Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making

Normatively irrelevant disgust interferes with decision under uncertainty: Insights from the Iowa gambling task

This study investigates whether a not informative, irrelevant emotional reaction of disgust interferes with decision-making under uncertainty. We manipulate the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) by associating a disgust-eliciting image with selections from Disadvantageous/Bad decks (Congruent condition) or Advantageous/Good decks (Incongruent condition). A Control condition without manipulations is also included. Results indicate an increased probability of selecting from a Good deck as the task unfolds in all conditions. However, this effect is modulated by the experimental manipulation. Specifically, we detect a detrimental effect (i.e., a significant decrease in the intercept) of the disgust-eliciting image in Incongruent condition (vs. Control), but this effect is limited to the early stages of the task (i.e., first twenty trials). No differences in performance trends are detected between Congruent and Control conditions. Anticipatory Skin Conductance Response, heart rate, and pupil dilation are also assessed as indexes of anticipatory autonomic activation following the Somatic Marker Hypothesis, but no effects are shown for the first two indexes in any of the conditions. Only a decreasing trend is detected for pupil dilation as the task unfolds in Control and Incongruent conditions. Results are discussed in line with the "risk as feelings" framework, the Somatic Marker Hypothesis, and IGT literature.

Sex differences in sensitivity to dopamine receptor manipulations of risk-based decision making in rats

Risky decision making involves the ability to weigh risks and rewards associated with different options to make adaptive choices. Previous work has established a necessary role for the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in mediating effective decision making under risk of punishment, but the mechanisms by which the BLA mediates this process are less clear. Because this form of decision making is profoundly sensitive to dopaminergic (DA) manipulations, we hypothesized that DA receptors in the BLA may be involved in risk-taking behavior. To test this hypothesis, male and female Long-Evans rats were trained in a decision-making task in which rats chose between a small, safe food reward and a larger food reward that was associated with a variable risk of footshock punishment. Once behavioral stability emerged, rats received intra-BLA infusions of ligands targeting distinct dopamine receptor subtypes prior to behavioral testing. Intra-BLA infusions of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) agonist quinpirole decreased risk taking in females at all doses, and this reduction in risk taking was accompanied by an increase in sensitivity to punishment. In males, decreased risk taking was only observed at the highest dose of quinpirole. In contrast, intra-BLA manipulations of dopamine D1 or D3 receptors (D1R and D3R, respectively) had no effect on risk taking. Considered together, these data suggest that differential D2R sensitivity in the BLA may contribute to the well-established sex differences in risk taking. Neither D1Rs nor D3Rs, however, appear to contribute to risky decision making in either sex.

Prefrontal cortex oxygenation during a mentally fatiguing task in normoxia and hypoxia

Mental fatigue (MF) and hypoxia impair cognitive performance through changes in brain hemodynamics. We want to elucidate the role of prefrontal cortex (PFC)-oxygenation in MF. Twelve participants (22.9 ± 3.5 years) completed four experimental trials, (1) MF in (normobaric) hypoxia (MF_HYP) (3.800 m; 13.5%O2), (2) MF in normoxia (MF_NOR) (98 m; 21.0%O2), (3) Control task in HYP (CON_HYP), (4) Control in NOR (CON_NOR). Participants performed a 2-back task, Digit Symbol Substitution test and Psychomotor Vigilance task before and after a 60-min Stroop task or an emotionally neutral documentary. Brain oxygenation was measured through functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy. Subjective feelings of MF and physiological measures (heart rate, oxygen saturation, blood glucose and hemoglobin) were recorded. The Stroop task resulted in increased subjective feelings of MF compared to watching the documentary. 2-back accuracy was lower post task compared to pre task in MF_NOR and CON_NOR, while no differences were found in the other cognitive tasks. The fraction of inspired oxygen did not impact feelings of MF. Although performing the Stroop resulted in higher subjective feelings of MF, hypoxia had no effect on the severity of self-reported MF. Additionally, this study could not provide evidence for a role of oxygenation of the PFC in the build-up of MF.

Effects of paradoxical sleep deprivation on oxidative parameters in the serum and brain of mice submitted to the animal model of hyperglycemia

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) on behavioral and oxidative stress parameters in the brain and serum of mice submitted to the animal model of hyperglycemia induced by alloxan, mimicking the main symptom of diabetes mellitus (DM). Adults C57BL/6 male and female mice received an injection of alloxan, and ten days later, the animals were submitted to the PSD for 36 h. The animals' behavioral parameters were evaluated in the open-field test. Oxidative stress parameters [Diacetyldichlorofluorescein (DCF), Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), and Glutathione] were assessed in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, striatum, and serum. The PSD increased the male and female mice locomotion, but the alloxan's pre-administration prevented the PSD-induced hyperactivity. In addition, the male mice receiving alloxan and submitted to the PSD had elevated latency time in the first quadrant and the number of fecal boli, demonstrating increased anxiety-like behavior. The HPA-axis was hyperactivating in male and female mice pre-administered alloxan and/or PSD-submitted animals. The oxidative stress parameters were also increased in the serum of the animals administered alloxan and/or sleep-deprived mice. Despite alloxan or PSD leading to behavioral or biochemical alterations, the one did not potentiate the other in mice. However, more studies are necessary to identify the link between sleep and hyperglycemia.

Social isolation postweaning alters reward-related dopamine dynamics in a region-specific manner in adolescent male rats

Early development is characterized by dynamic transitions in brain maturation, which may be impacted by environmental factors. Here, we sought to determine the effects of social isolation from postweaning and during adolescence on reward behavior and dopaminergic signaling in male rats. Subjects were socially isolated or group housed at postnatal day 21. Three weeks later, extracellular dopamine concentrations were examined in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and nucleus accumbens shell (NAc) during a feeding bout. Surprisingly, opposing effects were found in which increased mPFC dopamine concentrations were observed in group housed, but not isolated, rats. In stark contrast, increased dopamine levels were found in the NAc of isolated, but not group housed, rats. Moreover, the absence of an effect in the mPFC of the isolated rats could not be reversed by subsequent group housing, demonstrating the remarkable long-term effects on dopamine signaling dynamics. When provided a highly palatable food, the isolated subjects exhibited a dramatic increase in mPFC dopamine levels when the chocolate was novel, but no effects following chronic chocolate consumption. In contrast, the group housed subjects showed significantly increased dopamine levels only with chronic chocolate consumption. The dopamine changes were correlated with differences in behavioral measures. Importantly, the deficit in reward-related behavior during isolation could be reversed by microinjection of either dopamine or cocaine into the mPFC. Together, these data provide evidence that social isolation from postweaning and during adolescence alters reward-induced dopamine levels in a brain region-specific manner, which has important functional implications for reward-related behavior.

Neuropsychological assessment fails to predict relapse among cigarette smokers: A prospective study of neurocognitive abilities

OBJECTIVES

Understanding the factors that lead to relapse is a major challenge for the clinical support of smoking cessation. Neurocognitive abilities such as attention, executive functioning and working memory, are possible predictors of relapse and can be easily assessed in everyday clinical practice. In this prospective longitudinal study, we investigated the relationship between pre-smoking cessation neurocognitive performance and relapse at six months in a sample of patients being treated for their tobacco dependence.

METHODS

130 tobacco consumers were included in the study. They completed a comprehensive neuropsychological and clinical assessment before smoking cessation. The targeted abilities were intelligence, inhibition, shifting, working memory updating, verbal fluency and decision-making.

RESULTS

The rate of tobacco relapse at 6 months was 58%. Logistic regressions were used to assess which variables best explained relapse. None of the neuropsychological tests was a significant predictor of relapse at either 1, 3 or 6 months, either alone, or controlling for other covariates acting as significant predictors of relapse.

CONCLUSIONS

Common neuropsychological tests, even those specifically targeting executive functioning such as inhibition, are not useful predictors of the success of a smoking cessation program in a clinical setting. Other variables, such as motivation to quit smoking or the presence of comorbid depression or anxiety disorders, appear to be more useful predictors of relapse.

Differential psychophysiological responses associated with decision-making in children from different socioeconomic backgrounds

This study examined how socioeconomic status (SES) influences on decision-making processing. The roles of anticipatory/outcome-related cardiac activity and awareness of task contingencies were also assessed. One hundred twelve children (Mage  = 5.83, SDage  = 0.32; 52.7% female, 51.8% low-SES; data collected October-December 2018 and April-December 2019) performed the Children's Gambling Task, while heart rate activity was recorded. Awareness of gain/loss contingencies was assessed after completing the task. Distinct decision-making strategies emerged among low and middle/high-SES children. Despite similar awareness levels between SES groups, future-oriented decision-making was linked solely to the middle/high-SES group. Somatic markers did not manifest unequivocally. However, contrasting cardiac patterns were evident concerning feedback processing and the association between anticipatory activity and awareness (low: acceleration vs. middle/high: deceleration). Results are interpreted from an evolutionary-developmental perspective.

Pathways from prenatal cocaine exposure to adult substance use and behavior

This is a report from the most recent adult follow-up of the longest running cohort study of prenatal cocaine exposure (PCE), in which women were enrolled prenatally and offspring were assessed in infancy, childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. In previous studies, PCE was linked to offspring behavior problems such as early substance use and externalizing behavior problems. The current analyses examine pathways from PCE to behavioral outcomes in offspring at the 25-year assessment. Prenatal cocaine exposure was moderate in this cohort; most women decreased or discontinued use after the first trimester. During the first and third trimesters, 38% and 11% used cocaine, respectively. This represents the most common pattern of PCE in non-treatment samples. At this phase, the adult offspring were, on average, 27.3 years old (range = 25-30), had 13.4 years of education, 83% were employed, 55% were Black, and 55% were female. Offspring who were exposed to cocaine during the first trimester were significantly more likely to use marijuana in the past year, report more arrests, and have poorer scores on a decision-making task, controlling for other prenatal substance exposure, demographic, and socioeconomic factors. In mediation analyses, there were indirect pathways from PCE to current marijuana use through early initiation of marijuana use and 21-year marijuana use, and through 15-year status offenses and 21-year marijuana use. There was also an indirect pathway from PCE to lifetime arrests through early initiation of marijuana use and 21-year Conduct Disorder, although the direct pathway from PCE to arrests also remained significant. These findings are consistent with those from previous phases and are an indication that there are detrimental associations with PCE that persist across developmental stages and into adulthood.

Targeting Human Glucocorticoid Receptors in Fear Learning: A Multiscale Integrated Approach to Study Functional Connectivity

Fear extinction is a phenomenon that involves a gradual reduction in conditioned fear responses through repeated exposure to fear-inducing cues. Functional brain connectivity assessments, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), provide valuable insights into how brain regions communicate during these processes. Stress, a ubiquitous aspect of life, influences fear learning and extinction by changing the activity of the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus, leading to enhanced fear responses and/or impaired extinction. Glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) are key to the stress response and show a dual function in fear regulation: while they enhance the consolidation of fear memories, they also facilitate extinction. Accordingly, GR dysregulation is associated with anxiety and mood disorders. Recent advancements in cognitive neuroscience underscore the need for a comprehensive understanding that integrates perspectives from the molecular, cellular, and systems levels. In particular, neuropharmacology provides valuable insights into neurotransmitter and receptor systems, aiding the investigation of mechanisms underlying fear regulation and potential therapeutic targets. A notable player in this context is cortisol, a key stress hormone, which significantly influences both fear memory reconsolidation and extinction processes. Gaining a thorough understanding of these intricate interactions has implications in terms of addressing psychiatric disorders related to stress. This review sheds light on the complex interactions between cognitive processes, emotions, and their neural bases. In this endeavor, our aim is to reshape the comprehension of fear, stress, and their implications for emotional well-being, ultimately aiding in the development of therapeutic interventions.

Evolution, the Cognitive Sciences, and the Science of Victimization

Despite clear aversion to such labels, one of the most impactful criminological theories is rooted in cognitive science. Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory has been repeatedly tested, replicated relatively well, and has since reached beyond its original scope to explain other important outcomes like victimization. However, the work never viewed itself as part of a larger scientific landscape and resisted the incursion of neuroscience, cognitive science, and evolutionary theory from the start. This missed opportunity contributes to some of the theory's shortcomings. We begin by considering relevant literatures that were originally excluded and then conduct a new analysis examining the cognitive underpinnings of victimization in a high-risk sample of adolescents. We used the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 3,444; 48% female; 49% Black, 25% Hispanic) which contained sound measures of self-control and intelligence, as well as four types of adolescent victimization. Self-control was robustly associated with all forms of victimization, whereas intelligence had generally no detectable effect. We discuss how these findings fit into a broader understanding about self-control and victimization.

Luria's fist-edge-palm test: A small change makes a big difference

Slight modifications in the instructions or administration of neuropsychological tests could result in noticeable differences in performance. A good example is offered by a test devised by Luria to assess executive functioning in motor planning, the three-step fist-edge-palm (FEP) test, which is still frequently employed in clinical settings and features in several neuropsychological test batteries such as the Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB). While Luria described the orientation of the fist as horizontal to the testing desk (hFEP), recent versions of the task indicate the fist should be vertical to the testing desk (vFEP). The current study examined whether administering the hFEP or the vFEP tests results in different performance in healthy people, and whether one version is better than the other at detecting impairments in a patient population. The hFEP proved more challenging for healthy adults than the vFEP, and people with brain damage committed more errors on the hFEP than the vFEP. Both versions correlated with executive measures but also with several other cognitive variables, indicating that the test is not a specific marker of executive functions. Although performance on the FEP is sensitive to articulatory suppression, faster pace, and the number of sequences performed, none of these conditions fully account for the differences between the hFEP and vFEP. The additional demand of the hFEP appears to be due to the less natural (i.e., automatic) orientation of the horizontal fist. In conclusion, a small change in the administration of the test, eluding Luria's instructions, grossly modified its sensitivity. Clinicians and researchers should be wary of modifying instructions or testing procedures without considering the possible consequences of such modifications.

Impulsivity and compulsivity in gambling disorder and bulimic spectrum eating disorders: Analysis of neuropsychological profiles and sex differences

BACKGROUND

Gambling disorder (GD) and bulimic spectrum eating disorders (BSDs) not only share numerous psychopathological, neurobiological, and comorbidity features but also are distinguished by the presence of inappropriate behaviours related to impulsivity and compulsivity. This study aimed to emphasise the differences and similarities in the main impulsivity and compulsivity features between GD and BSD patients, and to analyse the potential influence of sex in these domains.

METHODS

Using self-reported and neurocognitive measures, we assessed different impulsive-compulsive components in a sample of 218 female and male patients (59 with BSD and 159 with GD) and 150 healthy controls.

RESULTS

We observed that GD and BSDs exhibited elevated levels of impulsivity and compulsivity in all the dimensions compared to healthy controls. Moreover, these disorders showed differences in several personality traits, such as high novelty seeking in GD, and low persistence and high harm avoidance in BSDs. In addition, patients with BSDs also displayed a trend towards greater impulsive choice than GD patients. Regarding sex effects, GD women presented higher overall impulsivity and compulsivity than GD men. Nevertheless, no sex differences were found in BSDs.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical interventions should consider these deficits to enhance their effectiveness, including adjunctive treatment to target these difficulties. Our findings also provide support to the relevance of sex in GD, which should also be considered in clinical interventions.

Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in Parkinson's disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa Gambling Task and the Game of Dice

Evidence shows that patients affected by Parkinson's disease (PD) display the tendency toward making risky choices. This is due, at least in part, to the pathophysiological characteristics of the disease that affects neural areas underlying decision making (DM), in which a pivotal role is played by nonmotor corticostriatal circuits and dopamine. Executive functions (EFs), which can be impaired by PD as well, may sustain optimal choices in DM processes. However, few studies have investigated whether EFs can support PD patients to make good decisions. Adopting the scoping review approach, the present article is designed to deepen the cognitive mechanisms of DM under conditions of ambiguity and risk (that are conditions common to everyday life decisions) in PD patients without impulse control disorders. We focused our attention on the Iowa Gambling Task and the Game of Dice Task, because they are the most commonly used and reliable tasks to assess DM under ambiguity and under risk, respectively, and analyzed the performances in such tasks and their relationships with EFs tests in PD patients. The analysis supported the relationships between EFs and DM performance, especially when a higher cognitive load is required to make optimal decisions, as it happens under conditions of risk. Possible knowledge gaps and further research directions are suggested to better understand DM mechanisms in PD sustaining patients' cognitive functioning and preventing negative consequences in everyday life derived from suboptimal decisions.

A Diet Pattern Characterized by Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Is Associated with Lower Decision-Making Performance in the Iowa Gambling Task, Elevated Stress Exposure, and Altered Autonomic Nervous System Reactivity in Men and Women

The executive brain mediates and facilitates a set of cognitive functions, such as decision making, planning, self-regulation, emotional regulation, and attention. Executive dysfunction and related diseases are a rising public health concern. Evidence supports a link between nutritional factors and executive function (EF), but relatively little information exists about the relationship between diet patterns and this higher order cognitive ability. We and others have reported on the relationships between body weight regulation and affective decision making, as measured by performance in the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). However, little is known about the relationships between performance in this decision-making task and whole diet patterns. In this study, we tested whether data-derived diet patterns based on energy-adjusted food intake data from the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire were associated with decision-making performance in the IGT. Secondarily, we examined the influence of these diet patterns on self-reported chronic stress exposure and heart rate variability, which is a marker of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity. In prior studies, stress and ANS activity were shown to influence decision-making performance in the IGT. In this study, five distinct diet patterns were identified by cluster and factor analyses. A diet pattern best characterized by elevated sugar-sweetened beverage and added sugar consumption was associated with the lowest decision-making performance (p = 0.0049) and higher stress exposure (p = 0.0097). This same diet pattern was associated (p = 0.0374) with an IGT-affiliated decline in high-frequency HRV and an increase in low-frequency HRV, suggesting diet-induced ANS regulatory shifts in response to performing the EF task. Compared to the sugar-sweetened beverage diet pattern, diet patterns defined by more fruits/vegetables and low red meat (p = 0.0048) or higher omega-3 fatty acids and seafood (p = 0.0029) consumption were associated with lower chronic stress exposure. All outcomes were statistically adjusted for differences in BMI, age, sex, education level, and sensorimotor ability. Our findings provide new information that further supports the potential importance of whole diet patterns on cognitive disease prevention.

Impaired decision-making in borderline personality disorder

Introduction

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a complex mental disorder with core symptoms like interpersonal instability, emotion dysregulation, self-harm, and impulsive decision-making. Previous neuropsychological studies have found impairment in the decision-making of patients with BPD related to impulsivity. In our study, we focus on a better, more nuanced understanding of impulsive decision-making in BPD with the help of Rogers' decision-making test that simulates a gambling situation.

Methods

A novelty of our study is that we excluded from further analysis non-compliant participants based on their performance. Outlier participants on the measures proportion of good choices and average of wager choice number were filtered out to represent the population that understood the basic premise of the task and showed minimal motivation to gain rewards. Thus participants often choosing the less likely color or frequently choosing the first bet amount available (to probably speed up the test) were omitted from further analysis. Another novelty is that we assessed and reported six variables that examine Deliberation Time, Quality of Decision, Risk-taking, Overall proportion bet, Delay aversion, and Risk adjustment. Forty-three women with BPD participated in the study, and 16 non-compliant were excluded. As for the healthy control group, 42 women participated in the study, and four non-compliant were excluded. Thus, we compared the data of 27 patients with BPD with 38 healthy controls.

Results

Our results show that there are significant differences amongst the groups regarding the Quality of Decision Making (F (1,63) = 5.801, p = 0.019) and Risk Adjustment (F (1,63) = 6.522, p = 0.013). We also found significant interactions between group and winning probability regarding Risk Taking (F (4,252) = 4.765 p = 0.001) and Overall proportion of bets, i.e., the average proportion of bets relative to the total score of the subject (F (4,252) = 4.505, p = 0.002).

Discussion

Our results show that the two groups use different decision-making strategies that can have various associations with everyday life situations.

Multiple routes of communication within the amygdala-mPFC network: A comparative approach in humans and macaques

The network formed by the amygdala (AMG) and the medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC), at the interface between our internal and external environment, has been shown to support some important aspects of behavioral adaptation. Whether and how the anatomo-functional organization of this network evolved across primates remains unclear. Here, we compared AMG nuclei morphological characteristics and their functional connectivity with the mPFC in humans and macaques to identify potential homologies and differences between these species. Based on selected studies, we highlight two subsystems within the AMG-mPFC circuits, likely involved in distinct temporal dynamics of integration during behavioral adaptation. We also show that whereas the mPFC displays a large expansion but a preserved intrinsic anatomo-functional organization, the AMG displays a volume reduction and morphological changes related to specific nuclei. We discuss potential commonalities and differences in the dialogue between AMG nuclei and mPFC in humans and macaques based on available data.

Anxiety and depression: A top-down, bottom-up model of circuit function

A functional interplay of bottom-up and top-down processing allows an individual to appropriately respond to the dynamic environment around them. These processing modalities can be represented as attractor states using a dynamical systems model of the brain. The transition probability to move from one attractor state to another is dependent on the stability, depth, neuromodulatory tone, and tonic changes in plasticity. However, how does the relationship between these states change in disease states, such as anxiety or depression? We describe bottom-up and top-down processing from Marr's computational-algorithmic-implementation perspective to understand depressive and anxious disease states. We illustrate examples of bottom-up processing as basolateral amygdala signaling and projections and top-down processing as medial prefrontal cortex internal signaling and projections. Understanding these internal processing dynamics can help us better model the multifaceted elements of anxiety and depression.

Tools for the Assessment of Risk-Taking Behavior in Older Adults with Mild Dementia: A Cross-Sectional Clinical Study

Diseases such as Alzheimer's cause an alteration of cognitive functions, which can lead to increased daily risk-taking in older adults living at home. The assessment of decision-making abilities is primarily based on clinicians' global analysis. Usual neuropsychological tests such as the MoCA (Montreal Cognitive Assessment) cover most of the cognitive domains and include mental flexibility tasks. Specific behavioral tasks for risk-taking, such as the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) or the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), have been developed to assess risk-taking behavior, particularly in the field of addictology. Our cross-sectional study aims to determine whether the MoCA global cognitive assessment could be used as a substitute for behavioral tasks in the assessment of risky behavior. In the current study, 24 patients (age: 82.1 ± 5.9) diagnosed with mild dementia completed the cognitive assessment (MoCA and executive function assessment) and two behavioral risk-taking tasks (BART, simplified version of the IGT). Results revealed no relationship between scores obtained in the MoCA and behavioral decision-making tasks. However, the two tasks assessing risk-taking behavior resulted in concordant risk profiles. In addition, patients with a high risk-taking behavior profile on the BART had better Trail Making Test (TMT) scores and thus retained mental flexibility. These findings suggest that MoCA scores are not representative of risk-taking behavioral inclinations. Thus, additional clinical tests should be used to assess risk-taking behavior in geriatric settings. Executive function measures, such as the TMT, and behavioral laboratory measures, such as the BART, are recommended for this purpose.

Changes in brain rhythms and connectivity tracking fear acquisition and reversal

Fear conditioning is used to investigate the neural bases of threat and anxiety, and to understand their flexible modifications when the environment changes. This study aims to examine the temporal evolution of brain rhythms using electroencephalographic signals recorded in healthy volunteers during a protocol of Pavlovian fear conditioning and reversal. Power changes and Granger connectivity in theta, alpha, and gamma bands are investigated from neuroelectrical activity reconstructed on the cortex. Results show a significant increase in theta power in the left (contralateral to electrical shock) portion of the midcingulate cortex during fear acquisition, and a significant decrease in alpha power in a broad network over the left posterior-frontal and parietal cortex. These changes occur since the initial trials for theta power, but require more trials (3/4) to develop for alpha, and are also present during reversal, despite being less pronounced. In both bands, relevant changes in connectivity are mainly evident in the last block of reversal, just when power differences attenuate. No significant changes in the gamma band were detected. We conclude that the increased theta rhythm in the cingulate cortex subserves fear acquisition and is transmitted to other cortical regions via increased functional connectivity allowing a fast theta synchronization, whereas the decrease in alpha power can represent a partial activation of motor and somatosensory areas contralateral to the shock side in the presence of a dangerous stimulus. In addition, connectivity changes at the end of reversal may reflect long-term alterations in synapses necessary to reverse the previously acquired contingencies.

Neuropharmacological Modulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate, Noradrenaline and Endocannabinoid Receptors in Fear Extinction Learning: Synaptic Transmission and Plasticity

Learning to recognize and respond to potential threats is crucial for survival. Pavlovian threat conditioning represents a key paradigm for investigating the neurobiological mechanisms of fear learning. In this review, we address the role of specific neuropharmacological adjuvants that act on neurochemical synaptic transmission, as well as on brain plasticity processes implicated in fear memory. We focus on novel neuropharmacological manipulations targeting glutamatergic, noradrenergic, and endocannabinoid systems, and address how the modulation of these neurobiological systems affects fear extinction learning in humans. We show that the administration of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) agonists and modulation of the endocannabinoid system by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibition can boost extinction learning through the stabilization and regulation of the receptor concentration. On the other hand, elevated noradrenaline levels dynamically modulate fear learning, hindering long-term extinction processes. These pharmacological interventions could provide novel targeted treatments and prevention strategies for fear-based and anxiety-related disorders.

Urbach-Wiethe disease in a young patient without apparent amygdala calcification

Urbach-Wiethe disease is an extremely rare genetically-based syndrome which usually leads to dermatological and neurological changes. Neurologically, the amygdaloid region is primarily bilaterally affected. Therefore, several functions modulated by the amygdala are changed in patients with Urbach-Wiethe disease. As the neurological alterations evolve only gradually, it is particularly important to determine the cognitive and brain status of a juvenile. The patient described here was seen briefly at age 9 and tested neuropsychologically at age 19; furthermore, computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of his head was done. There were no important abnormalities in the brain, which is unusual in the light of previous data from other patients. On the cognitive level, the patient was generally within normal limits. However, he had mild problems in attention and concentration, and more prominent problems in emotional processing domain, and in personality dimensions. It is concluded that amygdala calcifications in Urbach-Wiethe disease take place progressively-possibly underpinned by genetic and gender variables; this can subsequently allow psychosocial-social factors (such a proper education and socialization) and biological factors (compensatory neuroplasticity) to retard and diminish the development of socio-emotional and cognitive deteriorations, though the outcome of questionnaires indicates that such patients may develop substantial concerns as to their future life and well-being.

The effect of an affect, sensation seeking, and premeditation on risky decision-making: Conditional process analysis

Risks often accompany available choices in decision-making, particularly where the monetary factor gets involved. Researchers have explored the pathways underlying risky decision-making for decades, but most of these pathways have explored the factors individually rather than through a holistic approach. The present study examines the role of personality, cognitive, and biological components in risky decision-making. Here, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) paradigm is used to study the targeted outcome variable (IGT payoff) in 281 healthy students. Two moderation-mediation models hypothesized sensation seeking and lack of premeditation as predictors of IGT payoff. Positive and negative moods prior to IGT administration were considered mediators, and age and gender as moderators in predicting payoff. The hypothesized models were tested using conditional process analysis. Results indicate that both predictors significantly negatively predict payoff while moderated by gender and age categories. Interestingly, the indirect relationships apply to 21-34 years old men and 21-25 years old women. These age and gender-specific findings in apparently healthy participants highlight the need for replicating the current research in different age groups and clinical populations involving maladaptive decision-making patterns.

Using Behavioural Science to Help Understand Vaccine Hesitancy

This article is based on a Learning Lounge educational session that took place on 22nd October 2022, as part of Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) IDWeek™ 2022 held in Washington, D.C., USA. The objectives of the Learning Lounge were to enhance understanding of the principal reasons for patients’ vaccine hesitancy based on key sociocultural, behavioural, and psychological factors; identify the general communication ‘cues’ and specific psychosocial objections that signal a patient’s inclination to vaccine bias; and help healthcare professionals (HCP) learn how to address vaccine hesitancy based on patients’ cognitive and behavioural biases. The knowledge shared in this Learning Lounge can help guide and assist HCPs in recognising and addressing vaccine hesitancy, thereby supporting effective conversations with patients and/or their caregivers, and drive more personalised solutions to improve acceptance of vaccinations. The Learning Lounge was hosted by Christopher Graves, Founder and President of the Ogilvy Centre for Behavioral Science, New York, New York, USA., who is an expert on vaccine hesitancy and guiding HCPs on recognising and addressing this phenomenon. Graves was joined by Wendy Wright, Partners in Healthcare Education, LLC, Bedford, New Hampshire, USA, and Todd Wolynn, Kids Plus Pediatrics, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, in a roleplay discussion to highlight cognitive biases that are relevant to vaccine hesitancy, and how these might be addressed in clinical practice.

Context effects, skin conductance responses and personality traits - Influencing variables on risk-taking within a modified version of the balloon analog risk task

When individuals take risks, they must weigh potential costs and benefits associated with a decision. Differences in risk-taking appear to be influenced by contextual, and inter-individual factors. However, it is still ambiguous to what extent these characteristics jointly influence risk-taking. We investigated how risk-taking varies as function of context effects, incentives, skin conductance responses (SCR), and personality traits such as impulsivity and sensitivity to reward and punishment. Sixty-eight healthy participants conducted a modified version of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) composed of a gain-framed (G-BART) and loss-framed (L-BART) context with each a low and a high outcome magnitude condition. While the goal in G-BART was to maximize gains, the goal in L-BART was to minimize losses. In both versions, participants can potentially accumulate the same amounts. We conducted trial-by-trial mixed model analyses to account for within- and between-participant effects. Participants showed greater risk-taking when playing L-BART than G-BART; more risk-taking was observed in the high compared to the low outcome magnitude condition. Furthermore, higher SCR were associated with less risk-taking. Lower impulsivity was related to a greater difference in risk-taking in both contexts, with greater risk-taking in L-BART. Likewise, sensitivity to reward was associated with a greater difference in risk-taking in both contexts, with greater risk-taking in G-BART. Finally, greater sensitivity to punishment was related to risk-taking among participants describing themselves as sensitive to rewards. Results support a multidimensional state-trait model of risk-taking suggesting that risk-taking is favored by loss-aversion along with incentives, psychophysiological arousal, and personality traits.

Excessive response to provocation rather than disinhibition mediates irritable behaviour in Huntington's disease

Background

Irritable and impulsive behaviour are common in Huntington's disease (HD: an autosomal dominant disorder causing degeneration in cortico-striatal networks). However, the cognitive mechanisms underlying these symptoms remain unclear, and previous research has not determined if common mechanisms underpin both symptoms. Here we used established and novel tasks to probe different aspects of irritable and impulsive behaviour to determine the neural mechanisms involved.

Methods

We recruited a cohort of 53 gene positive HD participants and 26 controls from non-affected family members and local volunteers. We used established questionnaire measures of irritability in HD (Snaith Irritability Scale, Problem Behaviours Assessment) and impulsivity [Urgency, Premeditation Perseverance, Sensation-seeking, Positive urgency scale (UPPSP), Barratt Impulsivity Scale], in addition to cognitive tasks of provocation, motor inhibition, delay discounting and decision making under uncertainty. We used generalised linear models to determine differences between cases and controls, and associations with irritability in the HD group.

Results

We found differences between cases and controls on the negative urgency subscale of the UPPSP, which was associated with irritability in HD. The frustrative non-reward provocation task also showed differences between cases and controls, in addition to predicting irritability in HD. The stop signal reaction time task showed case-control differences but was not associated with irritability in HD. None of the other measures showed group differences or predicted irritability in HD after correcting for confounding variables.

Discussion

Irritability in HD is mediated by excessive response to provocation, rather than a failure of motor inhibition.

The human orbitofrontal cortex, vmPFC, and anterior cingulate cortex effective connectome: emotion, memory, and action

The human orbitofrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex are involved in reward processing and thereby in emotion but are also implicated in episodic memory. To understand these regions better, the effective connectivity between 360 cortical regions and 24 subcortical regions was measured in 172 humans from the Human Connectome Project and complemented with functional connectivity and diffusion tractography. The orbitofrontal cortex has effective connectivity from gustatory, olfactory, and temporal visual, auditory, and pole cortical areas. The orbitofrontal cortex has connectivity to the pregenual anterior and posterior cingulate cortex and hippocampal system and provides for rewards to be used in memory and navigation to goals. The orbitofrontal and pregenual anterior cortex have connectivity to the supracallosal anterior cingulate cortex, which projects to midcingulate and other premotor cortical areas and provides for action-outcome learning including limb withdrawal or flight or fight to aversive and nonreward stimuli. The lateral orbitofrontal cortex has outputs to language systems in the inferior frontal gyrus. The medial orbitofrontal cortex connects to the nucleus basalis of Meynert and the pregenual cingulate to the septum, and damage to these cortical regions may contribute to memory impairments by disrupting cholinergic influences on the neocortex and hippocampus.

Understanding the neurodynamic process of decision-making for mobile application downloading

In this article, we try to explore and understand the neurodynamics of the decision-making process for mobile application downloading. We begin the model development in a rather unorthodox fashion. Patterns of brain activation regions are identified, across participants, at different time instance of the decision-making process. Region-wise activation knowledge from previous studies is used to put together the entire process model like a cognitive jigsaw puzzle. We find that there are indeed a common dynamic set of activation patterns that are consistent across people and apps. That is to say that not only are there consistent patterns of activation there is a consistent change from one pattern to another across time as people make the app adoption decision. Moreover, this pattern is clearly different for decisions that end in adoption than for decisions that end with no adoption.

The comparison of decision-making in ambiguous situations and galvanic skin responses as somatic markers in patients with posterior cortex epilepsy and mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis

INTRODUCTION

Decision-making behaviors of patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) is a subject that has been studied frequently. However, determining the neuropsychological profiles of patients with different types of epilepsy is also important. Our main purpose was to examine the decision-making behaviors of patients with posterior cortex epilepsy (PCE) through the assumptions of somatic marker hypothesis (SMH) and to compare their performances with those of a MTLE group and a control group.

METHOD

Participants comprised of 13 patients with PCE (mean age 30.92 ± 9.99 years); 14 patients with MTLE with hippocampal sclerosis (MTLE-HS) (mean age 25.53 ± 7.40 years) and 15 controls (mean age 24.60 ± 8.45 years). Decision-making performances were assessed with the Iowa gambling test (IGT) and anticipatory skin responses before each choice were recorded. A comprehensive neuropsychological test battery was also given to all participants in order to examine the relationship of decision-making with other cognitive functions.

RESULTS

Anticipatory responses before choosing from disadvantageous decks were significantly larger than choosing from advantageous decks in the PCE group (p = 0.00). No significant difference was found between the PCE and control group's total net scores. IGT total net scores was significantly correlated with Stroop test interference time (p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

The study reveals that cognitive impairments of patients with PCE are not limited to brain's posterior areas' functions, and provides evidence for the current paradigm which understands epilepsy as a network disorder.

Emerging findings of glutamate-glutamine imbalance in the medial prefrontal cortex in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis of spectroscopy studies

One of the main challenges in investigating the neurobiology of ADHD is our limited capacity to study its neurochemistry in vivo. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) estimates metabolite concentrations within the brain, but approaches and findings have been heterogeneous. To assess differences in brain metabolites between patients with ADHD and healthy controls, we searched 12 databases screening for MRS studies. Studies were divided into 'children and adolescents' and 'adults' and meta-analyses were performed for each brain region with more than five studies. The quality of studies was assessed by the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Thirty-three studies met our eligibility criteria, including 874 patients with ADHD. Primary analyses revealed that the right medial frontal area of children with ADHD presented higher concentrations of a composite of glutamate and glutamine (p = 0.02, SMD = 0.53). Glutamate might be implicated in pruning and neurodegenerative processes as an excitotoxin, while glutamine excess might signal a glutamate depletion that could hinder neurotrophic activity. Both neuro metabolites could be implicated in the differential cortical thinning observed in patients with ADHD across all ages. Notably, more homogeneous designs and reporting guidelines are the key factors to determine how suitable MRS is for research and, perhaps, for clinical psychiatry. Results of this meta-analysis provided an overall map of the brain regions evaluated so far, addressed the role of glutamatergic metabolites in the pathophysiology of ADHD, and pointed to new perspectives for consistent use of the tool in the field.

Trial-by-trial fluctuations in amygdala activity track motivational enhancement of desirable sensory evidence during perceptual decision-making

People are biased toward seeing outcomes that they are motivated to see. For example, wanting their favored team to prevail biases sports fans to perceive an ambiguous foul in a manner that is favorable to the team they support. Here, we test the hypothesis that such motivational biases in perceptual decision-making are associated with amygdala activity. We used monetary incentives to experimentally manipulate participants to want to see one percept over another while they performed a categorization task involving ambiguous images. Participants were more likely to categorize an image as the category we motivated them to see, suggesting that wanting to see a particular percept biased their perceptual decisions. Heightened amygdala activity was associated with motivation consistent categorizations and tracked trial-by-trial enhancement of neural activity in sensory cortices encoding the desirable category. Analyses using a drift diffusion model further suggest that trial-by-trial amygdala activity was specifically associated with biases in the accumulation of sensory evidence. In contrast, frontoparietal regions commonly associated with biases in perceptual decision-making were not associated with motivational bias. Altogether, our results suggest that wanting to see an outcome biases perceptual decisions via distinct mechanisms and may depend on dynamic fluctuations in amygdala activity.

Orbitofrontal cortex populations are differentially recruited to support actions

The ability to use information from one's prior actions is necessary for decision-making. While orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) has been hypothesized as key for inferences made using cue and value-related information, whether OFC populations contribute to the use of information from volitional actions to guide behavior is not clear. Here, we used a self-paced lever-press hold-down task in which mice infer prior lever-press durations to guide subsequent action performance. We show that the activity of genetically identified lateral OFC (lOFC) subpopulations differentially instantiate current and prior action information during ongoing action execution. Transient state-dependent lOFC circuit disruptions of specified subpopulations reduced the encoding of ongoing press durations but did not disrupt the use of prior action information to guide future action performance. In contrast, a chronic functional loss of lOFC circuit activity resulted in increased reliance on recently executed lever-press durations and impaired contingency reversal, suggesting the recruitment of compensatory mechanisms that resulted in repetitive action control. Our results identify a novel role for lOFC in the integration of action information to guide adaptive behavior.

Exploring decision-making strategies in the Iowa gambling task and rat gambling task

Decision-making requires that individuals perceive the probabilities and risks associated with different options. Experimental human and animal laboratory testing provide complimentary insights on the psychobiological underpinnings of decision-making. The Iowa gambling task (IGT) is a widely used instrument that assesses decision-making under uncertainty and risk. In the task participants are faced with a choice conflict between cards with varying monetary reinforcer/loss contingencies. The rat gambling task (rGT) is a pre-clinical version using palatable reinforcers as wins and timeouts mimicking losses. However, interspecies studies elaborating on human and rat behavior in these tasks are lacking. This study explores decision-making strategies among young adults (N = 270) performing a computerized version of the IGT, and adult outbred male Lister Hooded rats (N = 72) performing the rGT. Both group and individual data were explored by normative scoring approaches and subgroup formations based on individual choices were investigated. Overall results showed that most humans and rats learned to favor the advantageous choices, but to a widely different extent. Human performance was characterized by both exploration and learning as the task progressed, while rats showed relatively consistent pronounced preferences for the advantageous choices throughout the task. Nevertheless, humans and rats showed similar variability in individual choice preferences during end performance. Procedural differences impacting on the performance in both tasks and their potential to study different aspects of decision-making are discussed. This is a first attempt to increase the understanding of similarities and differences regarding decision-making processes in the IGT and rGT from an explorative perspective.

Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review

Introduction

In the past three decades, there has been increasing interest in assessing children's Executive Functions (EF). However, studies on the conceptualization and operationalization of this construct are incongruent and guidance for clinicians and researchers aiming to assess EF is insufficient due to measurement variability.

Aims

The purpose of this article was to examine current theories and models of EF in children, identify their assessment instruments, issues, and challenges, and discuss their impact on children's cognitive, behavioral, social and/or emotional development.

Methods

This narrative review reflected on English and French scholarly articles on EF assessment in children. References were identified through searches of PubMed, Medline, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and APA PsychNet throughout the last two decades up to June 2022.

Results

There are commonalities despite divergence in the definition and operationalization of EF. Assessment of EF requires psychometric tests as well as rating scales that must be integrated and interpreted considering the child's biological makeup, environmental background, and cultural specificities.

Conclusion

Current EF theories, assessment tools, issues, and challenges were discussed in addition to the impact of their components' dysfunctions on children's development. Further studies should be conducted to develop new measurement methods and technologies to improve the ecological and ethological validity of youth assessment, treatment, and interventions.

Executive Functions in Decision Making under Ambiguity and Risk in Healthy Adults: A Scoping Review Adopting the Hot and Cold Executive Functions Perspective

Decision making (DM) has a pivotal role in supporting individual autonomy and well-being. It is considered a complex ability exploiting many cognitive functions, among which executive functions (EFs) are crucial. Few studies analyzed the role played by EFs in DM in healthy adults under ambiguity and risk, which are common conditions for most decisions in daily life. This scoping review aims to analyze the relationships between two individual tasks widely used to assess DM under these conditions (Iowa Gambling Task and Game of Dice Task) and EFs. According to the organizing principle that conceptualizes hot and cold EFs, DM under such conditions mainly implies hot EFs, but the relationship with cold EFs is still unclear. Using such an approach, a comprehensive framework is provided, highlighting main findings and identifying possible gaps in the literature. The results suggest different roles played by cold EFs in DM under ambiguity and risk, according to the characteristics of the tasks. The findings can offer guidance to further studies and to design interventions to support DM in healthy adults.

Opportunities to Discuss Diversity-Related Topics in Neuroscience Courses

Diversity is a foundational topic in psychology, and APA recommends that diversity is covered across the psychology curriculum. Neuroscience courses face challenges with incorporating diversity-related topics owing to the historical lack of neuroscience research that focuses on diversity and the restricted range of diversity-related topics that neuroscience is typically associated with (i.e., health and disability status). This may limit students' learning of neuroscience's contributions towards understanding diversity. We review some specific examples of diversity-related topics that can be incorporated into neuroscience courses. These examples have been selected to include topics across the three major content domains of neuroscience (cellular/molecular, neuroanatomy/systems, and cognitive/behavioral), as well as across multiple diversity-related topics. Neuroscience instructors can use these examples to incorporate greater coverage of diversity-related topics within their courses and/or as points of inspiration for their own curricular additions. Providing systematic coverage of diversity-related topics in neuroscience courses highlights the ways neuroscience advances our understanding of human diversity and contributes to the educational objectives of psychology and neuroscience programs.

Can cognition help predict suicide risk in patients with major depressive disorder? A machine learning study

BACKGROUND

Previous studies suggest that deficits in cognition may increase the risk of suicide. Our study aims to develop a machine learning (ML) algorithm-based suicide risk prediction model using cognition in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD).

METHODS

Participants comprised 52 depressed suicide attempters (DSA) and 61 depressed non-suicide attempters (DNS), and 98 healthy controls (HC). All participants were required to complete a series of questionnaires, the Suicide Stroop Task (SST) and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). The performance in IGT was analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. ML with extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) classification algorithm and locally explanatory techniques assessed performance and relative importance of characteristics for predicting suicide attempts. Prediction performances were compared with the area under the curve (AUC), decision curve analysis (DCA), and net reclassification improvement (NRI).

RESULTS

DSA and DNS preferred to select the card from disadvantageous decks (decks "A" + "B") under risky situation (p = 0.023) and showed a significantly poorer learning effect during the IGT (F = 2.331, p = 0.019) compared with HC. Performance of XGBoost model based on demographic and clinical characteristics was compared with that of the model created after adding cognition data (AUC, 0.779 vs. 0.819, p > 0.05). The net benefit of model was improved and cognition resulted in continuous reclassification improvement with NRI of 5.3%. Several clinical dimensions were significant predictors in the XGBoost classification algorithm.

LIMITATIONS

A limited sample size and failure to include sufficient suicide risk factors in the predictive model.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrate that cognitive deficits may serve as an important risk factor to predict suicide attempts in patients with MDD. Combined with other demographic characteristics and attributes drawn from clinical questionnaires, cognitive function can improve the predictive effectiveness of the ML model. Additionally, explanatory ML models can help clinicians detect specific risk factors for each suicide attempter within MDD patients. These findings may be helpful for clinicians to detect those at high risk of suicide attempts quickly and accurately, and help them make proactive treatment decisions.

Regulation of sex differences in risk-based decision making by gonadal hormones: Insights from rodent models

Men and women differ in their ability to evaluate options that vary in their rewards and the risks that are associated with these outcomes. Most studies have shown that women are more risk averse than men and that gonadal hormones significantly contribute to this sex difference. Gonadal hormones can influence risk-based decision making (i.e., risk taking) by modulating the neurobiological substrates underlying this cognitive process. Indeed, estradiol, progesterone and testosterone modulate activity in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and nucleus accumbens associated with reward and risk-related information. The use of animal models of decision making has advanced our understanding of the intersection between the behavioral, neural and hormonal mechanisms underlying sex differences in risk taking. This review will outline the current state of this literature, identify the current gaps in knowledge and suggest the neurobiological mechanisms by which hormones regulate risky decision making. Collectively, this knowledge can be used to understand the potential consequences of significant hormonal changes, whether endogenously or exogenously induced, on risk-based decision making as well as the neuroendocrinological basis of neuropsychiatric diseases that are characterized by impaired risk taking, such as substance use disorder and schizophrenia.

The hippocampus, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and episodic and semantic memory

The human ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)/anterior cingulate cortex is implicated in reward and emotion, but also in memory. It is shown how the human orbitofrontal cortex connecting with the vmPFC and anterior cingulate cortex provide a route to the hippocampus for reward and emotional value to be incorporated into episodic memory, enabling memory of where a reward was seen. It is proposed that this value component results in primarily episodic memories with some value component to be repeatedly recalled from the hippocampus so that they are more likely to become incorporated into neocortical semantic and autobiographical memories. The same orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate regions also connect in humans to the septal and basal forebrain cholinergic nuclei, thereby helping to consolidate memory, and helping to account for why damage to the vMPFC impairs memory. The human hippocampus and vmPFC thus contribute in complementary ways to forming episodic and semantic memories.

Brain Neural Underpinnings of Interoception and Decision-Making in Alzheimer's Disease: A Narrative Review

This study reviews recent literature on interoception directing decision-making in Alzheimer's disease (AD). According to the somatic marker hypothesis, signals from the internal body direct decision-making and involve the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC). After reviewing relevant studies, we summarize the brain areas related to interoception and decision-making (e.g., vmPFC, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, anterior cingulate cortex, and insular cortex) and their roles in and relationships with AD pathology. Moreover, we outline the relationship among interoception, the autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, and AD pathology. We discuss that impaired interoception leads to decreased decision-making ability in people with AD from the perspective of brain neural underpinning. Additionally, we emphasize that anosognosia or reduced self-awareness and metacognition in AD are remarkably congruent with the malfunction of the autonomic nervous system regulating the interoceptive network. Furthermore, we propose that impaired interoception may contribute to a loss in the decision-making ability of patients with AD. However, there still exist empirical challenges in confirming this proposal. First, there has been no standardization for measuring or improving interoception to enhance decision-making ability in patients with AD. Future studies are required to better understand how AD pathology induces impairments in interoception and decision-making.

Risky decision-making strategies mediate the relationship between amygdala activity and real-world financial savings among individuals from lower income households: A pilot study

Lower financial savings among individuals experiencing adverse social determinants of health (SDoH) increases vulnerabilities during times of crisis. SDoH including low socioeconomic status (low-SES) influence cognitive abilities as well as health and life outcomes that may perpetuate poverty and disparities. Despite evidence suggesting a role for financial growth in minimizing SDoH-related disparities and vulnerabilities, neurobiological mechanisms linked with financial behavior remain to be elucidated. As such, we examined the relationships between brain activity during decision-making (DM), laboratory-based task performance, and money savings behavior. Participants (N = 24, 14 females) from low-SES households (income<$20,000/year) underwent fMRI scanning while performing the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), a DM paradigm probing risky- and strategic-DM processes. Participants also completed self-report instruments characterizing relevant personality characteristics and then engaged in a community outreach financial program where amount of money saved was tracked over a 6-month period. Regarding BART-related brain activity, we observed expected activity in regions implicated in reward and emotional processing including the amygdala. Regarding brain-behavior relationships, we found that laboratory-based BART performance mediated the impact of amygdala activity on real-world behavior. That is, elevated amygdala activity was linked with BART strategic-DM which, in turn, was linked with more money saved after 6 months. In exploratory analyses, this mediation was moderated by emotion-related personality characteristics such that, only individuals reporting lower alexithymia demonstrated a relationship between amygdala activity and savings. These outcomes suggest that DM-related amygdala activity and/or emotion-related personality characteristics may provide utility as an endophenotypic marker of individual's financial savings behavior.

Decision-making in uncertain contexts: The role of autonomic markers in resolving indecision

Although impulsivity is associated with an increased willingness to make risky decisions, uncertainty intolerance may also contribute to maladaptive decision-making behavior, where individuals neglect to pursue potential rewards even when probabilities for success are in their favor. Several theories have sought to explain the neural systems that guide decision-making in this context, with evidence supporting a role for increased sympathetic activation. However, it remains unclear whether the sympathetic system is associated with greater apprehension in response to uncertain outcomes, or whether it serves to guide behavioral decisions in the context of this uncertainty. Furthermore, although postulated as a within-person process, most research has examined the association between decision behavior and sympathetic activation at the between-person level. We hypothesize that in the context of uncertainty between-person differences in skin conductance will be associated with longer deliberation times; whereas within-person trial-level increases in skin conductance will be associated with a tendency to reject uncertain options. Data were collected from n = 56 children aged 7-11 years, using a computerized card game in which children chose to accept or reject cards of varying point value at varying levels of probability. Skin conductance level (SCL) was recorded throughout the task. No significant between-person associations emerged. However, within-person analyses indicated that momentary deliberation time moderated the association between momentary skin-conductance and decision outcome. This moderation was such that for trials during which the individual deliberated longer (i.e., was more indecisive), a concurrent increase in skin conductance was associated with a significantly higher likelihood of rejecting the card. The within-person nature of these results suggests that skin conductance may help in resolving indecision in the context of uncertainty.

Cognitive control, motivation and fatigue: A cognitive neuroscience perspective

The present article provides a unified systematic account of the role of cognitive control, motivation and dopamine pathways in relation to the development of fatigue. Since cognitive fatigue is considered to be one aspect of the general control system that manages goal activity in the service of motivational requirements (Hockey, 2011), our focus is also broader than fatigue itself. The paper shall therefore first focus on the motivation-control interactions at the level of networks of the brain. A motivational control network is argued to play a critical role in shaping goal-directed behavior, in conjunction with dopamine systems that energize the network. Furthermore, motivation-control interactions as implemented in networks of the brain provide an important element to elucidate how decision making weighs both the anticipated benefits and costs of control operations, in optimal and suboptimal conditions such as mental fatigue. The paper further sketches how fatigue affects the connectivity of large-scale networks in the brain during effortful exercition, in particular the high-cost long striatal-cortical pathways, leading to a global reduction of integration in the brain's network architecture. The resulting neural state within these networks then enters as interoceptive information to systems in the brain that perform cost-benefit calculations. Based on these notions we propose a unifying cost-benefit model, inspired by influential insights from the current neuroscience literature of how fatigue changes the motivation to perform. The model specifies how the reward value, effort costs and fatigue aspects of task performance converge in the medial prefrontal cortex to calculate the net motivation value of stimuli and select the appropriate actions.

Ongoing pain facilitates emotional decision-making behaviors

Emotion toward anticipated and actual outcomes acts as a vital signal on emotional decision-making, and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) can mimic this decision-making process. Pain can impair emotional decision-making behaviors because it captures attention and distracts from the task at hand. Alternatively, pain may facilitate emotional decision-making behaviors by prompting alertness and mobilizing cognitive resources to maximize rewards. The present study investigated the influence of ongoing pain on emotional decision-making behaviors using the IGT. Our study recruited two groups of participants and applied capsaicin (pain group) or control cream (control group) to their forearms. We then compared performances and selections between the pain and control groups. The results revealed that participants successfully learned the required adaptive selection strategy as the task progressed. The study observed a tendency toward optimal choices for both groups under the condition of frequent–small losses. However, we observed a disadvantageous preference for the control group, but not the pain group, when faced with choices with infrequent but large losses. The study implies that a distressing pain experience motivates individuals to adjust goal-directed behaviors to maximize their rewards in a task. Thus, the finding suggests that ongoing pain facilitates emotional decision-making behaviors.

Perspective-taking is associated with increased discriminability of affective states in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex

Recent work using multivariate-pattern analysis (MVPA) on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data has found that distinct affective states produce correspondingly distinct patterns of neural activity in the cerebral cortex. However, it is unclear whether individual differences in the distinctiveness of neural patterns evoked by affective stimuli underlie empathic abilities such as perspective-taking (PT). Accordingly, we examined whether we could predict PT tendency from the classification of blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) fMRI activation patterns while participants (n = 57) imagined themselves in affectively charged scenarios. We used an MVPA searchlight analysis to map where in the brain activity patterns permitted the classification of four affective states: happiness, sadness, fear and disgust. Classification accuracy was significantly above chance levels in most of the prefrontal cortex and in the posterior medial cortices. Furthermore, participants' self-reported PT was positively associated with classification accuracy in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and insula. This finding has implications for understanding affective processing in the prefrontal cortex and for interpreting the cognitive significance of classifiable affective brain states. Our multivariate approach suggests that PT ability may rely on the grain of internally simulated affective representations rather than simply the global strength.

Comparison of Electrodermal Activity from Multiple Body Locations Based on Standard EDA Indices' Quality and Robustness against Motion Artifact

The most traditional sites for electrodermal activity (EDA) data collection, palmar locations such as fingers or palms, are not usually recommended for ambulatory monitoring given that subjects have to use their hands regularly during their daily activities, and therefore, alternative sites are often sought for EDA data collection. In this study, we collected EDA signals (n = 23 subjects, 19 male) from four measurement sites (forehead, back of neck, finger, and inner edge of foot) during cognitive stress and induction of mild motion artifacts by walking and one-handed weightlifting. Furthermore, we computed several EDA indices from the EDA signals obtained from different sites and evaluated their efficiency to classify cognitive stress from the baseline state. We found a high within-subject correlation between the EDA signals obtained from the finger and the feet. Consistently high correlation was also found between the finger and the foot EDA in both the phasic and tonic components. Statistically significant differences were obtained between the baseline and cognitive stress stage only for the EDA indices computed from the finger and the foot EDA. Moreover, the receiver operating characteristic curve for cognitive stress detection showed a higher area-under-the-curve for the EDA indices computed from the finger and foot EDA. We also evaluated the robustness of the different body sites against motion artifacts and found that the foot EDA location was the best alternative to other sites.

Reanalyzing the Maia and McClelland (2004) Empirical Data: How Do Participants Really Behave in the Iowa Gambling Task?

Background

Since 2007, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) has been a standardized clinical assessment tool for assessing decision behavior in 13 psychiatric/neurological conditions. After the publication of Maia and McClelland's (1) article, there were two responses in 2005 from Bechara et al. and Maia and McClelland, respectively, discussing whether implicit emotion or explicit knowledge influences the development of foresighted decision strategies under uncertain circumstances (e.g., as simulated in the IGT).

Methods and Results

We reanalyze and verify the data obtained by Maia and McClelland (1) in their study "What participants really know in the Iowa Gambling Task" and find that decision-makers were lured into shortsighted decisions by the prospect of immediate gains and losses.

Conclusion

Although the findings of this reanalysis cannot support any arguments concerning the effect of either implicit emotion or explicit knowledge, we find evidence that, based on the gain-loss frequency in the IGT, participants behave myopically. This is consistent with most IGT-related articles (58 out of 86) in Lee et al.'s (2) cross-cultural review. Alternatively, under uncertain circumstances, there is probably no such thing as foresighted decision strategy irrespective of the proposed mechanisms of implicit emotion or explicit knowledge.

Differences in Learning and Persistency Characterizing Behavior in Chronic Pain for the Iowa Gambling Task: Web-Based Laboratory-in-the-Field Study

Background

Chronic pain is a significant worldwide health problem. It has been reported that people with chronic pain experience decision-making impairments, but these findings have been based on conventional laboratory experiments to date. In such experiments, researchers have extensive control of conditions and can more precisely eliminate potential confounds. In contrast, there is much less known regarding how chronic pain affects decision-making captured via laboratory-in-the-field experiments. Although such settings can introduce more experimental uncertainty, collecting data in more ecologically valid contexts can better characterize the real-world impact of chronic pain.

Objective

We aim to quantify decision-making differences between individuals with chronic pain and healthy controls in a laboratory-in-the-field environment by taking advantage of internet technologies and social media.

Methods

A cross-sectional design with independent groups was used. A convenience sample of 45 participants was recruited through social media: 20 (44%) participants who self-reported living with chronic pain, and 25 (56%) people with no pain or who were living with pain for <6 months acting as controls. All participants completed a self-report questionnaire assessing their pain experiences and a neuropsychological task measuring their decision-making (ie, the Iowa Gambling Task) in their web browser at a time and location of their choice without supervision.

Results

Standard behavioral analysis revealed no differences in learning strategies between the 2 groups, although qualitative differences could be observed in the learning curves. However, computational modeling revealed that individuals with chronic pain were quicker to update their behavior than healthy controls, which reflected their increased learning rate (95% highest–posterior-density interval [HDI] 0.66-0.99) when fitted to the Values-Plus-Perseverance model. This result was further validated and extended on the Outcome-Representation Learning model as higher differences (95% HDI 0.16-0.47) between the reward and punishment learning rates were observed when fitted to this model, indicating that individuals with chronic pain were more sensitive to rewards. It was also found that they were less persistent in their choices during the Iowa Gambling Task compared with controls, a fact reflected by their decreased outcome perseverance (95% HDI −4.38 to −0.21) when fitted using the Outcome-Representation Learning model. Moreover, correlation analysis revealed that the estimated parameters had predictive value for the self-reported pain experiences, suggesting that the altered cognitive parameters could be potential candidates for inclusion in chronic pain assessments.

Conclusions

We found that individuals with chronic pain were more driven by rewards and less consistent when making decisions in our laboratory-in-the-field experiment. In this case study, it was demonstrated that, compared with standard statistical summaries of behavioral performance, computational approaches offered superior ability to resolve, understand, and explain the differences in decision-making behavior in the context of chronic pain outside the laboratory.

Dimension of visual information interacts with working memory in monkeys and humans

Humans demonstrate behavioural advantages (biases) towards particular dimensions (colour or shape of visual objects), but such biases are significantly altered in neuropsychological disorders. Recent studies have shown that lesions in the prefrontal cortex do not abolish dimensional biases, and therefore suggest that such biases might not depend on top-down prefrontal-mediated attention and instead emerge as bottom-up processing advantages. We hypothesised that if dimensional biases merely emerge from an enhancement of object features, the presence of visual objects would be necessary for the manifestation of dimensional biases. In a specifically-designed working memory task, in which macaque monkeys and humans performed matching based on the object memory rather than the actual object, we found significant dimensional biases in both species, which appeared as a shorter response time and higher accuracy in the preferred dimension (colour and shape dimension in humans and monkeys, respectively). Moreover, the mnemonic demands of the task influenced the magnitude of dimensional bias. Our findings in two primate species indicate that the dichotomy of top-down and bottom-up processing does not fully explain the emergence of dimensional biases. Instead, dimensional biases may emerge when processed information regarding visual object features interact with mnemonic and executive functions to guide goal-directed behaviour.

Amygdala structure and function in paediatric bipolar disorder and high-risk youth: A systematic review of magnetic resonance imaging findings

OBJECTIVE

Converging evidence from structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies points to amygdala alteration as crucial in the development of paediatric bipolar disorder (pBP). The high number of recent studies prompted us to comprehensively evaluate findings. We aimed to systematically review structural and functional MRI studies investigating the amygdala in patients with pBP and in youth at high-risk (HR) for developing pBP.

METHODS

We searched PubMed from any time to 25 September 2020 using: 'amygdala AND (MRI OR magnetic resonance imaging) AND bipolar AND (pediatr* OR child OR children OR childhood OR adolescent OR adolescents OR adolescence OR young OR familial OR at-risk OR sibling* OR offspring OR high risk)'. In this review, we adhered to the PRISMA statement.

RESULTS

Amygdala hyperactivity to emotional stimuli is the most commonly reported finding in youth with pBP and HR compared to healthy peers (HC), whereas findings from structural MRI studies are inconsistent.

CONCLUSIONS

Hyperactivation of the amygdala might be an endophenotype of pBP.