus, Pneumocystis murina, and are characterized by accelerated antigen processing by DCs and alveolar macrophages, an enhanced influx of cells to the local tracheobronchial lymph node, and early upregulation of T-cell co-stimulatory/adhesion molecules. CD11c⁺ cells, which have been directly exposed to VLPs or Pneumocystis are necessary in facilitating enhanced clearance of influenza virus, and the repopulation of the lung by Ly-6C⁺ precursors relies on CCR2 expression. Thus, immune imprinting 72 h after VLP-priming, or 2 weeks after Pneumocystis-priming is CCR2-mediated and results from the enhanced antigen processing, maturation, and trafficking abilities of DCs and alveolar macrophages, which cause accelerated influenza-specific primary immune responses and result in superior viral clearance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura E. Richert
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - Agnieszka Rynda-Apple
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - Ann L. Harmsen
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - Soo Han
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - James A. Wiley
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - Trevor Douglas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, USA
| | - Kyle Larson
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - Rachelle V. Morton
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| | - Allen G. Harmsen
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
McHugh KJ, Mandalapu S, Kolls JK, Ross TM, Alcorn JF. A novel outbred mouse model of 2009 pandemic influenza and bacterial co-infection severity. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82865. [PMID: 24324838 PMCID: PMC3855784 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza viruses pose a significant health risk and annually impose a great cost to patients and the health care system. The molecular determinants of influenza severity, often exacerbated by secondary bacterial infection, are largely unclear. We generated a novel outbred mouse model of influenza virus, Staphylococcus aureus, and co-infection utilizing influenza A/CA/07/2009 virus and S. aureus (USA300). Outbred mice displayed a wide range of pathologic phenotypes following influenza virus or co-infection ranging broadly in severity. Influenza viral burden positively correlated with weight loss although lung histopathology did not. Inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, TNF-α, G-CSF, and CXCL10 positively correlated with both weight loss and viral burden. In S. aureus infection, IL-1β, G-CSF, TNF-α, and IL-6 positively correlated with weight loss and bacterial burden. In co-infection, IL-1β production correlated with decreased weight loss suggesting a protective role. The data demonstrate an approach to identify biomarkers of severe disease and to understand pathogenic mechanisms in pneumonia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J. McHugh
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Sivanarayana Mandalapu
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Jay K. Kolls
- Richard K. Mellon Foundation Institute, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ted M. Ross
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Center for Vaccine Research, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - John F. Alcorn
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Yáñez A, Hassanzadeh-Kiabi N, Ng MY, Megías J, Subramanian A, Liu GY, Underhill DM, Gil ML, Goodridge HS. Detection of a TLR2 agonist by hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells impacts the function of the macrophages they produce. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:2114-25. [PMID: 23661549 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Several groups have shown that detection of microbial components by TLRs on hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) instructs myeloid cell generation, raising interest in the possibility of targeting TLRs on HSPCs to boost myelopoiesis. However, although "TLR-derived" cells exhibit myeloid cell characteristics (phagocytosis, cytokine production, antigen presentation), it is not clear whether they are functionally equivalent to macrophages derived in the absence of TLR activation. Our in vitro and in vivo studies show that macrophages derived from mouse and human HSPC subsets (including stem cells) exposed to a TLR2 agonist prior to or during macrophage differentiation produce lower levels of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) and reactive oxygen species. This is in contrast to prior exposure of differentiated macrophages to the TLR2 agonist ("tolerance"), which suppresses inflammatory cytokine production, but elevates reactive oxygen species. Soluble factors produced following exposure of HSPCs to a TLR2 agonist can also act in a paracrine manner to influence the function of macrophages derived from unexposed HSPCs. Our data demonstrate that macrophage function can be influenced by TLR signaling in the HSPCs from which they are derived, and that this may impact the clinical utility of targeting TLRs on HSPCs to boost myelopoiesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Yáñez
- Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Differentially imprinted innate immunity by mucosal boost vaccination determines antituberculosis immune protective outcomes, independent of T-cell immunity. Mucosal Immunol 2013; 6:612-25. [PMID: 23131783 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2012.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Homologous and heterologous parenteral prime-mucosal boost immunizations have shown great promise in combating mucosal infections such as tuberculosis and AIDS. However, their immune mechanisms remain poorly defined. In particular, it is still unclear whether T-cell and innate immunity may be independently affected by these immunization modalities and how it impacts immune protective outcome. Using two virus-based tuberculosis vaccines (adenovirus (Ad) and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) vectors), we found that while both homologous (Ad/Ad) and heterologous (Ad/VSV) respiratory mucosal boost immunizations elicited similar T-cell responses in the lung, they led to drastically different immune protective outcomes. Compared with Ad-based boosting, VSV-based boosting resulted in poorly enhanced protection against tuberculosis. Such inferior protection was associated with differentially imprinted innate phagocytes, particularly the CD11c(+)CD11b(+/-) cells, in the lung. We identified heightened type 1 interferon (IFN) responses to be the triggering mechanism. Thus, increased IFN-β severely blunted interleukin-12 responses in infected phagocytes, which in turn impaired their nitric oxide production and antimycobacterial activities. Our study reveals that vaccine vectors may differentially imprint innate cells at the mucosal site of immunization, which can impact immune-protective outcome, independent of T-cell immunity, and it is of importance to determine both T-cell and innate cell immunity in vaccine studies.
Collapse
|
27
|
Recombinant influenza virus carrying the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) F85-93 CTL epitope reduces RSV replication in mice. J Virol 2013; 87:3314-23. [PMID: 23302879 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03019-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract infections in infants worldwide. Despite decades of research, there is still no registered vaccine available for this major pathogen. We investigated the protective efficacy of a recombinant influenza virus, PR8/NA-F(85-93), that carries the RSV CD8(+) T cell epitope F(85-93) in its neuraminidase stalk. F(85-93)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) were induced in mice after a single intranasal immunization with PR8/NA-F(85-93) virus, and these CTLs provided a significant reduction in the lung viral load upon a subsequent challenge with RSV. To avoid influenza-induced morbidity, we treated mice with matrix protein 2 (M2e)-specific monoclonal antibodies before PR8/NA-F(85-93) virus infection. Treatment with anti-M2e antibodies reduced the infiltration of immune cells in the lungs upon PR8/NA-F(85-93) infection, whereas the formation of inducible bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue was not affected. Moreover, this treatment prevented body weight loss yet still permitted the induction of RSV F-specific T cell responses and significantly reduced RSV replication upon challenge. These results demonstrate that it is possible to take advantage of the infection-permissive protection of M2e-specific antibodies against influenza A virus to induce heterologous CD8(+) T cell-mediated immunity by an influenza A virus vector expressing the RSV F(85-93) epitope.
Collapse
|
28
|
Lactobacillus priming of the respiratory tract: Heterologous immunity and protection against lethal pneumovirus infection. Antiviral Res 2012; 97:270-9. [PMID: 23274789 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2012.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We showed previously that wild-type mice primed via intranasal inoculation with live or heat-inactivated Lactobacillus species were fully (100%) protected against the lethal sequelae of infection with the virulent pathogen, pneumonia virus of mice (PVM), a response that is associated with diminished expression of proinflammatory cytokines and diminished virus recovery. We show here that 40% of the mice primed with live Lactobacillus survived when PVM challenge was delayed for 5months. This robust and sustained resistance to PVM infection resulting from prior interaction with an otherwise unrelated microbe is a profound example of heterologous immunity. We undertook the present study in order to understand the nature and unique features of this response. We found that intranasal inoculation with L. reuteri elicited rapid, transient neutrophil recruitment in association with proinflammatory mediators (CXCL1, CCL3, CCL2, CXCL10, TNF-alpha and IL-17A) but not Th1 cytokines. IFNγ does not contribute to survival promoted by Lactobacillus-priming. Live L. reuteri detected in lung tissue underwent rapid clearance, and was undetectable at 24h after inoculation. In contrast, L. reuteri peptidoglycan (PGN) and L. reuteri genomic DNA (gDNA) were detected at 24 and 48h after inoculation, respectively. In contrast to live bacteria, intranasal inoculation with isolated L. reuteri gDNA elicited no neutrophil recruitment, had minimal impact on virus recovery and virus-associated production of CCL3, and provided no protection against the negative sequelae of virus infection. Isolated PGN elicited neutrophil recruitment and proinflammatory cytokines but did not promote sustained survival in response to subsequent PVM infection. Overall, further evaluation of the responses leading to Lactobacillus-mediated heterologous immunity may provide insight into novel antiviral preventive modalities.
Collapse
|
29
|
Dyer KD, Garcia-Crespo KE, Glineur S, Domachowske JB, Rosenberg HF. The Pneumonia Virus of Mice (PVM) model of acute respiratory infection. Viruses 2012; 4:3494-510. [PMID: 23342367 PMCID: PMC3528276 DOI: 10.3390/v4123494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Pneumonia Virus of Mice (PVM) is related to the human and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) pathogens, and has been used to study respiratory virus replication and the ensuing inflammatory response as a component of a natural host—pathogen relationship. As such, PVM infection in mice reproduces many of the clinical and pathologic features of the more severe forms of RSV infection in human infants. Here we review some of the most recent findings on the basic biology of PVM infection and its use as a model of disease, most notably for explorations of virus infection and allergic airways disease, for vaccine evaluation, and for the development of immunomodulatory strategies for acute respiratory virus infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly D. Dyer
- Laboratory of Allergic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.G.-C.); (S.G.); (H.F.R.)
| | - Katia E. Garcia-Crespo
- Laboratory of Allergic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.G.-C.); (S.G.); (H.F.R.)
| | - Stephanie Glineur
- Laboratory of Allergic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.G.-C.); (S.G.); (H.F.R.)
| | - Joseph B. Domachowske
- Department of Pediatrics, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Helene F. Rosenberg
- Laboratory of Allergic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; E-Mails: (K.E.G.-C.); (S.G.); (H.F.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Hussell T. Immune modulatory strategies: a playground with a swing and a seesaw. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2012; 10:249-51. [PMID: 22397555 DOI: 10.1586/eri.12.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tracy Hussell
- Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart & Lung Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, 368, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Virus-like particle-induced protection against MRSA pneumonia is dependent on IL-13 and enhancement of phagocyte function. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 181:196-210. [PMID: 22642909 PMCID: PMC3388150 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Revised: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The importance of the priming of the lung environment by past infections is being increasingly recognized. Exposure to any given antigen can either improve or worsen the outcome of subsequent lung infections, depending on the immunological history of the host. Thus, an ability to impart transient alterations in the lung environment in anticipation of future insult could provide an important novel therapy for emerging infectious diseases. In this study, we show that nasal administration of virus-like particles (VLPs) before, or immediately after, lethal challenge with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) of mice i) ensures complete recovery from lung infection and near absolute clearance of bacteria within 12 hours of challenge, ii) reduces host response-induced lung tissue damage, iii) promotes recruitment and efficient bacterial clearance by neutrophils and CD11c+ cells, and iv) protects macrophages from MRSA-induced necrosis. VLP-mediated protection against MRSA relied on innate immunity. Complete recovery occurred in VLP-dosed mice with severe combined immunodeficiency, but not in wild-type mice depleted of either Ly6G+ or CD11c+ cells. Early IL-13 production associated with VLP-induced CD11c+ cells was essential for VLP-induced protection. These results indicate that VLP-induced alteration of the lung environment protects the host from lethal MRSA pneumonia by enhancing phagocyte recruitment and killing and by reducing inflammation-induced tissue damage via IL-13–dependent mechanisms.
Collapse
|
32
|
Glennie SJ, Nyirenda M, Williams NA, Heyderman RS. Do multiple concurrent infections in African children cause irreversible immunological damage? Immunology 2012; 135:125-32. [PMID: 22044389 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03523.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Much of the developing world, particularly sub-Saharan Africa, has high levels of morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases. The greatest risk of invasive disease is in the young, the malnourished and HIV-infected individuals. In many regions in Africa these vulnerable groups and the wider general population are under constant immune pressure from a range of environmental factors, under-nutrition and multiple concurrent infections from birth through to adulthood. Intermittent microbial exposure during childhood is required for the generation of naturally acquired immunity capable of protection against a range of infectious diseases in adult life. However, in the context of a resource-poor setting, the heavy burden of malarial, diarrhoeal and respiratory infections in childhood may subvert or suppress immune responses rather than protect, resulting in sub-optimal immunity. This review will explore how poor maternal health, HIV exposure, socio-economic and seasonal factors conspire to weaken childhood immune defences to disease and discuss the hypothesis that recurrent infections may drive immune dysregulation, leading to relative immune senescence and premature immunological aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Glennie
- Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, Blantyre, Malawi.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Richert LE, Servid AE, Harmsen AL, Rynda-Apple A, Han S, Wiley JA, Douglas T, Harmsen AG. A virus-like particle vaccine platform elicits heightened and hastened local lung mucosal antibody production after a single dose. Vaccine 2012; 30:3653-65. [PMID: 22465748 PMCID: PMC3579574 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Revised: 02/17/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We show that a model antigen, ovalbumin (OVA), can be chemically conjugated to the exterior of a small heat shock protein (sHsp) cage that has structural similarities to virus-like particles (VLPs). OVA–sHsp conjugation efficiency was dependent upon the stoichiometry and the length of the small molecule linker utilized, and the attachment position on the sHsp cage. When conjugated OVA–sHsp was delivered intranasally to naïve mice, the resulting immune response to OVA was accelerated and intensified, and OVA-specific IgG1 responses were apparent within 5 days after a single immunizing dose, illustrating its utility for vaccine development. If animals were pretreated with a disparate VLP, P22 (a non-replicative bacteriophage capsid), before OVA–sHsp conjugate immunization, OVA-specific IgG1 responses were apparent already by 4 days after a single immunizing dose of conjugate in OVA-naïve mice. Additionally, the mice pretreated with P22 produced high titer mucosal IgA, and isotype-switched OVA-specific serum IgG. Similarly, sHsp pretreatment enhanced the accumulation of lung germinal center B cells, T follicular helper cells, and increased polymeric Ig receptor expression, priming the lungs for subsequent IgG and IgA responses to influenza virus challenge. Thus, sHsp nanoparticles elicited quick and intense antibody responses and these accelerated responses could similarly be induced to antigen chemically conjugated to the sHsp. Pretreatment of mice with P22 further accelerated the onset of the antibody response to OVA–sHsp, demonstrating the utility of conjugating antigens to VLPs for pre-, or possibly post-exposure prophylaxis of lung, all without the need for adjuvant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Richert
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59718, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Primary severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection limits replication but not lung inflammation upon homologous rechallenge. J Virol 2012; 86:4234-44. [PMID: 22345460 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06791-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Our knowledge regarding immune-protective and immunopathogenic events in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection is limited, and little is known about the dynamics of the immune response at the primary site of disease. Here, an African green monkey (AGM) model was used to elucidate immune mechanisms that facilitate viral clearance but may also contribute to persistent lung inflammation following SARS-CoV infection. During primary infection, SARS-CoV replicated in the AGM lung for up to 10 days. Interestingly, lung inflammation was more prevalent following viral clearance, as leukocyte numbers peaked at 14 days postinfection (dpi) and remained elevated at 28 dpi compared to those of mock-infected controls. Lung macrophages but not dendritic cells were rapidly activated, and both cell types had high activation marker expression at late infection time points. Lung proinflammatory cytokines were induced at 1 to 14 dpi, but most returned to baseline by 28 dpi except interleukin 12 (IL-12) and gamma interferon. In SARS-CoV homologous rechallenge studies, 11 of the 12 animals were free of replicating virus at day 5 after rechallenge. However, incidence and severity of lung inflammation was not reduced despite the limited viral replication upon rechallenge. Evaluating the role of antibodies in immune protection or potentiation revealed a progressive increase in anti-SARS-CoV antibodies in lung and serum that did not correlate temporally or spatially with enhanced viral replication. This study represents one of the first comprehensive analyses of lung immunity, including changes in leukocyte populations, lung-specific cytokines, and antibody responses following SARS-CoV rechallenge in AGMs.
Collapse
|
35
|
Abstract
Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) is a constitutive mucosal lymphoid tissue adjacent to major airways in some mammalian species, including rats and rabbits, but not humans or mice. A related tissue, inducible BALT (iBALT), is an ectopic lymphoid tissue that is formed upon inflammation or infection in both mice and humans and can be found throughout the lung. Both BALT and iBALT acquire antigens from the airways and initiate local immune responses and maintain memory cells in the lungs. Here, we discuss the development and function of BALT and iBALT in the context of pulmonary immunity to infectious agents, tumors, and allergens as well as autoimmunity and inflammatory diseases of the lung.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Troy D Randall
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Kudva A, Scheller EV, Robinson KM, Crowe CR, Choi SM, Slight SR, Khader SA, Dubin PJ, Enelow RI, Kolls JK, Alcorn JF. Influenza A inhibits Th17-mediated host defense against bacterial pneumonia in mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2011; 186:1666-1674. [PMID: 21178015 PMCID: PMC4275066 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a significant cause of hospital and community acquired pneumonia and causes secondary infection after influenza A. Recently, patients with hyper-IgE syndrome, who often present with S. aureus infections of the lung and skin, were found to have mutations in STAT3, required for Th17 immunity, suggesting a potential critical role for Th17 cells in S. aureus pneumonia. Indeed, IL-17R(-/-) and IL-22(-/-) mice displayed impaired bacterial clearance of S. aureus compared with that of wild-type mice. Mice challenged with influenza A PR/8/34 H1N1 and subsequently with S. aureus had increased inflammation and decreased clearance of both virus and bacteria. Coinfection resulted in greater type I and II IFN production in the lung compared with that with virus infection alone. Importantly, influenza A coinfection resulted in substantially decreased IL-17, IL-22, and IL-23 production after S. aureus infection. The decrease in S. aureus-induced IL-17, IL-22, and IL-23 was independent of type II IFN but required type I IFN production in influenza A-infected mice. Furthermore, overexpression of IL-23 in influenza A, S. aureus-coinfected mice rescued the induction of IL-17 and IL-22 and markedly improved bacterial clearance. These data indicate a novel mechanism by which influenza A-induced type I IFNs inhibit Th17 immunity and increase susceptibility to secondary bacterial pneumonia.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease
- Humans
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/immunology
- Interferon Type I/administration & dosage
- Interferon Type I/biosynthesis
- Interleukin-17/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukin-17/deficiency
- Interleukin-17/physiology
- Interleukin-23/antagonists & inhibitors
- Interleukins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections/genetics
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections/immunology
- Orthomyxoviridae Infections/microbiology
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/genetics
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/immunology
- Pneumonia, Bacterial/virology
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Staphylococcal Infections/genetics
- Staphylococcal Infections/immunology
- Staphylococcal Infections/virology
- Staphylococcus aureus/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/virology
- Interleukin-22
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anupa Kudva
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | - Erich V. Scheller
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | - Keven M. Robinson
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | - Chris R. Crowe
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | - Sun Mi Choi
- Department of Genetics, Lousiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Samantha R. Slight
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | - Shabaana A. Khader
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | - Patricia J. Dubin
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| | | | - Jay K. Kolls
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
- Department of Genetics, Lousiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - John F. Alcorn
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15224
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Murine Model of Chronic Respiratory Inflammation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2011; 780:125-41. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-5632-3_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
|
38
|
Silva MFD, Napimoga MH, Rodrigues DBR, Pereira SAL, Silva CL. Phenotypic and functional characterization of pulmonary macrophages subpopulations after intratracheal injection of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis cell wall components. Immunobiology 2010; 216:821-31. [PMID: 21257226 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2009] [Revised: 12/03/2010] [Accepted: 12/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A shift in the activation of pulmonary macrophages characterized by an increase of IL-1, TNF-α and IL-6 production has been induced in mice infected with Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. It is still unclear whether a functional shift in the resident alveolar macrophage population would be responsible for these observations due to the expression of cell surface molecules. We investigated pulmonary macrophages by flow cytometry from mice treated with P. brasiliensis derivatives by intratracheal route. In vivo labeling with the dye PKH26GL was applied to characterize newly recruited pulmonary macrophages from the bloodstream. Pulmonary macrophages from mice inflamed with P. brasiliensis derivatives showed a high expression of the surface antigens CD11b/CD18 and CD23 among several cellular markers. The expression of these markers indicated a pattern of activation of a subpopulation characterized as CD11b+ or CD23+, which was modulated in vitro by IFN-γ and IL-4. Analysis of monocytes labelled with PKH26GL demonstrated that CD11b+ cells did infiltrate the lung exhibiting a proinflammatory pattern of activation, whereas CD23+ cells were considered to be resident in the lung. These findings may contribute to better understand the pathology of lung inflammation caused by P. brasiliensis infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Fernandes da Silva
- Pro-Rectory of Research, Post-Graduation and Extension, University of Uberaba, Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Henry J, Smeyne RJ, Jang H, Miller B, Okun MS. Parkinsonism and neurological manifestations of influenza throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2010; 16:566-71. [PMID: 20650672 PMCID: PMC4684089 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2010.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2010] [Revised: 06/19/2010] [Accepted: 06/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Given the recent paper by Jang et al. on "A Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Influenza Virus" which reported a novel animal model of parkinsonism, we aimed to perform a complete historical review of the 20th and 21st century literature on parkinsonism and neurological manifestations of influenza. SCOPE There were at least twelve major flu pandemics reported in the literature in the 20th and 21st century. Neurological manifestations most prevalent during the pandemics included delirium, encephalitis, ocular abnormalities, amyotrophy, myelopathy, radiculopathy, ataxia and seizures. Very little parkinsonism was reported with the exception of the 1917 cases originally described by von Economo. CONCLUSIONS To date there have been surprisingly few cases of neurological issues inclusive of parkinsonism associated with influenza pandemics. Given the recent animal model of H5N1 influenza associated parkinsonism, the medical establishment should be prepared to evaluate for the re-emergence of parkinsonism during future outbreaks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Henry
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida Movement Disorders Center, Gainesville FL
| | - Richard J. Smeyne
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology Saint Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis TN
| | - Haeman Jang
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology Saint Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis TN
| | - Bayard Miller
- Department of Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville FL
| | - Michael S. Okun
- Departments of Neurology and Neurosurgery, University of Florida Movement Disorders Center, Gainesville FL
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
|
41
|
Sanders CJ, Doherty PC, Thomas PG. Respiratory epithelial cells in innate immunity to influenza virus infection. Cell Tissue Res 2010; 343:13-21. [PMID: 20848130 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-010-1043-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 08/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Infection by influenza virus leads to respiratory failure characterized by acute lung injury associated with alveolar edema, necrotizing bronchiolitis, and excessive bleeding. Severe reactions to infection that lead to hospitalizations and/or death are frequently attributed to an exuberant host response, with excessive inflammation and damage to the epithelial cells that mediate respiratory gas exchange. The respiratory mucosa serves as a physical and chemical barrier to infection, producing mucus and surfactants, anti-viral mediators, and inflammatory cytokines. The airway epithelial cell layer also serves as the first and overwhelmingly primary target for virus infection and growth. This review details immune events during influenza infection from the viewpoint of the epithelial cells, secretory host defense mechanisms, cell death, and recovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine J Sanders
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Valentiner-Branth P, Shrestha PS, Chandyo RK, Mathisen M, Basnet S, Bhandari N, Adhikari RK, Sommerfelt H, Strand TA. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of zinc as adjuvant therapy in children 2-35 mo of age with severe or nonsevere pneumonia in Bhaktapur, Nepal. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 91:1667-74. [PMID: 20375190 DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pneumonia is a leading cause of illness and death in young children. Interventions to improve case management of pneumonia are needed. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to measure the effect of zinc supplementation in children with pneumonia in a population in which zinc deficiency is common. DESIGN In a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, children aged 2-35 mo with severe (n = 149) or nonsevere (n = 2479) pneumonia defined according to criteria established by the World Health Organization were randomly assigned to receive zinc (10 mg for children aged 2-11 mo, 20 mg for children aged > or =12 mo) or placebo daily for 14 d as an adjuvant to antibiotics. The primary outcomes were treatment failure, defined as a need for change in antibiotics or hospitalization, and time to recovery from pneumonia. RESULTS One of 5 children did not respond adequately to antibiotic treatment; the odds ratios between zinc and placebo groups for treatment failure were 0.95 (95% CI: 0.78, 1.2) for nonsevere pneumonia and 0.97 (95% CI: 0.42, 2.2) for severe pneumonia. There was no difference in time to recovery between zinc and placebo groups for nonsevere (median: 2 d; hazard ratio: 1.0; 95% CI: 0.96, 1.1) or severe (median: 4 d; hazard ratio: 1.1; 95% CI: 0.79, 1.5) pneumonia. Regurgitation or vomiting < or =15 min after supplementation was observed more frequently among children in the zinc group than among those in the placebo group during the supplementation period (37% compared with 13%; odds ratio: 0.25; 95% CI: 0.20, 0.30). CONCLUSION Adjuvant treatment with zinc neither reduced the risk of treatment failure nor accelerated recovery in episodes of nonsevere or severe pneumonia. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00148733.
Collapse
|
43
|
Valkonen H, Waris M, Ruohola A, Ruuskanen O, Heikkinen T. Recurrent wheezing after respiratory syncytial virus or non-respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy: a 3-year follow-up. Allergy 2009; 64:1359-65. [PMID: 19416146 DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02022.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies have suggested that rhinovirus-associated early wheezing is a greater risk factor for development of recurrent wheezing in children than is early wheezing associated with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). We determined the development of recurrent wheezing in young children within 3 years after hospitalization for RSV or non-RSV bronchiolitis. METHODS We identified retrospectively all children <2 years of age who were admitted to Turku University Hospital because of bronchiolitis in the months of August-December during 1988-2001. The primary outcome was recurrent wheezing that required long-term asthma medication. Data on asthma medications of the individual children were derived from the Social Insurance Institution of Finland. RESULTS Within the first year after hospitalization, 36 of 217 (16.6%) children with non-RSV bronchiolitis developed recurrent wheezing, compared with five of 199 (2.5%) children with RSV bronchiolitis [relative risk (RR) 6.6; 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.6-16.5]. The rates of recurrent wheezing were significantly increased in the non-RSV group also within 2 years (RR 2.9; 95% CI 1.7-5.1) and 3 years (RR 3.4; 95% CI 2.0-5.7) after hospitalization. The increased risk of recurrent wheezing in children with non-RSV-associated bronchiolitis was observed both in boys and girls at all time points of the 3-year follow-up, and it was not explained by the age difference between the RSV and non-RSV groups or any confounding seasonal factors. CONCLUSION Children hospitalized with bronchiolitis caused by other viruses than RSV develop recurrent wheezing at substantially higher rates during a 3-year follow-up period than do children with RSV-induced bronchiolitis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Valkonen
- Department of Pediatrics, Turku University Hospital, Finland
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
44
|
Blom WM, van Nielen WG, de Groene EM, Albers R. A cell-based screening assay for Natural Killer cell activity. Int Immunopharmacol 2009; 9:746-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2009.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2008] [Revised: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 02/26/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
45
|
Abstract
The respiratory tract is characterized by an extensive surface area that is in direct contact with the environment, posing a significant problem for effective immune surveillance. Yet most respiratory pathogens are quickly recognized and controlled by a coordinated response involving the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system. The investigation of pulmonary immunity to respiratory viruses during a primary infection has demonstrated that multiple innate and adaptive immune mechanisms are necessary for efficient antiviral responses, and the inhibition of any single mechanism can have disastrous consequences for the host. Furthermore, the investigation of recall responses in the lung has shown that protection from a secondary challenge infection is a complex and elegant process that occurs in distinct stages. In this review, we discuss recent advances that describe the roles of individual components during primary and secondary responses to respiratory virus infections and how these discoveries have added to our understanding of antiviral immunity in the lung.
Collapse
|
46
|
|
47
|
Wissinger E, Goulding J, Hussell T. Immune homeostasis in the respiratory tract and its impact on heterologous infection. Semin Immunol 2009; 21:147-55. [PMID: 19223202 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2009.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2008] [Accepted: 01/20/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity at mucosal surfaces requires additional restraint to prevent inflammation to innocuous antigens or commensal microorganisms. The threshold above which airway macrophages become activated is raised by site-specific factors including the receptors for transforming growth factor beta, interleukin 10 and CD200; the ligands for which are produced by, or expressed on, respiratory epithelium. We discuss such site-specific regulation and how this is continually altered by prior infections. Resetting of innate reactivity represents a strategy for limiting excessive inflammation, but in some may pre-dispose to secondary bacterial pneumonia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Wissinger
- Imperial College London, National Heart and Lung Institute, Leukocyte Biology Section, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
A critical role for the sphingosine analog AAL-R in dampening the cytokine response during influenza virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:1560-5. [PMID: 19164548 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0812689106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary tissue damage resulting from influenza virus infection is caused by both the cytolytic activity of the virus and the host immune response. Immune-mediated injury results from T cell-mediated destruction of virus-infected cells and by release of cytokines and chemokines that attract polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PML) and macrophages to the infected site. The cytokines/chemokines potentiate dendritic cell (DC) activation and T cell expansion, which further enhances local damage. Here we report that immune modulation by local administration to the respiratory tract of sphingosine analog AAL-R significantly dampens the release of cytokines and chemokines while maintaining protective neutralizing antibody and cytotoxic T cell responses. As a result there was a marked reduction of infiltrating PML and macrophages into the lung and resultant pulmonary tissue injury. DC maturation was suppressed, which limited proliferation of specific antiviral T cells in the lung and draining lymph nodes. Further, AAL-R was effective in controlling CD8(+) T cell accumulation in the lungs even when given 4 days after initiation of influenza virus infection. These data indicate that sphingosine analogs display useful potential for controlling the immunopathology caused by influenza virus.
Collapse
|
49
|
Lee LYH, Ha DLA, Simmons C, de Jong MD, Chau NVV, Schumacher R, Peng YC, McMichael AJ, Farrar JJ, Smith GL, Townsend AR, Askonas BA, Rowland-Jones S, Dong T. Memory T cells established by seasonal human influenza A infection cross-react with avian influenza A (H5N1) in healthy individuals. J Clin Invest 2008; 118:3478-90. [PMID: 18802496 PMCID: PMC2542885 DOI: 10.1172/jci32460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2007] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The threat of avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans remains a global health concern. Current influenza vaccines stimulate antibody responses against the surface glycoproteins but are ineffective against strains that have undergone significant antigenic variation. An alternative approach is to stimulate pre-existing memory T cells established by seasonal human influenza A infection that could cross-react with H5N1 by targeting highly conserved internal proteins. To determine how common cross-reactive T cells are, we performed a comprehensive ex vivo analysis of cross-reactive CD4+ and CD8+ memory T cell responses to overlapping peptides spanning the full proteome of influenza A/Viet Nam/CL26/2005 (H5N1) and influenza A/New York/232/2004 (H3N2) in healthy individuals from the United Kingdom and Viet Nam. Memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells isolated from the majority of participants exhibited human influenza-specific responses and showed cross-recognition of at least one H5N1 internal protein. Participant CD4+ and CD8+ T cells recognized multiple synthesized influenza peptides, including peptides from the H5N1 strain. Matrix protein 1 (M1) and nucleoprotein (NP) were the immunodominant targets of cross-recognition. In addition, cross-reactive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells recognized target cells infected with recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing either H5N1 M1 or NP. Thus, vaccine formulas inducing heterosubtypic T cell-mediated immunity may confer broad protection against avian and human influenza A viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laurel Yong-Hwa Lee
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Do Lien Anh Ha
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Cameron Simmons
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Menno D. de Jong
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nguyen Van Vinh Chau
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Reto Schumacher
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Yan Chun Peng
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J. McMichael
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy J. Farrar
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Geoffrey L. Smith
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alain R.M. Townsend
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Brigitte A. Askonas
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Rowland-Jones
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Tao Dong
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
Molecular Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Liebers V, Raulf-Heimsoth M, Brüning T. Health effects due to endotoxin inhalation (review). Arch Toxicol 2008; 82:203-10. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-008-0290-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2007] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|