Moderated moderation modelling of subjective social status, pocket money and depressive symptoms of university students in Ghana

Introduction

Although the relationship between subjective social status and depression in university students has been well-established, this association could be seen as a spurious one. Previous studies have shown that key variables like financial resources and age could play key roles in explaining the variances in social status and mental health outcomes. In this research, we assessed the complex interrelationships between subjective social status, financial resources at their disposal and depressive symptoms among university students within their young and middle adulthood stages.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in a university in Ghana to sample 1134 university students through accidental sampling. The McArthur Scale and WHO-5 Well-being measure were used for the data collection.

Results

The results revealed that higher levels of subjective social status were associated with lower levels of depression. It was further found that the interaction between students' pocket money and age played unique roles in the relationship between subjective social status and depression.

Conclusion

The study findings call on stakeholders in education to explore funding opportunities and to examine ways of empowering parents (financially) to adequately support the students. Health educationists and promoters, including psychologists, school counsellors and parents could compliment these efforts by helping to train and empower students through self-regulation or management skills to help improve their well-being. Continuous efforts are required to improve the financial status and mental health of students.

Aggressive Humor and Social Connectedness: The Moderating Roles of Subjective Social Status and Gender

Aggressive humor has been conceived as a maladaptive humor style that jeopardizes social relationships. However, past studies have yielded inconsistent findings regarding the detrimental effects of aggressive humor on social relationships. This study attempts to advance the existing literature by examining the gender difference in the moderating role of subjective social status in the association between aggressive humor and social connectedness. Participants were 228 (53.1% female) adults aged from 18 to 53 years (M = 23.19, SD = 6.43). The hypothesized moderated moderation effect was significant, suggesting that gender significantly moderated the moderating effect of subjective social status on the association between aggressive humor and social connectedness. Subjective social status significantly moderated the association between aggressive humor and social connectedness for men but not for women. For men, aggressive humor was negatively associated with social connectedness when subjective social status was low or medium, but the association was not significant when subjective social status was high. For women, aggressive humor was not associated with social connectedness regardless of subjective social status. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Associations between subjective social status and psychological well-being among college students

Background: Higher subjective social status (SSS) is associated with better mental health among youth; however, few studies have examined youth's perceptions of past (childhood) or future (adulthood) SSS. Methods: Utilizing latent profile analysis, we examined unique profiles of past, present, and future SSS among 401 college students in the United States and tested associations between these profiles and psychological well-being (ie, depressive symptoms, negative affect, positive affect, and flourishing), controlling for family socioeconomic status (SES). Results: Results revealed four profiles: Low SSS (8%), Upward SSS (18%), Moderate SSS (43%), and High SSS (31%). Youth in the High SSS profile had the best psychological well-being, and those in the Low SSS profile had the worst. While the Upward SSS profile was associated with depressive symptoms and negative affect, it was protective in terms of positive affect. Discussion: Findings highlight unique effects of upward SSS mobility.Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1954010.

Sleep as a mediator of the relationship between social class and health in higher education students

A substantial body of research indicates that higher education students from lower social class backgrounds tend to have poorer health than those from higher social class backgrounds. To investigate sleep as a potential mediator of this relationship, online survey responses of students from five large Australian universities, one Irish university and one large Australian technical college were analysed in three studies (Study 1 N = 628; Study 2 N = 376; Study 3 N = 446). The results revealed that sleep quality, sleep duration, sleep disturbances, pre-sleep worries and sleep schedule variability mediated the relationship between social class and physical and mental health. Sleep remained a significant mediator when controlling for related variables and other mediators. Thus, the findings suggest that sleep partly explains social class differences in health. We discuss the importance of addressing sleep issues among students from lower social class backgrounds.

Subjective social status and well-being of adolescents and young adults in Ghanaian schools: conditional process analysis

BACKGROUND

With the growing concern and interest in the mental health and well-being of adolescents and young adults (AYAs) including those in schools, many studies have explored the bivariate relationship between subjective social status (SSS) and AYAs' subjective well-being (SWB). Acknowledging the spurious nature of this relationship, we assessed the relationship between SSS and SWB of AYAs in schools within Northern Ghana, focusing on the conditional indirect effect of monetary resource (MR) and sense of coherence (SoC).

METHODS

We utilised a cross-sectional descriptive design to survey 1096 senior high school students from two regions in Ghana's Northern zone through a stratified sampling method. A questionnaire consisting of a number of calibrated standardized measures was used for the data collection. The data were processed using SPSS and PROCESS Macro and analysed using Hayes' conditional process analysis.

RESULTS

The results revealed that students' MR significantly moderated the relationships between SSS and SoC as well as SSS and SWB. A significant moderated mediation effect of MR and SoC on the relationship between SSS and SWB was found. Particularly, AYAs who reported higher levels of MRl, SSS and SoC reported a better SWB.

CONCLUSION

The findings underscore the relevance of providing sufficient financial support for students in secondary schools in Ghana; thus, highlighting the sheer relevance of economic capital as a leading factor for better well-being. The findings also place much emphasis on building students' personal coping mechanisms as a key variable in explaining how the students' SSS and MR translate into having positive mental health outcomes.

What alleviates depression among medical workers in emergency risk events? The function of subjective social status

Medical workers often face serious family-work conflicts and are prone to depressive symptoms. The present study aimed at investigating associations between family-work conflict and depression in emergencies, and at exploring psychological processes involved in this association. A total of 1347 participants were recruited to complete questionnaires. Results showed that the positive effect of family-work conflict on depression was mediated by the basic psychological needs satisfaction, and subjective social status moderated this relationship as a buffer. For individuals with high levels of subjective social status, the direct and indirect effects of family-work conflict on depression were weaker. This study identified the mediating and moderating mechanisms of family-work conflict and depression. The implications of these findings in both theoretical and practical terms will be discussed.

Adult friendship and wellbeing: A systematic review with practical implications

This study aimed to systematically review research findings regarding the relationship between adult friendship and wellbeing. A multidimensional scope for wellbeing and its components with the use of the PERMA theory was adopted. A total of 38 research articles published between 2000 and 2019 were reviewed. In general, adult friendship was found to predict or at least be positively correlated with wellbeing and its components. In particular, the results showed that friendship quality and socializing with friends predict wellbeing levels. In addition, number of friends, their reactions to their friend's attempts of capitalizing positive events, support of friend's autonomy, and efforts to maintain friendship are positively correlated with wellbeing. Efforts to maintain the friendship, friendship quality, personal sense of uniqueness, perceived mattering, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and subjective vitality mediated this relationship. However, research findings highlighted several gaps and limitations of the existing literature on the relationship between adult friendship and wellbeing components. For example, for particular wellbeing components, findings were non-existent, sparse, contradictory, fragmentary, or for specific populations only. Implications of this review for planning and implementing positive friendship interventions in several contexts, such as school, work, counseling, and society, are discussed.

A man-made divide: Investigating the effect of urban–rural household registration and subjective social status on mental health mediated by loneliness among a large sample of university students in China

Introduction

The urban–rural household registration system in China has been documented with profound social consequences in almost all areas of people’s life. This study aims to investigate the underlying mechanism of the rural and urban discrepancies on mental health conditions among a large sample of college students in China.

Methods

A survey was distributed among college students in China. A total of 96,218 college students from 63 colleges completed the survey, answering questions on their urban–rural household registration, disposable household income, subjective social status, feelings of loneliness, and anxiety and depression symptoms. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analyses were conducted, testing the effect of urban–rural registration on one’s mental health, mediated by subjective social status, and loneliness.

Results

Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) results revealed that the urban–rural household registration showed a direct effect on anxiety (B = −0.03, 95% CI [−0.038, −0.022], β = −0.03, p < 0.001) and depression (B = −0.03, 95% CI [−0.035, −0.023], β = −0.03, p < 0.001), indicating that rural household registration had a negative association with anxiety and depression symptoms, albeit the standardised estimate being very small. The indirect path from the urban–rural registration mediated through subjective social status and loneliness to anxiety and depression was both significant, with B = 0.01, 95% CI [0.010, 0.010], β = 0.01, p < 0.001, and B = 0.01, 95% CI [0.0090, 0.0090], β = 0.01, p < 0.001, respectively. The results of the indirect paths demonstrated that students of the rural household registration reported higher anxiety and depression symptoms through a lower subjective social status and higher level of loneliness.

Conclusion

This study indicated that decreasing the disparity of social status and tackling loneliness is the key to improve the overall mental health of college students. The urban–rural household registration system may have a very small direct effect on the college students’ mental health; but students of urban registration enjoyed higher subjective social status, which had a clear protective effect against anxiety and depression symptoms.

The moderating effect of social resources on the link between study-related stressors and depressive symptoms among medical students in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany - a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Previous research has demonstrated the negative effects of study-related stressors on the mental health of medical students. It has been found that social resources such as social identity, dual identity and social support help buffer negative mental health outcomes. Notably, social status has been found to weaken the connection between stress and depressive symptoms. Based on these findings, the present study investigates how social resources (i.e., social identity, social support, dual identity and status) mitigate the impact of study-related stressors on the mental health of medical students who carry an inordinate stress burden.

METHODS

The data collection was based on a questionnaire (online and paper-pencil) which was distributed to medical students in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The sample (224 participants) consisted of 77.2% female and 22.8% male medical students (36.2% human medicine students (HMS) and 63.8% dental medicine students (DMS)). The questionnaire included graphical scales and standardized questionnaires. We investigated demographic data, study-related stressors (i.e. academic performance, clinical practice, faculty relations) and depressive symptoms as outcomes, and social identity, social support, dual identity and status as moderators. The analyses were performed using SPSS 25 for Windows.

RESULTS

We found significant positive associations between study-related stressors and depressive symptoms. While dual identity as well as social support by fellow students emerged as buffers in these associations, the other social resources did not. As regards status, it was found to work as a buffer only in HMS, who typically enjoy a significantly higher status than dental medical students.

CONCLUSION

It is only social resources such as support from fellow students and dual identity, but not other resource types, that can be effective buffers against depressive symptoms associated with study-related stressors. These findings can be used to promote students' identities in relation to both fellow students and the faculty, or the university as a whole, enabling students to better cope with stress and, thus, suffer less from depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the HMS, who ascribe a relatively high status to themselves, can use their status as a buffering factor in stressful situations, in which little can be done from the outside.

Psychological Antecedents and Consequences of Social Integration Based on Self-Disclosure in Virtual Communities: Empirical Evidence From Sina Microblog

Introduction

With the normalization of COVID-19 prevention and control, a large number of intergenerational audiences with different cognition preferences and value orientations have started to pour into non-acquaintance virtual communities (VCs) to address their social needs by disclosing their own thoughts, feelings and experiences toward certain topics. To avoid the negative impacts of self-disclosure, this study introduced the concept of social integration into cyber society among non-acquaintance VCs, such as the topic-based VCs. Our theoretical model considers both the psychological antecedents and consequences of VC audiences’ social integration and our findings have implications for public online (and even offline) social life. Moreover, this research could play a guiding role in improving VC audiences’ social integration status in future online learning and telecommuting scenarios.

Method

To assess the theoretical model constructed in this manuscript, we conducted an online survey in two different topic-based VCs among Microblog and yielded 472 useable responses from intergenerational audiences, among which 28.81% were born before 1985, 26.67% were born from 1985 to 1995, and 48.52% were born after 1995. Our sample consisted of 208 individuals from Health Regimen VC and 264 individuals from Star Chasing VC, 200 (42.37%) were men and 272 (57.63%) were women.

Results

Our structural equation model (SEM) indicated that individuals’ self-disclosure in topic-based VCs might not directly guide them to acquire social integration. However, intimacy and cognitive communion derived from VC audiences’ self-disclosure might not only enhance their social integration, but also improve their psychological well-being. In addition, VC audiences’ social integration mediated the relationship between intimacy and psychological well-being, and the relationship between cognitive communion and psychological well-being. Moreover, VC audiences’ intimacy was found to have a direct influence on their cognitive communion.

Conclusion

In the context of topic-based VCs, audiences’ self-disclosure could significantly foster their intimacy and cognitive communion with others, and both intimacy and cognitive communion are conductive to VC audiences’ social integration. Thus, audiences in topic-based VCs who wish to improve their psychological well-being need to disclose themselves and build corresponding psychological foundations (i.e., intimacy and cognitive communion) to enhance their social integration. Meanwhile, topic-based VCs should pay attention to the cultivation of intimacy and cognitive communion among audiences while encouraging them to reveal themselves.

College integration and social class

What is the impact of social class on college integration? Higher education institutions are becoming more diverse, yet the integration of underprivileged students remains a challenge. Using a social network approach, we analyze the general integration of low socioeconomic status (SES) students, as well as how segregated by class these friends are. The object of analysis is the extreme case of an elite university that, based on a government loan program (Ser Pilo Paga), opened its doors to many low-SES students in a very unequal country, Colombia. Using a mixed methods perspective, including a survey, 61 in depth interviews, and ethnographic observation, we analyze friendship networks and their meanings, barriers, and facilitators. Contrary to the literature, we find that low-SES students had, on average, the same number of connections and were no more isolated than students from upper social classes. Also, low-SES students' networks were not more segregated, even if relations with the upper classes were less likely and required more relational work than with middle or lower class friends. This high level of social integration stemmed from the intense relational work that low-SES students engage in, so as to fit in. Middle class friends act as a catalyst that can enable cross-class friendships.

Achieving status and reducing loneliness during the transition to college: The role of entitlement, intrasexual competitiveness, and dominance

Although many emerging adults struggle to gain status and develop social relationships, particularly during the college transition, it remains unclear whether certain personality traits facilitate this transition. Using a longitudinal design, we investigated whether status-related traits-namely, entitlement, intrasexual competitiveness, and dominance-related to the development of status in 91 first-year college students (M _age=18.15, SD=0.44) transitioning to a novel college environment. We also examined whether personality traits moderated the degree to which status related to loneliness. As hypothesized, only students high in intrasexual competitiveness experienced increases in subjective dorm status across the year. In addition, students exhibiting average or low entitlement experienced decreases in loneliness over time, whereas high entitlement was related to consistently low loneliness. Finally, higher subjective dorm status was related to lower loneliness only for less dominant students, as assessed by both self-ratings of trait dominance and raters' judgments of facial dominance from photographs. Using a real-world context of status development, these results suggest that personality traits may influence students' ability to experience higher status and modulate the relation between subjective status and loneliness.

Impact of social class on health: The mediating role of health self-management

Background

Studies have explored the relationship between social class and health for decades. However, the underlying mechanism between the two remains not fully understood. This study aimed to explore whether health self-management had a mediating role between social class and health under the framework of Socio-cultural Self Model.

Methods

663 adults, randomly sampled from six communities in Southwest China, completed the survey for this study. Social class was assessed using individuals’ income, education, occupation. Health self-management was assessed through evaluation of the health self-management behavior, health self-management cognition, health self-management environment. Physical health and mental health were measured by the Chinese version of Short-Form (36-item) Health Survey, which contains Physical Functioning, Role-Physical, Role-Emotional, Vitality, Mental Health, Social Function, Bodily Pain and General Health. Pearson’s correlation was used to examine the associations between major variables. Mediation analyses were performed to explore the mediating role of health self-management.

Results

Social class positively predicted self-rated health. The lower the social class, the lower the self-reported physical and mental health. Health self-management partially mediated the relationship between social class and self-rated health. That is, the health self-management ability of the lower class, such as access to healthy and nutritious food and evaluate their own health status, is worse than that of the higher class, which leads to physical and mental health inequality between the high and the low classes.

Conclusion

Health self-management mediated the relationship between social class and health. Promoting health self-management abilities are conducive to improving both physical and mental health.

Caring for the carers: a COVID-19 psychological support programme

The outbreak of COVID-19 and the subsequent pandemic brought unprecedented worldwide challenges born out of a rapidly escalating health and economic crisis. From emergency planners to healthcare workers on the front line, and everyone in between, the pandemic, and the uncertainty surrounding it, was likely to become a significant stressor, one with no immediate solution but with the potential to cause enduring distress beyond its conclusion. The UK Defence Medical Services recognised the need to provide an evidence-based programme of care intended to support personnel transitioning from assisting the national response back to normal duties. This was informed by a narrative review that targeted literature exploring strategies for supporting the mental health and well-being of healthcare workers during 21st-century infectious disease outbreaks. The literature identified the experiences most likely to cause enduring distress, which comprised morally challenging decisions, vulnerability, death and suffering, professional and personal challenges, and expectations. The opportunity to find meaning in these experiences, by discussing them with peers who share a contextual understanding, is important to limit the longer-term psychosocial impact of such events. This paper will discuss the design considerations and planned implementation strategy of the Recovery, Readjustment and Reintegration Programme to limit the incidence of distress or longer-term mental ill health among military personnel.

In a Class on Their Own: Investigating the Role of Social Integration in the Association Between Social Class and Mental Well-Being

It has been established that people from lower social classes tend to have poorer mental well-being compared with people from higher classes. Research also suggests that people from the lower classes are also less socially integrated. This research investigated the role of social integration in the relationship between social class and mental well-being across three studies (Study 1 N = 15,028; Study 2 N = 1,946; Study 3 N = 461). Across all studies, social class had an indirect effect on mental well-being via social integration. Moderation results found that social integration buffers the negative impact of financial issues on mental well-being, social support buffers the effects of class on mental ill-health, and family support amplifies rather than reduces social class differences in mental well-being. We propose that although improving social integration has the potential to improve the mental well-being of lower class populations, some caveats need to be considered.

A social network approach to analyzing body dissatisfaction among sorority members using two network generators

Objective: This article uses social network analysis (SNA) to analyze how various measures of social connectedness relate to body dissatisfaction (BD) in sorority members.Participants: 208 sorority members participated in the study.Methods: Measures of social connectedness (network variables) were created based on two relational networks: persons members felt closest to and persons they spent the most time with. SNA tested whether demographic variables, body mass index (BMI), compulsive exercise, and network variables were related to BD in both networks.Results: Members reported BD was related to less social connectedness in the "close-to" and the "time-spent" networks, although specific network variables varied between the two. Compulsive exercise, BMI, and grade classification were related to BD in both networks.Conclusions: How a sorority member connects to others in her network could impact BD in this population. This study supports efforts facilitating increased social connection within a sorority as a means to decrease BD.

Explaining the association between subjective social status and mental health among university students using an impact ratings approach

Previous research has found a positive association between social class and mental health among university students. Various mediators of this association have been proposed. However, the extent to which students perceive these mediators as having an impact on their mental health has not been investigated. It is important to investigate this issue because students who do not perceive issues as having an impact on their mental health may not be motivated to address those issues. In the current study, 402 first-year undergraduate psychology students from a large Australian university indicated the extent to which 32 issues had a negative impact on their mental health over the past six months. Students rated lack of money, time management, coursework assessment items, lack of sleep, and course marks as having the largest impact on their mental health. Lack of money and time management mediated the positive association between subjective social status and mental health over (a) the past week and (b) the past month. Coursework assessment items and course marks mediated the positive association between subjective social status and satisfaction with the university experience. It is concluded that interventions should focus on these relatively high impact issues in order to address social class differences in students' mental health and university satisfaction.

Does integration play a role? Academic self-concepts, self-esteem, and self-perceptions of social integration of elementary school children in inclusive and mainstream classes

The concept of inclusion is based on the assumption that integrating students with SEN into regular (mainstream) classes would enhance students’ performance due to a more stimulating and demanding environment. However, research investigating the effects of inclusive education on students’ academic self-concepts has been scarce. For this reason, the present study aimed to examine the specific relationships and differences for math and verbal self-concepts, self-esteem, and self-perceptions of social integration using two samples of elementary school students from grades 2–4: One group of students attended inclusive classes (n = 178), whilst the other group attended mainstream classes (n = 188). In addition, measurement invariance across classroom setting and possible mediator effects of self-esteem were tested. Results provided support for strong invariance across classroom setting. All constructs were positively correlated with each other. In both math and verbal domains, self-esteem and self-perceptions of social integration proved to be significant predictors of academic self-concepts. Self-esteem was more highly pronounced in younger children, while there were no effects of classroom setting on academic self-concepts. Self-esteem became a significant mediator of the relationships between self-perceptions of social integration and academic self-concepts. No group differences in math and verbal self-concepts, self-esteem, and self-perceptions of social integration were evident.

Life Change, Social Identity, and Health

Life change affects health. Research aimed at understanding the consequences of life change has primarily focused on the important roles played by stress, social support, individual differences, and broader socioeconomic factors in shaping health outcomes, most notably mental health decline. In this review we extend these accounts by exploring social identity-based determinants of adjustment to life change. We do so by drawing on social identity theorizing and, in particular, the Social Identity Model of Identity Change (SIMIC). This points to the importance of multiple, maintained, new, and compatible group memberships as determinants of people's responses and adjustment to life change. We apply this model to understand the health consequences of adjustment to life change in four diverse areas: pursuit of higher education, migration, trauma and resilience, and recovery from illness and injury. Finally, we provide direction for future research on SIMIC and the health consequences of life change.

Risk in childhood family environments and loneliness in college students: Implications for health

Objective: To investigate associations between risk in family environments and health-relevant outcomes in college and the role of loneliness. Participants: College students at a state university (N = 360). Methods: We utilized linear regression to examine relationships between risk in family environments and loneliness, perceived stress, affect, and self-rated health. We tested for indirect effects of risk in family environments on outcomes through loneliness Results: Analyses showed that risk in family environments associated with loneliness (β = 0.12 t[358] = 2.22, p = .03, R² change = .02), perceived social stress (β = 0.20, t[357] = 3.88, p < 0.001, R² change = .04), negative and positive affect (β = 2.44, t[357] = 3.95, p < .001, R² change = .04), and (β = -0.18 t[357]= -3.44, p = .001, R² change = .03 respectively), and self-rated health (β = 0.19, t[359] = 4.57, p < .001, R² change = .10). Significant indirect effects were observed for risk in early family on all outcomes through loneliness. Conclusion: These findings provide initial evidence that risk in childhood family environments may negatively affect health by increasing loneliness in college students.

Social Network Analysis in Child and Adolescent Physical Activity Research: A Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

Regular physical activity (PA) has many benefits for children and adolescents, yet many do not meet PA recommendations. Social context is important for promoting or discouraging PA among children and adolescents. This review aimed to identify social network variables related to PA among children and adolescents.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted in September 2018 using PsycINFO, MEDLINE, PubMed, and Web of Science. Included articles needed to (1) be focused on children (aged 5-11 y) or adolescents (aged 12-17 y), (2) include a measure of PA, (3) include a measure of egocentric or sociocentric social connection in which alters were nominated, and (4) perform an analysis between network data and PA.

RESULTS

A search of 11,824 articles was refined to a final sample of 29 articles. Social network themes and concepts such as homophily, centrality, and network composition were related to child and adolescent PA behavior across the literature.

CONCLUSIONS

The impact of an individual's social network is evident on their PA behaviors. More research is needed to examine why these networks form in relation to PA and how interventions can utilize social network analysis to more effectively promote PA, especially in underserved and minority populations.

Subjective Social Status as a Predictor of Loneliness: The Moderating Effect of the Type of Long-Term Care Setting

Much has been written about the important role that subjective social status plays in older adults' well-being and subjective health. Less is known, however, about the potential role played by subjective social status in people's sense of loneliness. In the present study, the author examined the role of subjective social status as a predictor of loneliness in adult day care centers (ADCCs) and continuing care retirement communities (CCRCs) over a 1-year period. The main analyses consist of data from 245 respondents (141 ADCC participants and 104 CCRC residents) who completed the interviews in Waves 1 and 2. A significant interaction between subjective social status and type of long-term care setting was found. Higher levels of subjective social status were associated with lower levels of loneliness in CCRCs, but no such association was evident in ADCCs. These findings are interpreted in view of the characteristics of the CCRC as a total institution versus the ADCC as a setting that provides support for only several hours per day, several days per week.

Kill or cure? Different types of social class identification amplify and buffer the relation between social class and mental health

The present research investigated different types of social class identification as moderators of the negative relation between social class and mental health problems. Psychology undergraduates (N = 355) completed an online survey that included measures of social class, mental health and well-being, and three aspects of social class identification: importance of identity, salience of identity, and perceived self-class similarity. Perceived self-class similarity buffered the negative association between social class and depressive symptoms. However, importance and salience of social class identity amplified the associations between social class and anxiety and life satisfaction. These findings contribute to a more sophisticated understanding of the way in which social identification may operate as a social cure.