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Jin MK, Wang XY, Wang RX, Cheng SY, Yang SY, Zhang SL, Lv SB. A systematic review and meta-analysis of factors related to non-suicidal self-injury among Chinese adolescents. Psychiatry Res 2023; 326:115329. [PMID: 37437488 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Over the past several decades the prevalence of adolescent non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) has been rising steadily. Understanding the factors associated with NSSI is a critical public health concern. The current study aims to explore the critical factors related to NSSI among Chinese adolescents. METHODS A systematic literature search was conducted to identify the studies meeting our eligibility criteria (published until June 2022) in PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, Springer Link, CNKI, VIP, and Wanfang data. The meta-package of R language was used to perform a meta-analysis to compute the pooled effect (r). RESULTS A total of 59 studies were included in this analysis, with a sample size of 192,546. Twenty-four democratic, personal, and social factors were examined in current study. The pooled effect value (r) has revealed that 23 factors are associated with NSSI behaviors among Chinese adolescents. The factor, Internet addiction, has demonstrated the greatest association with NSSI compared to other factors. CONCLUSION Consistent with previous studies on adolescent NSSI, findings have demonstrated that a number of demographic, personal, and social factors significantly contribute to NSSI behaviors among Chinese adolescents. Future research on prevention and intervention for adolescent NSSI may benefit from targeting these factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Ke Jin
- School of Psychology and Mental Health, Tangshan Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tangshan Basic Innovation Team for Brain and Cognitive Function Research, North China University of Science and Technology, 21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian Xincheng, Tangshan 063210, PR China
| | - Xiao-Yan Wang
- Library, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, PR China
| | - Rui-Xin Wang
- School of Psychology and Mental Health, Tangshan Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tangshan Basic Innovation Team for Brain and Cognitive Function Research, North China University of Science and Technology, 21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian Xincheng, Tangshan 063210, PR China
| | - Shu-Ying Cheng
- School of Psychology and Mental Health, Tangshan Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tangshan Basic Innovation Team for Brain and Cognitive Function Research, North China University of Science and Technology, 21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian Xincheng, Tangshan 063210, PR China
| | - Shi-Ying Yang
- School of Psychology and Mental Health, Tangshan Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tangshan Basic Innovation Team for Brain and Cognitive Function Research, North China University of Science and Technology, 21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian Xincheng, Tangshan 063210, PR China
| | - Shi-Lei Zhang
- Hui Hua College of Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, PR China
| | - Shao-Bo Lv
- School of Psychology and Mental Health, Tangshan Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Neuroscience, Tangshan Basic Innovation Team for Brain and Cognitive Function Research, North China University of Science and Technology, 21 Bohai Road, Caofeidian Xincheng, Tangshan 063210, PR China.
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Peng S, Zhang W, Yang T, Cottrell RR, Rockett IRH. Contextual influences on deliberate self-harm among Chinese university undergraduates: A representative nationwide study. J Affect Disord 2023; 335:371-376. [PMID: 37169084 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Numerous studies have identified factors associated with deliberate self-harm (DSH), but environmental influences have largely been neglected. This study explored regional and university contextual factors that impact DSH among undergraduate students in China. METHODS Subjects in this observational cross-sectional study totaled 5016 undergraduate students, who were identified through multistage survey sampling in 22 Chinese universities. Individual-level data were obtained through a self-administered questionnaire, and environmental variables were extracted from the National Bureau of Statistics database. Multilevel logistic regression models were used to examine regional correlates of DSH. RESULTS The overall prevalence of self-reported DSH in the study sample was 7.5 % (95 % CI: 4.1 %, 10.9 %). The full multilevel logistic model showed university rank and city size were inversely associated with DSH prevalence (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR): 0.24 and 0.55). Regional unemployment rates were positively associated with DSH prevalence (AOR: 1.98, 95 % CI: 1.48, 2.65). DISCUSSION Contextual disparities appear to contribute to DSH among Chinese undergraduates. Preventive initiatives must focus on redressing imbalances in the allocation of social and economic resources across universities and regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihui Peng
- School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Weifang Zhang
- The Stomatology Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 310006, China
| | - Tingzhong Yang
- Department of Social Medicine/Center for Tobacco Control Research, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China; Injury Control Research Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-9190, USA.
| | - Randall R Cottrell
- Public Health Studies Program, School of Health and Applied Human Sciences, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA.
| | - Ian R H Rockett
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health/Injury Control Research Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-9190, USA.
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Thai TT, Jones MK, Nguyen TP, Pham TV, Bui HHT, Kim LX, Nguyen TV. The Prevalence, Correlates and Functions of Non-Suicidal Self-Injury in Vietnamese Adolescents. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2021; 14:1915-1927. [PMID: 34866944 PMCID: PMC8636691 DOI: 10.2147/prbm.s339168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Research conducted across different countries has consistently identified non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) to be a common and significant public health problem. This study examined the prevalence, associated factors and functions of NSSI, among a large sample of Vietnamese adolescents. Methods A total of 1316 high school students (15-18 years old, 63.3% female) across urban and suburban areas in Ho Chi Minh City, participated in this cross-sectional study. NSSI was assessed by the Functional Assessment of Self-Mutilation. Results Almost half (43.9%) of the adolescents engaged in at least one type of NSSI within the preceding 12-month period and more than one quarter (26.1%) engaged in multiple types of NSSI. Hitting self on purpose (23.1%), picking at a wound (17.0%), or biting self (16.7%) were the most frequent behaviours. Severe forms of NSSI such as scraping, burning or erasing skin were reported by 17.2%. The most common functions for NSSI were to stop bad feelings (56.0%), to punish self (48.7%), to get control of a situation (44.0%) and to feel relaxed (42.2%). Symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress were significant factors associated with NSSI, particularly for participants who engaged in moderate/severe NSSI and multiple types of NSSI. Conclusion High rates of NSSI were found in Vietnamese adolescents. There is a pressing need for the development and implementation of effective interventions to reduce NSSI. Strategies that promote positive mental health and reduce symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress as well as approaches that help adolescents manage their internal emotions are likely to be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Truc Thanh Thai
- Faculty of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam
| | - Mairwen K Jones
- Faculty of Medicine & Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thao Phuong Nguyen
- Faculty of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam
| | - Thao Van Pham
- Faculty of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam
| | - Han Hy Thi Bui
- Woolcock Institute of Medical Research Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Loan Xuan Kim
- Faculty of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam
| | - Tap Van Nguyen
- Department of Medicine and Pharmacy, Tra Vinh University, Tra Vinh, Vietnam
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Chai Y, Luo H, Wong GHY, Tang JYM, Lam TC, Wong ICK, Yip PSF. Risk of self-harm after the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders in Hong Kong, 2000-10: a nested case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry 2020; 7:135-147. [PMID: 31974072 DOI: 10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30004-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Psychiatric disorders are established risk factors for self-harm. However, variation in the risk of self-harm by specific psychiatric disorder and stratified by gender and age is rarely examined in population-representative samples. This study aimed to investigate the risk of self-harm following diagnosis of different psychiatric disorders in an Asian population, through a review of inpatient records retrieved from the Hong Kong Clinical Data Analysis and Reporting System (CDARS). METHODS For this nested case-control study, the inpatient data of people admitted for any reason to Hong Kong public hospitals, between Jan 1, 2000, and Dec 31, 2010, were extracted from CDARS. Cases were people aged 10 years or older who had been admitted to inpatient care with a first-listed record of psychiatric disorder during the study period. The seven psychiatric disorders of interest were: depression, alcohol misuse or dependence, personality disorders, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and substance misuse or dependence. Two control patients were matched per case from a subsample of all individuals with the same gender, age, and admission time (ie, same calendar year and month), who did not have any record of the psychiatric disorders of interest. Any patients with a history of self-harm diagnosis before, or at the same time as, the first diagnosis of psychiatric disorder (cases) or admission (controls), were excluded. For each diagnostic category, a Cox proportional hazard regression model was fitted to estimate the adjusted hazard ratio (HR; plus 95% CIs) of associated self-harm, adjusting for gender, age, control-matched admission time, 20 districts of residence, physical comorbidities established as risk factors for self-harm (diabetes, asthma, migraine, epilepsy, HIV, and cancer), and presence of the six other psychiatric disorders. We repeated this analysis in subgroups stratified by gender (male and female) and by age (adolescent, 10-24 years; young adult, 25-44 years; middle-aged, 45-64 years; and older people, ≥65 years). FINDINGS Between 2000 and 2010, we followed up a cohort of 86 353 people with a first-recorded diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder of interest, and 134 857 matched controls. The highest risk of self-harm was observed in patients with substance misuse or dependence (adjusted HR vs matched controls, 9·6 [95% CI 8·4-11·0]), followed by those with personality disorders (3·7 [2·8-4·9]) and alcohol misuse or dependence (3·2 [2·9-3·7]). When stratified by gender and age, the highest risk of self-harm behaviour was found in the substance misuse or dependence group for both genders (for female patients: adjusted HR vs matched controls, 7·7 [6·0-9·8]; and for male patients, 10·5 [8·9-12·4]), and for all age groups (adolescent: 9·6 [7·2-12·7]; young adults: 10·2 [8·4-12·3]; middle-aged: 11·2 [8·0-15·6], and older people: 3·2 [1·7-6·1]). INTERPRETATION First-recorded diagnoses of psychiatric disorders were significantly associated with an elevated risk of subsequent self-harm. The associations varied considerably by diagnostic categories across gender and age subgroups. Our findings highlight the need to develop more efficient and targeted preventive measures in psychiatric care management, with specific attention to demographic characteristics linked to increased risk within the same diagnostic category. FUNDING None.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Chai
- Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Hao Luo
- Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Hong Kong Jockey Club Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Computer Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.
| | - Gloria H Y Wong
- Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Sau Po Centre on Ageing, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Psychiatry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jennifer Y M Tang
- Sau Po Centre on Ageing, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Tai-Chung Lam
- Department of Clinical Oncology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Ian C K Wong
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, UK
| | - Paul S F Yip
- Department of Social Work and Social Administration, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Hong Kong Jockey Club Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
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Liu Y, Zhang J, Sun L, Zhao S. The age-specific characteristics of medically serious suicide attempters aged 15-45 years in rural China. Psychiatry Res 2018; 261:178-185. [PMID: 29309957 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This aim of this study was to identify unique characteristics of serious suicide attempters across different age groups. Face to face interviews were conducted with medically serious suicide attempters in rural hospitals in two provinces in China (n = 791). The sample included three age groups: 15-24, 25-34, and 35-45. While there were some consistent patterns that emerged across the age groups, there were also some significant age-related patterns that emerged. Serious suicide attempters aged 15-24 were more likely to be well educated, never married, hold Party membership, and impulsive, and to be least likely to perceive social support and be in a peasant occupation. This category also had the highest proportion of males, although still predominantly female. Those aged 24-25 were more likely to have a family history of suicide, somewhat educated, and moderately likely to be married. Those aged 35-45 were more likely to have limited education, to be ever married, to have mental disorders, to store pesticides in their home, and the least likely to be impulsive. These results highlight age-specific intervention strategies in addressing suicide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanzheng Liu
- School of Public Health Center for Suicide Prevention Research, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- School of Public Health Center for Suicide Prevention Research, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China; Department of Sociology, State University of New York College at Buffalo, 1300 Elmwood Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14222, USA.
| | - Long Sun
- School of Public Health Center for Suicide Prevention Research, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Sibo Zhao
- School of Sociology and Psychology, Central University of Finance and Economics, Beijing, China
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Tang J, Li G, Chen B, Huang Z, Zhang Y, Chang H, Wu C, Ma X, Wang J, Yu Y. Prevalence of and risk factors for non-suicidal self-injury in rural China: Results from a nationwide survey in China. J Affect Disord 2018; 226:188-195. [PMID: 28988001 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a highly prevalent and serious public health problem among adolescents worldwide. However, to date there were no studies assessing the prevalence of NSSI defined by suggested DSM-5 criteria among Chinese adolescents. We aimed to conduct a nationwide survey to explore the prevalence of and risk factors for NSSI among school-based adolescents in rural China. METHODS A total sample of 15,623 adolescents in rural China were enrolled by using a multistage sampling method. Data was collected by self-report questionnaires including demographic characteristics, neglect, maltreatment, loneliness, resilience, social support and emotional management ability. NSSI was defined by suggested DSM-5 criteria, according to which the engagement in self-injury took place more than 5 times a year. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between risk factors and NSSI. RESULTS There were 12.2% of adolescents (n = 1908) met the suggested DSM-5 criteria. Approximately 29% reported a history of NSSI at least once during the last year. Significant differences were found in several demographic factors including gender, ethnicity, grade, and family structure between adolescents with and without experiencing NSSI. The top three NSSI behaviors among adolescents with NSSI experience were hitting self, pinching, and pulling hair, with a prevalence rate of 16.7%, 14.1% and 11.2%, respectively. Female, Han ethnicity, fathers' education level, neglect, maltreatment, loneliness, social support, suicidal behaviors and emotional management ability were significantly associated with NSSI by multivariate analysis. No significant relationship was found between resilience and risk of NSSI. LIMITATION The DSM-5 has proposed 6 groups of criteria for NSSI, we only used criteria on frequency given its more accepted feasibility and pragmatic application. Consequently, it may different from other prevalence that estimated by other criteria. CONCLUSION To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting prevalence of NSSI defined by suggested DSM-5 criteria among adolescent in rural China. In comparison to finding from the similar samples of adolescents, Chinese rural adolescents seem to have a relative higher prevalence. The potential risk factors for NSSI include female, father's education, Han ethnicity, psychosocial factors and suicide behaviors. More evidence for further understanding of context of the occurrence, improving access to health care utilization, and identifying the role of psychosocial factors and family relationship, is needed for the prevention and management of NSSI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Tang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China; The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Guowei Li
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology & Biostatistics, St Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, United States.
| | - Baoxin Chen
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Zhijie Huang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Yanmei Zhang
- Department of Child & Women Health Care, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical University, Huazhong University of Science &Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Hongjuan Chang
- Department of Child & Women Health Care, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical University, Huazhong University of Science &Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Chunxia Wu
- Department of Child & Women Health Care, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical University, Huazhong University of Science &Technology, Wuhan, China.
| | - Xiaoguang Ma
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Chronic Disease Research Institute, School of Public Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Jiaji Wang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Yizhen Yu
- Department of Child & Women Health Care, School of Public Health, Tongji Medical University, Huazhong University of Science &Technology, Wuhan, China.
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Coppersmith DDL, Nada-Raja S, Beautrais AL. Non-suicidal self-injury and suicide attempts in a New Zealand birth cohort. J Affect Disord 2017; 221:89-96. [PMID: 28641148 PMCID: PMC5569384 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicide attempts are related, but distinct behaviors. The primary aim of the current study was to identify factors that distinguish those with different lifetime histories of self-injury. A secondary aim was to test whether lifetime history of self-injury at age 26 predicted current suicide ideation at age 32. METHODS Participants were 26 year olds from a large birth cohort with a lifetime history of no self-injury (n = 466), a lifetime history of NSSI (n = 191), or a lifetime history of NSSI and a suicide attempt (NSSI+SA; n = 52). They were compared on a history of psychiatric disorders, 12-month suicide ideation, lifetime history of childhood sexual abuse, and lifetime exposure to suicide. RESULTS An anxiety disorder, a substance dependence disorder, suicide ideation, and a history of childhood sexual abuse distinguished the NSSI+SA and NSSI only groups. Longitudinal results demonstrated that a history of NSSI predicted future suicide ideation after adjusting for other selected risk factors. LIMITATIONS The majority of analyses are cross-sectional which limits inferences about causality. The retrospective self-report for lifetime behavior could be subject to reporting biases. CONCLUSIONS Adults with a history of NSSI and adults with a history of NSSI and a suicide attempt are clinically distinct groups that are both at risk of future suicide ideation. Identifying and treating NSSI could be a key preventive factor in reducing subsequent suicide risk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shyamala Nada-Raja
- Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Annette L Beautrais
- School of Health Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Gulbas LE, Hausmann-Stabile C, De Luca SM, Tyler TR, Zayas LH. An exploratory study of nonsuicidal self-injury and suicidal behaviors in adolescent Latinas. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ORTHOPSYCHIATRY 2015; 85:302-14. [PMID: 26052816 PMCID: PMC4501885 DOI: 10.1037/ort0000073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
To date, there is little research to validate empirically differences between nonsuicidal self-injurious behavior (NSSI) and attempted suicide among Latina adolescents. Understanding the characteristics and contextual features of self-harmful behaviors among Latina teens is a critical public health and social justice matter given the disproportionate rates of attempted suicide and anticipated population growth of this vulnerable group. In this article, we draw on an ecodevelopmental model to focus attention on factors in the sociocultural environment that shape suicidal behaviors and NSSIs. Through analysis of qualitative interviews conducted with girls who used NSSI (n = 18), attempted suicide (n = 29), used NSSI and attempted suicide (n = 8,) and had no reported lifetime history of self-harm (n = 28), we describe the sociocultural factors that shaped psychosocial vulnerabilities and gave rise to decisions to use NSSI or attempt suicide. Our analysis revealed that adolescents who engaged in NSSI perceived their negative feelings as something that could be controlled through self-injurious acts, whereas powerlessness was a theme underlying the emotional states of girls who attempted suicide. When NSSI ceased to function as a mechanism for control, girls came to sudden decisions to attempt suicide. Most teens identified specific, and often multiple, situations that induced intense affective states and shaped decisions to inflict self-harm. Two situational experiences emerged as particularly salient and promising for subsequent studies on self-harmful behaviors among Latina adolescents: transnational stress and bullying. We describe each of these and offer suggestions for future research and practice.
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Mars B, Heron J, Crane C, Hawton K, Kidger J, Lewis G, Macleod J, Tilling K, Gunnell D. Differences in risk factors for self-harm with and without suicidal intent: findings from the ALSPAC cohort. J Affect Disord 2014; 168:407-14. [PMID: 25108277 PMCID: PMC4160300 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Revised: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a lack of consensus about whether self-harm with suicidal intent differs in aetiology and prognosis from non-suicidal self-harm, and whether they should be considered as different diagnostic categories. METHOD Participants were 4799 members of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), a UK population-based birth cohort who completed a postal questionnaire on self-harm with and without suicidal intent at age 16 years. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to examine differences in the risk factor profiles of individuals who self-harmed with and without suicidal intent. RESULTS Many risk factors were common to both behaviours, but associations were generally stronger in relation to suicidal self-harm. This was particularly true for mental health problems; compared to those with non-suicidal self-harm, those who had harmed with suicidal intent had an increased risk of depression (OR 3.50[95% CI 1.64, 7.43]) and anxiety disorder (OR 3.50[95% CI 1.72, 7.13]). Higher IQ and maternal education were risk factors for non-suicidal self-harm but not suicidal self-harm. Risk factors that appeared specific to suicidal self-harm included lower IQ and socioeconomic position, physical cruelty to children in the household and parental self-harm. LIMITATIONS i) There was some loss to follow-up, ii) difficulty in measuring suicidal intent, iii) we cannot rule out the possibility of reverse causation for some exposure variables, iv) we were unable to identify the subgroup that had only ever harmed with suicidal intent. CONCLUSION Self-harm with and without suicidal intent are overlapping behaviours but with some distinct characteristics, indicating the importance of fully exploring vulnerability factors, motivations, and intentions in adolescents who self harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Becky Mars
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, United Kingdom.
| | - Jon Heron
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Catherine Crane
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Keith Hawton
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Judi Kidger
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Glyn Lewis
- Mental Health Sciences Unit, University College London, United Kingdom
| | - John Macleod
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Kate Tilling
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - David Gunnell
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, United Kingdom
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Swannell SV, Martin GE, Page A, Hasking P, St John NJ. Prevalence of nonsuicidal self-injury in nonclinical samples: systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Suicide Life Threat Behav 2014; 44:273-303. [PMID: 24422986 DOI: 10.1111/sltb.12070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 825] [Impact Index Per Article: 82.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Published prevalence estimates of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) among nonclinical samples are highly heterogeneous, raising concerns about their reliability and hindering attempts to explore the alleged increase in NSSI over time. Accordingly, the objectives of this study were to investigate the influence of methodological factors on heterogeneity in NSSI prevalence estimates, explore changes over time, and estimate overall international NSSI prevalence. Results showed that methodological factors contributed over half (51.6%) of the heterogeneity in prevalence estimates, and, after adjusting for these factors, NSSI prevalence did not increase over time. Overall, pooled NSSI prevalence was 17.2% among adolescents, 13.4% among young adults, and 5.5% among adults. Clearly, development of standardized methodology in NSSI research is crucial if accurate estimates are desired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah V Swannell
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
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Tørmoen AJ, Rossow I, Larsson B, Mehlum L. Nonsuicidal self-harm and suicide attempts in adolescents: differences in kind or in degree? Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2013; 48:1447-55. [PMID: 23269399 DOI: 10.1007/s00127-012-0646-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2011] [Accepted: 12/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of the present study was to measure the prevalence of self-harm (SH) behaviours and examine potential differences in characteristics among adolescents reporting on self-harm (SH), depending on whether they had attempted suicide (SA), performed nonsuicidal self-harm (NSSH), or both. METHODS Cross-sectional survey of 11,440 adolescents aged 14-17 years in the city of Oslo, Norway. Responses regarding measures of lifetime SH and risk factors were collected. The response rate was 92.7%. Data were analysed by segregating SH responses into the categories of NSSH, SA, and NSSH + SA. RESULTS Among all respondents, 4.3% reported NSSH, 4.5% reported SA, 5.0% reported both NSSH and SA, and 86.2% reported no SH. The group reporting to have engaged in both behaviours comprised more girls and reported more suicidal ideation, problematic lifestyles, poorer subjective health, and more psychological problems compared with the other groups. The four groups could be distinguished by one discriminant function that accounted for most of the explained variance. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that NSSH and SA are parts of the same dimensional construct in which suicidal ideation carries much of the weight in adolescents from a school-based sample. They also indicate the group of adolescents who seems to alternate between NSSH and SA is more burdened with mental ill-health and behavioural problems compared with others. These adolescents should therefore be targeted by clinicians and school health personnel for identification and provision of adequate help and services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita J Tørmoen
- National Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Sognsvannsveien 21, Building 12, 0372, Oslo, Norway.
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Cheung YTD, Wong PWC, Lee AM, Lam TH, Fan YSS, Yip PSF. Non-suicidal self-injury and suicidal behavior: prevalence, co-occurrence, and correlates of suicide among adolescents in Hong Kong. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2013; 48:1133-44. [PMID: 23262815 DOI: 10.1007/s00127-012-0640-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite increasing concern over the prevalence of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) among adolescents, there is debate about its classification as a stand-alone psychiatric diagnosis. This study investigated the patterns, co-occurrence, and correlates of NSSI and other suicidal behaviors among a representative community sample of in-school adolescents. METHODS A cross-sectional survey of 2,317 adolescents was conducted. Participants were asked to self-report NSSI, suicidal ideation, suicide attempt, and psychosocial conditions over the past 12 months. Logistic regression and cumulative logit modeling analyses were conducted to investigate the different and similar correlates among these self-harm behaviors. RESULTS The age-standardized prevalence rates of NSSI among male and female adolescents were estimated to be 13.4 and 19.7 %, respectively, compared with 11.1 and 10.1 % for male and female suicide attempt. Only a small proportion engaged in NSSI exclusively in the past year. NSSI by burning or reckless and risky behaviors, frequent drinking, and sexual experience were associated with increasing severity level of suicidal behaviors among individuals with NSSI. CONCLUSIONS NSSI is prevalent among in-school adolescents in Hong Kong. However, it co-occurs with suicidal ideation and suicide attempt. High lethality of NSSI, frequent drinking habit, and lifetime sexual experience are suggested to be indicators for screening potential suicide attempters among those having NSSI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee Tak Derek Cheung
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People's Republic of China
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13
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Law BMF, Shek DTL. Self-harm and suicide attempts among young Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong: prevalence, correlates, and changes. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2013; 26:S26-32. [PMID: 23683824 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpag.2013.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the prevalence of and changes in self-harm and suicide attempts and to predict these behaviors in relation to family functioning and positive youth development. DESIGN We used quantitative data based on a large sample of adolescent participants. Participants had joined this study in a previous year when they were in Grade 7 (Wave 1). The present study focused on Wave 2 data and the comparison with Wave 1 data. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS The participants consisted of 2,579 Grade 8 students from 28 secondary schools in Hong Kong. A multi-stage cluster random sampling was adopted. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Self-harm behavior, suicide attempt, the Chinese Family Assessment Instrument, the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale. RESULTS Approximately 23.5% of Grade 8 students had engaged in self-harm behavior in the preceding 12 months. Girls showed more self-harm behavior compared with the boys. Nearly 4.0% of adolescents attempted suicide in the preceding 12 months. Perceived family functioning and positive youth development predicted self-harm and suicidal ideation. Among the 4 second-order positive youth development qualities, the construct "general positive youth development qualities" was the strongest predictor of self-harm and suicide attempts. Compared with the Wave 1 data, more suicidal symptoms were observed in Wave 2, although the prevalence of self-harm behavior was similar across time. CONCLUSIONS The prevalence of self-harm behavior among Chinese adolescents was high, but the level of suicidal behavior was low. Perceived family functioning and positive youth development can be regarded as protective factors for adolescents against self-harm and suicidal behaviors. General positive youth development quality is most important among the 4 second-order positive youth development qualities.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M F Law
- Department of Social Work and Social Administration, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China.
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14
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Lynam DR, Miller JD, Miller DJ, Bornovalova MA, Lejuez CW. Testing the relations between impulsivity-related traits, suicidality, and nonsuicidal self-injury: a test of the incremental validity of the UPPS model. Personal Disord 2012; 2:151-160. [PMID: 21833346 DOI: 10.1037/a0019978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) has received significant attention as a predictor of suicidal behavior (SB) and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI). Despite significant promise, trait impulsivity has received less attention. Understanding the relations between impulsivity and SB and NSSI is confounded, unfortunately, by the heterogeneous nature of impulsivity. This study examined the relations among 4 personality pathways to impulsive behavior studied via the UPPS model of impulsivity and SB and NSSI in a residential sample of drug abusers (N = 76). In this study, we tested whether these 4 impulsivity-related traits (i.e., Negative Urgency, Sensation Seeking, Lack of Premeditation, and Lack of Perseverance) provide incremental validity in the statistical prediction of SB and NSSI above and beyond BPD; they do. We also tested whether BPD symptoms provide incremental validity in the prediction of SB and NSSI above and beyond these impulsivity-related traits; they do not. In addition to the main effects of Lack of Premeditation and Negative Urgency, we found evidence of a robust interaction between these 2 personality traits. The current results argue strongly for the consideration of these 2 impulsivity-related domains--alone and in interaction--when attempting to understand and predict SB and NSSI.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marina A Bornovalova
- Center for Addictions, Personality, and Emotion Research, University of Maryland
| | - C W Lejuez
- Center for Addictions, Personality, and Emotion Research, University of Maryland
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Tresno F, Ito Y, Mearns J. Self-injurious behavior and suicide attempts among Indonesian college students. DEATH STUDIES 2012; 36:627-639. [PMID: 24563942 DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2011.604464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This study reports the prevalence of self-injurious behavior and suicide attempts among college students in Indonesia and examines risk factors distinguishing between 3 groups: self-injury with suicide attempt, non-suicidal self-injury, and non-self-injury. Self-report questionnaires measuring self-injury and suicide attempts, negative mood regulation expectancies (NMRE), depression, and childhood trauma were administered to 314 students. Of participants, 38% had deliberately injured themselves; among those, 21% also reported a suicide attempt. The 3 groups differed significantly on NMRE, depression, and child neglect. More self-injury and suicide attempts were associated with weaker NMRE and greater depression and child neglect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Tresno
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
| | - Yoshimi Ito
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Jack Mearns
- Department of Psychology, California State University, Fullerton, California, USA
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Shek DTL, Yu L. Self-harm and suicidal behaviors in Hong Kong adolescents: prevalence and psychosocial correlates. ScientificWorldJournal 2012; 2012:932540. [PMID: 22566783 PMCID: PMC3322490 DOI: 10.1100/2012/932540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The present paper examined the prevalence and psychosocial correlates of adolescent deliberate self-harm (DSH) and suicidal behavior in a representative sample of 3,328 secondary school students in Hong Kong. With reference to the previous year, 32.7% of the students reported at least one form of DSH, 13.7% of the respondents had suicide thoughts, 4.9% devised specific suicidal plans, and 4.7% had actually attempted suicide. Adolescent girls had significantly higher rates of DSH and suicidal behavior than did adolescent boys. Having remarried parents was related to an increased likelihood of DSH and suicide. While high levels of family functioning, overall positive youth development, and academic and school performance predicted low rates of DSH and suicidal behavior, cognitive and behavioral competencies were unexpectedly found to be positively associated with DSH and suicidal behavior. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel T L Shek
- Department of Applied Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong.
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17
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Andover MS, Morris BW, Wren A, Bruzzese ME. The co-occurrence of non-suicidal self-injury and attempted suicide among adolescents: distinguishing risk factors and psychosocial correlates. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 2012; 6:11. [PMID: 22463065 PMCID: PMC3379960 DOI: 10.1186/1753-2000-6-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although attempted suicide and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) are distinct behaviors differing in intent, form, and function, the behaviors co-occur at a high rate in both adults and adolescents. Researchers have begun to investigate the association between attempted suicide and NSSI among adolescents. The purpose of this paper is to present current research on this association. First, we discuss definitional issues associated with self-injurious behaviors. Next, we present research on the co-occurrence of attempted suicide and NSSI, including prevalence and associations with self-injury characteristics. We then discuss psychosocial variables associated with engaging in both NSSI and attempted suicide or one type of self-injury alone. Finally, we present the research to date on risk factors uniquely associated with either attempted suicide or NSSI. Implications for mental health professionals and future avenues of research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret S Andover
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, 441 East Fordham Road, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
| | - Blair W Morris
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, 441 East Fordham Road, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
| | - Abigail Wren
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, 441 East Fordham Road, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
| | - Margaux E Bruzzese
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, 441 East Fordham Road, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
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18
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Yip PSF, Hawton K, Liu K, Liu KS, Ng PWL, Kam PM, Law YW, Wong TW. A study of deliberate self-harm and its repetition among patients presenting to an emergency department. CRISIS 2012; 32:217-24. [PMID: 21940251 DOI: 10.1027/0227-5910/a000069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Marked differences have been found in the characteristics of people dying by suicide in Western and Asian countries. However, there is less information available on possible differences for deliberate self-harm (DSH). AIMS To compare the characteristics of people presenting to hospital in Hong Kong and Oxford (UK) with DSH, and to assess the outcome of those persons in Hong Kong. METHODS A sample of DSH patients admitted to the accident and emergency (A&E) department of a regional hospital in Hong Kong was assessed and followed up 6 months later to assess the risk of repetition of DSH, and was then compared with such patients in Oxford. RESULTS The majority of patients in Hong Kong were female (male:female ratio of 1:2.4), young (59% were under 35), and had used self-poisoning (78%). Over one-third were single (37%) and one-fourth unemployed (26%). About half (49%) scored in the high or very high categories of the Beck's Suicide Intent Scale, considerably more so than in Oxford; 44.6% of patients defaulted psychiatric outpatient service during the 6-month follow-up period. The repetition rate within the following 6 months was 16.7%. The number of self-reported adverse life problems, history of childhood sexual and physical abuse, and repetitive self-mutilation were shown to be the factors most strongly correlated with the risk of re-attempt. Alcohol problems were much lower than in Oxford. CONCLUSIONS The findings show that DSH patients in Hong Kong show some marked differences compared to those in Oxford. Implications for the prevention of repeated DSH in Hong Kong are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S F Yip
- The HKJC Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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Exploring the Reciprocal Relations between Nonsuicidal Self-Injury, Negative Emotions and Relationship Problems in Chinese Adolescents: A Longitudinal Cross-Lag Study. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2011; 40:829-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s10802-011-9597-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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20
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You J, Leung F. The role of depressive symptoms, family invalidation and behavioral impulsivity in the occurrence and repetition of non-suicidal self-injury in Chinese adolescents: a 2-year follow-up study. J Adolesc 2011; 35:389-95. [PMID: 21855128 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 07/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This study used zero-inflated poisson regression analysis to examine the role of depressive symptoms, family invalidation, and behavioral impulsivity in the occurrence and repetition of non-suicidal self-injury among Chinese community adolescents over a 2-year period. Participants, 4782 high school students, were assessed twice during the follow-up period. Results indicate that while Year 1 depressive symptoms and family invalidation were significantly associated with the occurrence of Year 2 NSSI, Year 1 behavioral impulsivity contributed to both the occurrence and repetition of Year 2 NSSI. Findings of this study suggest that adolescents who display multiple impulsive behaviors may be at particular risk for engaging in repetitive NSSI. Clinical implications of these findings and future research directions were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianing You
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, PR China
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21
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Zhang J, Liang B, Zhou Y, Brame W. Prison inmates' suicidal ideation in China: a study of gender differences and their impact. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY 2010; 54:959-983. [PMID: 19793912 DOI: 10.1177/0306624x09348200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Suicide is one of the leading causes of inmate death, and many studies have explored suicidal risks among inmates in Western countries. Such studies, however, have been extremely rare in China. Because of China's unique cultural and social conditions, suicide displays many distinctive features and one of them is the greater percentage of women (than men) who commit suicide. With data collected from three adult prisons in China, this study tests gender differences on prison inmates' suicidal risk factors and explores the correlation of gender's impact with other factors. Findings show that male and female inmates present distinctive patterns of suicidal ideation, although gender fails to exert a significant direct impact on the outcome. The results call for different approaches and treatments toward both gender groups for suicide prevention in Chinese correctional facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhang
- Central University of Finance and Economics, Beijing, China
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Martin G, Swannell SV, Hazell PL, Harrison JE, Taylor AW. Self‐injury in Australia: a community survey. Med J Aust 2010; 193:506-10. [PMID: 21034383 DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2010.tb04033.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2010] [Accepted: 07/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Graham Martin
- Discipline of Psychiatry, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD
| | - Sarah V Swannell
- Discipline of Psychiatry, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD
| | - Philip L Hazell
- Discipline of Psychiatry, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW
- Thomas Walker Hospital (Rivendell), Sydney South West Area Health Service, Sydney, NSW
| | | | - Anne W Taylor
- SA Health, Adelaide, SA
- School of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA
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Abstract
A nationally representative sample of Norwegian high school students (ages 14 to 19, N = 2,924) completed self-reports in school about non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), suicide attempt (SA), and risk and protective factors. They were re-examined 5 years later. In all 2.2% reported NSSI with no SA during the follow-up period and 3.2% reported SA. Several risk and protective factors were common to NSSI and SA: previous SA, young age, debut of sexual intercourse before the age of 15, and non-heterosexual sexual interest. However, other risk and protective factors were unique to NSSI or SA: Previous NSSI increased the risk for future NSSI whereas satisfaction with social support protected against later NSSI. Suicidal ideation increased the risk for SA whereas attachment to parents protected against it. NSSI did not increase the risk of future SA. NSSI and SA may be thus conceived of as only partly overlapping phenomena, and not necessarily just representing different degrees of suicidality.
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