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Bremmer MP, Paladino MB, Campbell AM, Xia K, Tarran R, Hendershot CS, Girdler SS. Acute analgesic effect of nicotine vaping using three experimental pain induction tasks: a randomized, placebo-controlled laboratory study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024:10.1007/s00213-024-06669-8. [PMID: 39120697 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06669-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE Pain and nicotine use are co-occurring conditions with a significant impact on health. Experimental evidence supports an acute analgesic effect of nicotine which may reinforce nicotine use among those with chronic pain. Evidence for nicotine analgesia have primarily been gathered in combustible cigarette users and have not been extended to electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS or vaping). Furthermore, the mechanisms of nicotine analgesia in humans are not well understood. OBJECTIVES Assess the effect of acute vaped nicotine on subjective and behavioral indices of pain sensitivity using three tasks designed to probe distinct mechanisms of analgesia. METHODS This study recruited ENDS users (N = 86) to undergo a paced vaping protocol followed by pain tasks in counterbalanced order. Across four sessions, participants vaped e-liquid containing nicotine or placebo, and flavor or no-flavor in a 2 × 2 within-subject design. Assessments included cold pressor, submaximal effort tourniquet to induce ischemic pain, and temporal summation of heat pain, an index of central sensitization. RESULTS Compared to placebo, nicotine increased cold pressor pain tolerance (ηp2 = 0.031), ischemic pain threshold (ηp2 = 0.073) and tolerance (ηp2 = 0.056) but had no effect on temporal summation of pain. Flavor did not affect pain sensitivity. Females reported greater ischemic pain sensitivity (ηp2 = 0.027) and greater reductions in craving (ηp2 = 0.086). CONCLUSIONS Consistent with research from tobacco smoking, analgesia may be reinforcing and contribute to nicotine dependence among ENDS users. More research on sex differences is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Bremmer
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
| | - Michael B Paladino
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Alana M Campbell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Kai Xia
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Robert Tarran
- Division of Genetic, Environmental and Inhalational Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Kansas University Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Christian S Hendershot
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Susan S Girdler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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2
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Sommer N, Franzen K, Andreas S, Pankow W, Kunstmann W, Hanewinkel R. [Harmful health effects of flavors in e-cigarettes]. Laryngorhinootologie 2024. [PMID: 38996433 DOI: 10.1055/a-2341-0544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/14/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Almost all e-cigarettes contain flavorings that make the product more attractive. In the evaluation of e-cigarettes on health, flavors have so far played a subordinate role. METHOD Selective literature search in PubMed, supplemented by legal regulations on the use of flavors in e-cigarettes. RESULTS Flavors make it easier to start using e-cigarettes and have a consumption-promoting effect. Deeper inhalation increases nicotine uptake and the absorption of toxic substances from the e-cigarette liquid. For some flavors, pathological effects have been demonstrated in addition to other toxic components of the e-cigarette. To date, no toxicological analyses are available for the vast majority of flavors contained in e-cigarettes. CONCLUSIONS The proven consumption-promoting effect and the health risks that can be extrapolated from preclinical data are significant for the political discussion of a ban on flavors for e-cigarettes, analogous to the ban on flavors in tobacco products already in force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natascha Sommer
- Medizinische Klinik II, Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Mitglied des Deutschen Zentrums für Lungenforschung (DZL), Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen
| | - Klaas Franzen
- Universitätsklinikum Schleswig-Holstein, Medizinische Klinik III, Pneumologie, Campus Lübeck, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung (DZL), Lübeck/Großhansdorf
| | - Stefan Andreas
- Lungenfachklinik Immenhausen, Immenhausen, Klinik für Kardiologie und Pneumologie, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung
| | - Wulf Pankow
- Philipps-Universität Marburg - Fachbereich Medizin
| | - Wilfried Kunstmann
- IFT-Nord gGmbH, Institut für Therapie- und Gesundheitsforschung, Kiel, Deutschland
| | - Reiner Hanewinkel
- IFT-Nord gGmbH, Institut für Therapie- und Gesundheitsforschung, Kiel, Deutschland
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3
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Sommer N, Franzen K, Andreas S, Pankow W, Kunstmann W, Hanewinkel R. [Harmful health effects of flavors in e-cigarettes]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2024; 149:646-653. [PMID: 38458230 DOI: 10.1055/a-2260-5003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Almost all e-cigarettes contain flavorings that make the product more attractive. In the evaluation of e-cigarettes on health, flavors have so far played a subordinate role. METHOD Selective literature search in PubMed, supplemented by legal regulations on the use of flavors in e-cigarettes. RESULTS Flavors make it easier to start using e-cigarettes and have a consumption-promoting effect. Deeper inhalation increases nicotine uptake and the absorption of toxic substances from the e-cigarette liquid. For some flavors, pathological effects have been demonstrated in addition to other toxic components of the e-cigarette. To date, no toxicological analyses are available for the vast majority of flavors contained in e-cigarettes. CONCLUSIONS The proven consumption-promoting effect and the health risks that can be extrapolated from preclinical data are significant for the political discussion of a ban on flavors for e-cigarettes, analogous to the ban on flavors in tobacco products already in force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natascha Sommer
- Medizinische Klinik II, Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Gießen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Mitglied des Deutschen Zentrums für Lungenforschung (DZL), Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen
| | - Klaas Franzen
- Universitätsklinikum Schleswig-Holstein, Medizinische Klinik III, Pneumologie, Campus Lübeck, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung (DZL), Lübeck/Großhansdorf
| | - Stefan Andreas
- Lungenfachklinik Immenhausen, Immenhausen, Klinik für Kardiologie und Pneumologie, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung
| | - Wulf Pankow
- Philipps-Universität Marburg - Fachbereich Medizin
| | | | - Reiner Hanewinkel
- IFT-Nord gGmbH, Institut für Therapie- und Gesundheitsforschung, Kiel
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Rupp A, Sommer N, Andreas S, Pankow W, Hanewinkel R, Wienbergen H, Batra A, Sauerbruch T, Kardos P, Ulbricht S, Brinkmann F, Scheubel R, Vogelmeier C, Windisch W. [Medical societies in Germany call for a ban on flavors in e-cigarettes - A Position Paper of the German Respiratory Society (DGP) in cooperation with other professional associations and organizations]. Pneumologie 2024; 78:320-324. [PMID: 38503310 DOI: 10.1055/a-2282-9908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
E-cigarettes are primarily used by teenagers and young adults. Flavors in e-cigarettes increase their attractiveness and encourage young people and adults to start using them. This exposes young people in particular to the risk of nicotine addiction and various toxic substances from the aerosol of e-cigarettes. There are indications that various flavors in e-cigarettes are harmful to health, although toxicological studies are still lacking for the majority of flavors. There is a need for independent scientific investigations in this area. The scientific societies involved are calling for a ban on flavors in e-cigarettes, a ban on disposable e-cigarettes, effective regulation of the sale of e-cigarettes and effective control and implementation of the provisions for the protection of minors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Rupp
- Pneumologische Praxis im Zentrum, Stuttgart, Mitglied der Arbeitsgruppe Tabakprävention und -entwöhnung der DGP, Leiter der Arbeitsgruppe Tabak im Bundesverband der Pneumologie, Schlaf- und Beatmungsmedizin, Stuttgart, Deutschland
| | - Natascha Sommer
- Medizinische Klinik II, Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Mitglied des Deutschen Zentrums für Lungenforschung (DZL), Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen, Gießen, Deutschland
| | - Stefan Andreas
- Lungenfachklinik Immenhausen, Klinik für Kardiologie und Pneumologie, Universitätsmedizin Göttingen, Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung, Göttingen, Deutschland
| | - Wulf Pankow
- Vivantes-Institut für Tabakentwöhnung und Raucherprävention, Berlin, Deutschland
| | - Reiner Hanewinkel
- IFT-Nord gGmbH, Institut für Therapie- und Gesundheitsforschung, Kiel, Deutschland
| | - Harm Wienbergen
- Bremer Institut für Herz- und Kreislaufforschung, Klinikum Links der Weser Bremen, Universität zu Lübeck für die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kardiologie - Herz- und Kreislaufforschung (DGK), Bremen, Deutschland
| | - Anil Batra
- Universitätsklinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Universität Tübingen für die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik und Nervenheilkunde (DGPPN), Tübingen, Deutschland
| | - Tilman Sauerbruch
- Universität Bonn für die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Innere Medizin (DGIM), Bonn, Deutschland
| | - Peter Kardos
- Lungenzentrum Maingau, Frankfurt a. M. für die Deutsche Atemwegsliga, Frankfurt, Deutschland
| | - Sabina Ulbricht
- Abteilung für Präventionsforschung und Sozialmedizin, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald für das Aktionsbündnis Nichtrauchen, Greifswald, Deutschland
| | - Folke Brinkmann
- Sektion Kinderpneumologie und Allergologie, Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Schleswig-Holstein Campus Lübeck für die Gesellschaft für pädiatrische Pneumologie (GPP), Lübeck, Deutschland
| | - Robert Scheubel
- Klinik für Thoraxchirurgie, Fachkliniken Wangen für die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Thoraxchirurgie, Wangen, Deutschland
| | - Claus Vogelmeier
- Abteilung Pneumologie im Universitätsklinikum Gießen und Marburg, Standort Marburg für die Deutsche Lungenstiftung, Marburg, Deutschland
| | - Wolfram Windisch
- Lungenklinik, Kliniken der Stadt Köln gGmbH, Lehrstuhl für Pneumologie Universität Witten/Herdecke für die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pneumologie und Beatmungsmedizin, Köln, Deutschland
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Cooper SY, Olszewski NA, Tetteh-Quarshie S, Hill SP, Ghodsi S, González-Castro A, Willis CV, Henderson BJ. The Impact of High or Low Doses of Nicotine in a Mouse Model of Vapor Self-Administration. Nicotine Tob Res 2024; 26:316-323. [PMID: 37531402 PMCID: PMC10882436 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntad136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A wide variety of nicotine concentrations and formulations are available to users of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS). This is increasingly true when considering the many flavors available with ENDS products. To date, there have been few preclinical investigations into the impact of nicotine doses, with and without flavors, on vaping-related behaviors. This present study evaluated how nicotine concentrations relevant to tank-based and pod-based ENDS, with and without flavors, impact reinforcement-related behavior in a mouse model. AIMS AND METHODS Adult male and female C57/BL6J mice were used in vapor-inhalation self-administration assays. Mice were assigned e-liquids containing 6 mg/mL or 60 mg/mL nicotine. Additional mice were assigned these nicotine doses with green apple or menthol flavorants. Mice were trained on fixed-ratio 1 for 10, 2-hour sessions, then five sessions at FR3, three progressive ratio sessions, and two FR3 sessions. RESULTS We observed male mice exhibited higher reinforcement-related behavior to menthol-flavored 6 mg/mL nicotine when compared to female mice. Males were only observed to have a menthol-induced enhancement of self-administration at 6 mg/mL nicotine and not 60 mg/mL nicotine. However, female mice exhibited significant menthol-induced increases in reinforcement-related behaviors with 60 mg/mL nicotine. CONCLUSIONS These data provide evidence that males and females exhibit different dose sensitivities to nicotine. These sex-dependent differences in nicotine sensitivity also indicate that flavor-induced enhancement in nicotine intake is dependent on the different doses for each sex. IMPLICATIONS There has been much discussion recently regarding the impact of flavors on vaping-related behavior. Our current study may support prior investigations that suggest flavors enhance the palatability of nicotine-containing products. However, this current study provides evidence that males and females exhibit different sensitivities to nicotine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skylar Y Cooper
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Nathan A Olszewski
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Samuel Tetteh-Quarshie
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Sean P Hill
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Saaman Ghodsi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Astrid González-Castro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Clay V Willis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Brandon J Henderson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
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6
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Henderson BJ, Tetteh-Quarshie S, Olszewski NA. Modulators of nicotine reward and reinforcement. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2024; 99:355-386. [PMID: 38467487 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2023.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Nicotine has been well-characterized for its ability to alter neurophysiology to promote rewarding and reinforcing properties. However, several exogenous chemicals possess properties that modulate or enhance nicotine's ability to alter neurophysiology. This chapter focuses on nicotine's impact on behavior through changes in neurophysiology and several chemical entities that in-turn modulate nicotine's ability to act as a neuromodulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J Henderson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States.
| | - Samuel Tetteh-Quarshie
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States
| | - Nathan A Olszewski
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States
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7
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López-Ojeda W, Hurley RA. Vaping and the Brain: Effects of Electronic Cigarettes and E-Liquid Substances. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2024; 36:A41-5. [PMID: 38226910 DOI: 10.1176/appi.neuropsych.20230184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Wilfredo López-Ojeda
- Veterans Affairs Mid-Atlantic Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC) and Research and Academic Affairs Service Line, W.G. Hefner Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salisbury, N.C. (López-Ojeda, Hurley); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine (López-Ojeda, Hurley) and Department of Radiology (Hurley), Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, N.C.; Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston (Hurley)
| | - Robin A Hurley
- Veterans Affairs Mid-Atlantic Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC) and Research and Academic Affairs Service Line, W.G. Hefner Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salisbury, N.C. (López-Ojeda, Hurley); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine (López-Ojeda, Hurley) and Department of Radiology (Hurley), Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, N.C.; Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston (Hurley)
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Sachdeva J, Karunananthan A, Shi J, Dai W, Kleinman MT, Herman D, Kloner RA. Flavoring Agents in E-cigarette Liquids: A Comprehensive Analysis of Multiple Health Risks. Cureus 2023; 15:e48995. [PMID: 38111420 PMCID: PMC10726647 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.48995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The availability of a wide range of flavored e-cigarettes is one of the primary reasons for vaping initiation and persistent use among adolescents and young people. This plethora of flavors available on the market are crafted using different flavoring agents such as cinnamaldehyde, vanillin, benzaldehyde, ethyl maltol, menthol, and dimethylpyrazine. Recent studies have brought to light the potential risks associated with e-cigarette flavoring agents and their effects on various organ systems, both with and without nicotine. Research has demonstrated that flavoring agents can induce inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, epithelial barrier disruption, oxidative stress, DNA damage, electrophysiological alterations, immunomodulatory effects, and behavioral changes, even independently of nicotine. Notably, these negative outcomes adversely affect cardiovascular system by reducing cell viability, decreasing endothelial nitric oxide synthase, nitric oxide bioavailability, soluble guanylyl cyclase activity and cyclic guanosine monophosphate accumulation, impairing endothelial proliferation and tube formation, and altering vasoreactivity resulting in vascular dysfunction. In the heart, these agents decrease parasympathetic activity, induce depolarization of resting membrane potential, loss of rhythmicity, increase isovolumic relaxation time, and change in ventricular repolarization and ventricular tachyarrhythmias. It is found that the specific response elicited by flavoring agents in different organ systems varies depending on the flavor used, the concentration of the flavoring agent, and the duration of exposure. However, the literature on the effects of flavoring agents is currently limited, emphasizing the need for more preclinical and randomized clinical trials to gain a deeper understanding and provide further evidence of the harmful effects of flavored e-cigarette use. In summary, recent research suggests that flavoring agents themselves can have detrimental effects on the body. To fully comprehend these effects, additional preclinical and clinical studies are needed to explore the risks associated with flavored e-cigarette usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaspreet Sachdeva
- Cardiovascular Sciences, Huntington Medical Research Institutes, Pasadena, USA
| | | | - Jianru Shi
- Cardiovascular Sciences, Huntington Medical Research Institutes, Pasadena, USA
| | - Wangde Dai
- Cardiovascular Sciences, Huntington Medical Research Institutes, Pasadena, USA
| | - Michael T Kleinman
- Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California, Irvine, USA
| | - David Herman
- Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California, Irvine, USA
| | - Robert A Kloner
- Cardiovascular Sciences, Huntington Medical Research Institutes, Pasadena, USA
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Chen Y, Xu Y, Dai J, Ni W, Ding Q, Wu X, Fang J, Wu Y. Research trends in chemogenetics for neuroscience in recent 14 years: A bibliometric study in CiteSpace. Medicine (Baltimore) 2023; 102:e35291. [PMID: 37800804 PMCID: PMC10552966 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000035291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chemogenetics has been widely adopted in Neuroscience. Neuroscience has become a hot research topic for scientists. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the current status and trends in the global application of chemogenetics in neuroscience over the last 14 years via CiteSpace. METHODS Publications related to chemogenetics in neuroscience were retrieved from the Science Citation Index-Extended Web of Science from 2008 to 2021. We used CiteSpace to analyze publications, citations, cited journals, countries, institutions, authors, cited authors, cited references, and keywords. RESULTS A total of 947 records were retrieved from 2008 to 2021 on February 21, 2022. The number and rate of publications and citations increased significantly. Journal of Neuroscience was the most cited journal, and BRAIN RES BULL ranked first in the centrality of cited journals. The United States of America (USA) had the highest number of publications among the countries. Takashi Minamoto was the most prolific author and Armbruster BN ranked the first among authors cited. The first article in the frequency ranking of the references cited was published by Roth BL. The keyword of "nucleus accumben (NAc)" had the highest frequency. The top 3 keywords with the strongest citation bursts include "transgenic mice," "cancer," and "blood-brain barrier." CONCLUSION The period 2008 to 2021 has seen a marked increase in research on chemogenetics in neuroscience. The application of chemogenetics is indispensable for research in the field of neuroscience. This bibliometrics study provides the current situation and trend in chemogenetic methods in neuroscience in recent 14 years, which may help researchers to identify the hot topics and frontiers for future studies in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuerong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yunyun Xu
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiale Dai
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenqin Ni
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qike Ding
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinyuan Wu
- The Second School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianqiao Fang
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Acupuncture and Neurology of Zhejiang Province, The Third Clinical Medical College, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
- The Third School of Clinical Medicine, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
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Sala M, Gotti C. Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS): A convenient means of smoking? Pharmacol Res 2023; 195:106885. [PMID: 37634554 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS), which are becoming increasingly popular in many parts of the world, have recently become more sophisticated in terms of their more active content and better controlled vaporisation. This review begins by describing how cigarette smoking led to the development of ENDS as a means of combatting nicotine addiction. ENDS are usually categorised as belonging to one of only three main generations, but a fourth has been added in order to differentiate the latest, most powerful, most advanced and innovative that have improved heating efficiency. Descriptions of the principal substances contained in ENDS are followed by considerations concerning the risk of toxicity due to the presence of albeit low concentrations of such a variety of compounds inhaled over a long time, and the increasingly widespread use of ENDS as a means of smoking illicit drugs. We also review the most widely used pharmacotherapeutic approaches to smoking cessation, and recent epidemiological data showing that ENDS can help some people to stop smoking. However, in order to ensure their appropriate regulation, there is a need for higher-quality evidence concerning the health effects and safety of ENDS, and their effectiveness in discouraging tobacco smoking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariaelvina Sala
- Institute of Neuroscience, CNR-Milan Unit, c/o Bldg. U28, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Follereau 3, 20854 Vedano al Lambro, MB, Italy; NeuroMi Milan Center for Neuroscience University of Milano Bicocca,Italy.
| | - Cecilia Gotti
- Institute of Neuroscience, CNR-Milan Unit, c/o Bldg. U28, University of Milano-Bicocca, Via Follereau 3, 20854 Vedano al Lambro, MB, Italy; NeuroMi Milan Center for Neuroscience University of Milano Bicocca,Italy
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Bautista M, Mogul AS, Fowler CD. Beyond the label: current evidence and future directions for the interrelationship between electronic cigarettes and mental health. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1134079. [PMID: 37645635 PMCID: PMC10460914 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1134079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Electronic cigarette use has dramatically increased over the last decade. With this recent technological development and wide range of constituents in various products, putative adverse effects on the brain and body have been largely unexplored. Here, we review current evidence linking electronic nicotine cigarette use with potential health consequences and provide evidence supporting an association between drug use and depression in humans. We also examine the biological effects of individual constituents in electronic cigarette aerosols, which include labeled ingredients, such as propylene glycol, vegetable glycerin, nicotine, and flavorants, as well as unlabeled ingredients found in the aerosols, such as carbonyls and heavy metals. Lastly, we examine the effects of electronic cigarette use on endogenous metabolism via changes in cytochrome P450 enzymes, which can thereby impact therapeutic outcomes. While the current evidence offers insight into the potential effects of electronic cigarette use on biological processes, further studies are necessary to determine the long-term clinical relevance of aerosol inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Christie D. Fowler
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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Chemical Flavorants in Vaping Products Alter Neurobiology in a Sex-Dependent Manner to Promote Vaping-Related Behaviors. J Neurosci 2023; 43:1360-1374. [PMID: 36690450 PMCID: PMC9987575 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0755-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) are distinctly different from combustible cigarettes because of the availability of flavor options. Subjective measures have been used to demonstrate that adults and adolescents prefer flavors for various reasons; (1) they are pleasing and (2) they mask the harshness of nicotine. Despite this, there have been few investigations into the molecular interactions that connect chemical flavorants to smoking or vaping-related behaviors. Here, we investigated the effects of three chemical flavorants (hexyl acetate, ethyl acetate, and methylbutyl acetate) that are found in green apple (GA) ENDS e-liquids but are also found in other flavor categories. We used a translationally relevant vapor self-administration mouse model and observed that adult male and female mice self-administered GA flavorants in the absence of nicotine. Using α4-mCherryα6-GFP nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) mice, we observed that mice exposed to GA flavorants exhibited a sex-specific increase (upregulation) of nAChRs that was also brain-region specific. Electrophysiology revealed that mice exposed to GA flavorants exhibited enhanced firing of ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons. Fast-scan cyclic voltammetry revealed that electrically stimulated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens core is increased in mice that are exposed to GA flavorants. These effects were similarly observed in the medial habenula. Overall, these findings demonstrate that ENDS flavors alone change neurobiology and may promote vaping-dependent behaviors in the absence of nicotine. Furthermore, the flavorant-induced changes in neurobiology parallel those caused by nicotine, which highlights the fact that nonmenthol flavorants may contribute to or enhance nicotine reward and reinforcement.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The impact of flavors on vaping is a hotly debated topic; however, few investigations have examined this in a model that is relevant to vaping. Although a full understanding of the exact mechanism remains undetermined, our observations reveal that chemical flavorants in the absence of nicotine alter brain circuits relevant to vaping-related behavior. The fact that the flavorants investigated here exist in multiple flavor categories of vaping products highlights the fact that a multitude of flavored vaping products may pose a risk toward vaping-dependent behaviors even without the impact of nicotine. Furthermore, as the neurobiological changes have an impact on neurons of the reward system, there exists the possibility that nonmenthol flavorants may enhance nicotine reward and reinforcement.
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Olszewski NA, Tetteh-Quarshie S, Henderson BJ. Understanding the Impact of Flavors on Vaping and Nicotine Addiction-Related Behaviors. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40473-022-00253-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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14
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Johnson NL, Patten T, Ma M, De Biasi M, Wesson DW. Chemosensory Contributions of E-Cigarette Additives on Nicotine Use. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:893587. [PMID: 35928010 PMCID: PMC9344001 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.893587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
While rates of smoking combustible cigarettes in the United States have trended down in recent years, use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) has dramatically increased, especially among adolescents. The vast majority of e-cigarette users consume "flavored" products that contain a variety of chemosensory-rich additives, and recent literature suggests that these additives have led to the current "teen vaping epidemic." This review, covering research from both human and rodent models, provides a comprehensive overview of the sensory implications of e-cigarette additives and what is currently known about their impact on nicotine use. In doing so, we specifically address the oronasal sensory contributions of e-cigarette additives. Finally, we summarize the existing gaps in the field and highlight future directions needed to better understand the powerful influence of these additives on nicotine use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie L. Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Theresa Patten
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Minghong Ma
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Mariella De Biasi
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Pharmacology Graduate Group, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Daniel W. Wesson
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Center for Smell and Taste, Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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Akinola LS, Rahman Y, Ondo O, Gonzales J, Bagdas D, Jackson A, Davidson-Wert N, Damaj MI. Genotypic Differences in the Effects of Menthol on Nicotine Intake and Preference in Mice. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:905330. [PMID: 35769694 PMCID: PMC9234577 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.905330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Menthol has been shown to exacerbate elements of nicotine addiction in humans and rodents; however, the mechanisms mediating its effects are not fully understood. This study examined the impact of genetic factors in menthol’s effects on oral nicotine consumption by comparing two inbred mouse strains with differing sensitivities to nicotine. C57BL/6J (B6J) mice are nicotine-preferring, while DBA/2J (D2J) mice are not. While the effects of menthol on oral nicotine consumption have been highlighted in B6J mice, it is unknown if they extend to the D2J strain as well. Consequently, adolescent (PND 21) and adult (PND 63), male and female D2J mice were subjected to the nicotine two-bottle choice (2BC) paradigm with orally and systemically administered menthol. Then, we evaluated its impact on nicotine pharmacological responses in conditioned reward and nociception after systemic administration and, lastly, investigated the potential involvement of the TAAR1 gene and α7 nAChRs in menthol’s effects. Menthol failed to enhance oral nicotine consumption in adult and adolescent female and male D2J mice. Moreover, this lack in effect was not due to nicotine concentration, oral aversion to menthol, or basal preference for nicotine. Menthol also failed to augment nicotine reward or enhance nicotine-induced antinociception in D2J mice, demonstrating that genetic background plays a significant role in sensitivity to menthol’s effects on nicotine. Furthermore, TAAR1 or α7 nAChRs did not seem to mediate menthol’s differential effects in D2J mice. These findings support the existence of genotype-specific mechanisms that may contribute to the variable effects of menthol in different populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lois S. Akinola
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
- *Correspondence: Lois S. Akinola,
| | - Yumna Rahman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Olivia Ondo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Jada Gonzales
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Deniz Bagdas
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
- Yale Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Asti Jackson
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
- Yale Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Nicole Davidson-Wert
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - M. Imad Damaj
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
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16
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Avelar AJ, Cooper SY, Wright TD, Wright SK, Richardson MR, Henderson BJ. Morphine Exposure Reduces Nicotine-Induced Upregulation of Nicotinic Receptors and Decreases Volitional Nicotine Intake in a Mouse Model. Nicotine Tob Res 2022; 24:1161-1168. [PMID: 34999827 PMCID: PMC9278828 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntac002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Nicotine addiction remains a primary health concern as tobacco smoking remains the number one cause of preventable death in America. At the same time, America is still facing the threat of the opioid epidemic. While the prevalence of smoking combustible cigarettes or electronic nicotine delivery systems in the United States varies between 12% and 35%, the smoking rates among the opioid use dependent (OUD) population is 74%-97%. We examined changes in brain reward mechanisms in which co-use of nicotine and opioids may result in enhanced reward and reinforcement. AIMS AND METHODS Adult male and female α4-mCherryα6-GFP mice (C57BL/6J) were used in conditioned place preference (CPP) and microscopy assays to examine reward-related behavior and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) upregulation following treatments with saline, nicotine, morphine, or nicotine plus morphine. Following this, separate mice were trained in e-Vape self-administration assays to examine morphine's impact on nicotine reinforcement. RESULTS We observed that nicotine and morphine coexposure in a CPP assay did not produce enhanced reward-related behavior when compared with nicotine or morphine alone. In parallel we observed coexposure reduced nicotine-induced upregulation of nAChRs on ventral tegmental area dopamine and GABA neurons. Additionally, we observed that concurrent morphine exposure reduced nicotine (plus menthol) vapor self-administration in male and female mice. CONCLUSIONS While nicotine use is high among OUD individuals, our CPP assays suggest coexposure not only fails to enhance reward-related behavior but also reduces nicotine-induced changes in ventral tegmental area neurobiology. Our self-administration assays suggest that morphine exposure during nicotine acquisition reduces nicotine reinforcement-related behavior. IMPLICATIONS While some may postulate that the co-use of opioids and nicotine may be driven by reward-related mechanisms, our data indicate that opioid exposure may hinder nicotine intake due to reduced upregulation of nAChRs critical for nicotine reward and reinforcement. Thus, the high co-use in OUD individuals may be a result of other mechanisms and this warrants further investigations into nicotine and opioid co-use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia J Avelar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Skylar Y Cooper
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Thomas Douglas Wright
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Sheavonnie K Wright
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Montana R Richardson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA
| | - Brandon J Henderson
- Corresponding Author: Brandon J. Henderson, PhD, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C Edwards School of Medicine at Marshall University, 1700 3rd Ave, 410 BBSC, Huntington, WV 25703, USA. Telephone: 304-696-7316; Fax: 304-696-7391; E-mail:
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17
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Bagdas D, Kebede N, Zepei AM, Harris L, Minanov K, Picciotto MR, Addy NA. Animal Models to Investigate the Impact of Flavors on Nicotine Addiction and Dependence. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:2175-2201. [PMID: 35611777 PMCID: PMC9886843 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x20666220524120231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tobacco use in humans is a long-standing public health concern. Flavors are common additives in tobacco and alternative tobacco products, added to mask nicotine's harsh orosensory effects and increase the appeal of these products. Animal models are integral for investigating nicotine use and addiction and are helpful for understanding the effects of flavor additives on the use of nicotine delivery products. OBJECTIVE This review focuses on preclinical models to evaluate the contribution of flavor additives to nicotine addiction. MATERIALS AND METHODS An electronic literature search was conducted by authors up to May 2022. Original articles were selected. RESULTS The behavioral models of rodents described here capture multiple dimensions of human flavored nicotine use behaviors, including advantages and disadvantages. CONCLUSION The consensus of the literature search was that human research on nicotine use behavior has not caught up with fast-changing product innovations, marketing practices, and federal regulations. Animal models are therefore needed to investigate mechanisms underlying nicotine use and addiction. This review provides a comprehensive overvie.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Bagdas
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nardos Kebede
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Andy Ma Zepei
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lilley Harris
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Karina Minanov
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Marina R. Picciotto
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nii A. Addy
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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18
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Ween MP, Chapman DG, Larcombe AN. What doctors should consider before prescribing e-liquids for e-cigarettes. Med J Aust 2021; 216:14-16. [PMID: 34839531 DOI: 10.5694/mja2.51351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miranda P Ween
- Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, SA.,University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA
| | - David G Chapman
- Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, NSW.,University of TechnologySydney, Sydney, NSW
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Upregulation of nAChRs and Changes in Excitability on VTA Dopamine and GABA Neurons Correlates to Changes in Nicotine-Reward-Related Behavior. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0189-20.2020. [PMID: 32988984 PMCID: PMC7568605 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0189-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous reports indicate that nicotine reward is mediated through α4β2*, α6β2*, and α4α6β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs; * indicates that additional nAChR subunits may be present). Little is known about α4α6β2* nAChR involvement in reward and reinforcement because of a lack of methods that allow the direct investigation of this particular nAChR subtype. Here, we use male and female mice that contain α4-mCherry and α6-GFP nAChR subunits to show that concentrations of nicotine sufficient to evoke reward-related behavior robustly upregulate α4* and α4α6* nAChRs on midbrain dopamine (DA) and GABA neurons. Furthermore, the extent of α4α6* nAChR upregulation on ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA neurons aligns with the magnitude of nicotine reward-related behavior. We also show that the upregulation of nAChRs is accompanied by a functional change in firing frequency of both DA and GABA neurons in the VTA that is directly linked to nicotine reward-related behavior.
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20
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Cooper SY, Henderson BJ. The Impact of Electronic Nicotine Delivery System (ENDS) Flavors on Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors and Nicotine Addiction-Related Behaviors. Molecules 2020; 25:E4223. [PMID: 32942576 PMCID: PMC7571084 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25184223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past two decades, combustible cigarette smoking has slowly declined by nearly 11% in America; however, the use of electronic cigarettes has increased tremendously, including among adolescents. While nicotine is the main addictive component of tobacco products and a primary concern in electronic cigarettes, this is not the only constituent of concern. There is a growing market of flavored products and a growing use of zero-nicotine e-liquids among electronic cigarette users. Accordingly, there are few studies that examine the impact of flavors on health and behavior. Menthol has been studied most extensively due to its lone exception in combustible cigarettes. Thus, there is a broad understanding of the neurobiological effects that menthol plus nicotine has on the brain including enhancing nicotine reward, altering nicotinic acetylcholine receptor number and function, and altering midbrain neuron excitability. Although flavors other than menthol were banned from combustible cigarettes, over 15,000 flavorants are available for use in electronic cigarettes. This review seeks to summarize the current knowledge on nicotine addiction and the various brain regions and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes involved, as well as describe the most recent findings regarding menthol and green apple flavorants, and their roles in nicotine addiction and vaping-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brandon J. Henderson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25703, USA;
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