Transiently increasing cAMP levels selectively in hippocampal excitatory neurons during sleep deprivation prevents memory deficits caused by sleep loss

Relationship between cognitive function and sleep quality in middle-aged and older adults for minimizing disparities and achieving equity in health: Evidence from multiple nationwide cohorts

BACKGROUND

Cognitive decline, a heavy burden on middle-aged and older adults as global aging is aggravated, was found to be associated with sleep quality. However, the country-between heterogeneity of the association prevented us from quantifying underlying relationship and identifying potential effect modifiers for vulnerable populations and targeted interventions.

METHODS

We collected data from 79,922 eligible adults in five nationwide cohorts, examined the respective relationships between cognitive function and sleep quality, synthesized underlying average relationships by meta-analysis, and explored effect modifiers by meta-regressions. Additionally, we conducted subgroup and interaction analyses to identify vulnerable populations and to determine their disparities in vulnerability.

RESULTS

Although country-between disparities exist, cognitive function is robustly associated with sleep quality in middle-aged and older adults worldwide, with an effect (β) of 0.015 [0.003, 0.027]. Executive function is the subdomain most relevant to sleep quality. Disparities in the effects of sleep quality on subdomains exist in populations with different sexes (orientation: βfemale/βmale = 1.615, P = 0.020), marital statuses (orientation: βunmarried/βmarried = 2.074, P < 0.001), education levels (orientation:βuneducated/βeducated = 2.074, P < 0.001) and chronic disease statuses (memory: βunhealthy/βhealthy = 1.560, P = 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive function decreases with worsening sleep quality in middle-aged and older adults. Vulnerability to poor sleep generally persists in singles, females, the uneducated and people with chronic diseases. To minimize disparities and achieve health equity, we advocate for targeted interventions, i.e., encouraging socialization in singles, confirming effectiveness of hormone replacement therapy in females, employing compulsory education in middle-aged and older adults.

Sleep-dependent decorrelation of hippocampal spatial representations

Neuronal ensembles are crucial for episodic memory and spatial mapping. Sleep, particularly non-REM (NREM), is vital for memory consolidation, as it triggers plasticity mechanisms through brain oscillations that reactivate neuronal ensembles. Here, we assessed their role in consolidating hippocampal spatial representations during sleep. We recorded hippocampus activity in rats performing a spatial object-place recognition (OPR) memory task, during encoding and retrieval periods, separated by intervening sleep. Successful OPR retrieval correlated with NREM duration, during which cortical oscillations decreased in power and density as well as neuronal spiking, suggesting global downregulation of network excitability. However, neurons encoding specific spatial locations (i.e., place cells) or objects during OPR showed stronger synchrony with brain oscillations compared to non-encoding neurons, and the stability of spatial representations decreased proportionally with NREM duration. Our findings suggest that NREM sleep may promote flexible remapping in hippocampal ensembles, potentially aiding memory consolidation and adaptation to novel spatial contexts.

Treatment with the selective PDE4B inhibitor A-33 or PDE4D inhibitor zatolmilast prevents sleep deprivation-induced deficits in spatial pattern separation

Sleep deprivation (SD) disrupts hippocampus-dependent memory, particularly in the dentate gyrus (DG) region, an area crucial for pattern separation. Previous research showed that non-selective phosphodiesterase type 4 (PDE4) inhibitors like roflumilast can alleviate these deficits. However, it remains unclear whether these outcomes are specific to a particular subfamily of PDE4. Hence, this study examined the specific impact of PDE4B inhibitor (A-33) and PDE4D inhibitor (zatolmilast) on spatial pattern separation in sleep deprived mice. Results demonstrated that SD impairs pattern separation, but both zatolmilast and A-33 alleviate these effects. However, A-33 impaired pattern separation in non-sleep deprived animals. The cognitive benefits of these inhibitors after SD may arise from alterations in relevant signaling pathways in the DG. This study provides initial evidence that inhibiting PDE4B or PDE4D holds promise for mitigating memory deficits due to SD.

Cofilin overactivation improves hippocampus-dependent short-term memory

Many living organisms of the animal kingdom have the fundamental ability to form and retrieve memories. Most information is initially stored as short-term memory, which is then converted to a more stable long-term memory through a process called memory consolidation. At the neuronal level, synaptic plasticity is crucial for memory storage. It includes the formation of new spines, as well as the modification of existing spines, thereby tuning and shaping synaptic efficacy. Cofilin critically contributes to memory processes as upon activation, it regulates the shape of dendritic spines by targeting actin filaments. We previously found that prolonged activation of cofilin in hippocampal neurons attenuated the formation of long-term object-location memories. Because the modification of spine shape and structure is also essential for short-term memory formation, we determined whether overactivation of hippocampal cofilin also influences the formation of short-term memories. To this end, mice were either injected with an adeno-associated virus expressing catalytically active cofilin, or an eGFP control, in the hippocampus. We show for the first time that cofilin overactivation improves short-term memory formation in the object-location memory task, without affecting anxiety-like behavior. Surprisingly, we found no effect of cofilin overactivation on AMPA receptor expression levels. Altogether, while cofilin overactivation might negatively impact the formation of long-lasting memories, it may benefit short-term plasticity.

Sleep and memory: The impact of sleep deprivation on transcription, translational control, and protein synthesis in the brain

In countries around the world, sleep deprivation represents a widespread problem affecting school-age children, teenagers, and adults. Acute sleep deprivation and more chronic sleep restriction adversely affect individual health, impairing memory and cognitive performance as well as increasing the risk and progression of numerous diseases. In mammals, the hippocampus and hippocampus-dependent memory are vulnerable to the effects of acute sleep deprivation. Sleep deprivation induces changes in molecular signaling, gene expression and may cause changes in dendritic structure in neurons. Genome wide studies have shown that acute sleep deprivation alters gene transcription, although the pool of genes affected varies between brain regions. More recently, advances in research have drawn attention to differences in gene regulation between the level of the transcriptome compared with the pool of mRNA associated with ribosomes for protein translation following sleep deprivation. Thus, in addition to transcriptional changes, sleep deprivation also affects downstream processes to alter protein translation. In this review, we focus on the multiple levels through which acute sleep deprivation impacts gene regulation, highlighting potential post-transcriptional and translational processes that may be affected by sleep deprivation. Understanding the multiple levels of gene regulation impacted by sleep deprivation is essential for future development of therapeutics that may mitigate the effects of sleep loss.

YT521-B homology domain containing 1 ameliorates mitochondrial damage and ferroptosis in sleep deprivation by activating the sirtuin 1/nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-like 2/heme oxygenase 1 pathway

In sleep deprivation (SD) models, ferroptosis is increased. SIRT1 alleviates cognitive impairment in SD, and SIRT1/NRF2/HO1 pathway depresses ferroptosis in different diseases. Moreover, YTHDC1 can regulate SIRT1 mRNA stability. Therefore, our study explored effects of the YTHDC1/SIRT1/NRF2/HO1 axis on neuronal damage and ferroptosis in SD. The SD mouse model was established through a modified multi-platform water environment method and a cell model of ferroptosis was constructed with Erastin, followed by gain- and loss-of-function assays. In mice, the cognitive impairment and CLOCK and BMAL1 levels in hippocampal tissues were assessed. In cells, viability was measured. In mice and cells, mitochondrial ultrastructure, the content of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), and iron, and the expression of GPX4 and ACSL4 were detected. The potential relationships among YTHDC1, SIRT1, and NRF2 were analyzed. SD mice had downregulated YTHDC1, SIRT1, NRF2, and HO1 protein expression in hippocampal tissues and increased ferroptosis. Mechanically, SIRT1 activated the NRF2/HO1 pathway through deacetylation, and YTHDC1 increased SIRT1 mRNA stability. YTHDC1 overexpression diminished mitochondrial damage, the content of ROS, iron, and MDA, and the expression of ACSL4 while enhancing GSH contents and GPX4 expression in hippocampal tissues of SD mice and Erastin-induced HT22 cells. Additionally, YTHDC1 overexpression elevated viability in Erastin-induced HT22 cells. SIRT1 or NRF2 overexpression ameliorated Erastin-induced mitochondrial damage and ferroptosis in HT22 cells. Silencing SIRT1 abolished the impact of YTHDC1 overexpression on SD mice and Erastin-induced HT22 cells. Collectively, YTHDC1 ameliorates mitochondrial damage and ferroptosis after SD by activating the SIRT1/NRF2/HO1 pathway.

The Interaction Effect of Sleep Deprivation and Treadmill Exercise in Various Durations on Spatial Memory with Respect to the Oxidative Status of Rats

Sleep deprivation (SD) has deleterious effects on cognitive functions including learning and memory. However, some studies have shown that SD can improve cognitive functions. Interestingly, treadmill exercise has both impairment and improvement effects on memory function. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of SD for 4 (short-term) and 24 (long-term) hours, and two protocols of treadmill exercise (mild short-term and moderate long-term) on spatial memory performance, and oxidative and antioxidant markers in the serum of rats. Morris Water Maze apparatus was used to assess spatial memory performance. Also, SD was done using gentle handling method. In addition, the serum level of catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was measured. The results showed that 24 h SD (but not 4 h) had negative effect on spatial memory performance, decreased SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px level, and increased MDA level. Long-term moderate (but not short-term mild) treadmill exercise had also negative effect on spatial memory performance, decreased SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px level, and increased MDA level. Interestingly, both protocols of treadmill exercise reversed spatial memory impairment and oxidative stress induced by 24 h SD. In conclusion, it seems that SD and treadmill exercise interact with each other, and moderate long-term exercise can reverse the negative effects of long-term SD on memory and oxidative status; although, it disrupted memory function and increased oxidative stress by itself.

Recovering object-location memories after sleep deprivation-induced amnesia

It is well established that sleep deprivation after learning impairs hippocampal memory processes and can cause amnesia. It is unknown, however, whether sleep deprivation leads to the loss of information or merely the suboptimal storage of information that is difficult to retrieve. Here, we show that hippocampal object-location memories formed under sleep deprivation conditions can be successfully retrieved multiple days following training, using optogenetic dentate gyrus (DG) memory engram activation or treatment with the clinically approved phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) inhibitor roflumilast. Moreover, the combination of optogenetic DG memory engram activation and roflumilast treatment, 2 days following training and sleep deprivation, made the memory more persistently accessible for retrieval even several days later (i.e., without further optogenetic or pharmacological manipulation). Altogether, our studies in mice demonstrate that sleep deprivation does not necessarily cause memory loss but instead leads to the suboptimal storage of information that cannot be retrieved without drug treatment or optogenetic stimulation. Furthermore, our findings suggest that object-location memories, consolidated under sleep deprivation conditions and thought to be lost, can be made accessible again several days after the learning and sleep deprivation episode, using the clinically approved PDE4 inhibitor roflumilast.

Chemogenetic Enhancement of cAMP Signaling Renders Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity Resilient to the Impact of Acute Sleep Deprivation

Sleep facilitates memory storage and even brief periods of sleep loss lead to impairments in memory, particularly memories that are hippocampus dependent. In previous studies, we have shown that the deficit in memory seen after sleep loss is accompanied by deficits in synaptic plasticity. Our previous work has also found that sleep deprivation (SD) is associated with reduced levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) in the hippocampus and that the reduction of cAMP mediates the diminished memory observed in sleep-deprived animals. Based on these findings, we hypothesized that cAMP acts as a mediator for not only the cognitive deficits caused by sleep deprivation, but also the observed deficits in synaptic plasticity. In this study, we expressed the heterologous Drosophila melanogaster Gαs-protein-coupled octopamine receptor (DmOctβ1R) in mouse hippocampal neurons. This receptor is selectively activated by the systemically injected ligand (octopamine), thus allowing us to increase cAMP levels in hippocampal neurons during a 5-h sleep deprivation period. Our results show that chemogenetic enhancement of cAMP during the period of sleep deprivation prevents deficits in a persistent form of long-term potentiation (LTP) that is induced at the Schaffer collateral synapses in the hippocampal CA1 region. We also found that elevating cAMP levels in either the first or second half of sleep deprivation successfully prevented LTP deficits. These findings reveal that cAMP-dependent signaling pathways are key mediators of sleep deprivation at the synaptic level. Targeting these pathways could be useful in designing strategies to prevent the impact of sleep loss.

A Dichotomous Role for FABP7 in Sleep and Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis: A Hypothesis

Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) are a family of intracellular lipid chaperone proteins known to play critical roles in the regulation of fatty acid uptake and transport as well as gene expression. Brain-type fatty acid binding protein (FABP7) is enriched in astrocytes and has been implicated in sleep/wake regulation and neurodegenerative diseases; however, the precise mechanisms underlying the role of FABP7 in these biological processes remain unclear. FABP7 binds to both arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), resulting in discrete physiological responses. Here, we propose a dichotomous role for FABP7 in which ligand type determines the subcellular translocation of fatty acids, either promoting wakefulness aligned with Alzheimer's pathogenesis or promoting sleep with concomitant activation of anti-inflammatory pathways and neuroprotection. We hypothesize that FABP7-mediated translocation of AA to the endoplasmic reticulum of astrocytes increases astrogliosis, impedes glutamatergic uptake, and enhances wakefulness and inflammatory pathways via COX-2 dependent generation of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Conversely, we propose that FABP7-mediated translocation of DHA to the nucleus stabilizes astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle dynamics, preserves glutamatergic uptake, and promotes sleep by activating anti-inflammatory pathways through the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ transcriptional cascade. Importantly, this model generates several testable hypotheses applicable to other neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson's disease.

Endoplasmic reticulum chaperone genes encode effectors of long-term memory

The mechanisms underlying memory loss associated with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) remain unclear, and no effective treatments exist. Fundamental studies have shown that a set of transcriptional regulatory proteins of the nuclear receptor 4a (Nr4a) family serve as molecular switches for long-term memory. Here, we show that Nr4a proteins regulate the transcription of genes encoding chaperones that localize to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These chaperones fold and traffic plasticity-related proteins to the cell surface during long-lasting forms of synaptic plasticity and memory. Dysregulation of Nr4a transcription factors and ER chaperones is linked to ADRD, and overexpressing Nr4a1 or the chaperone Hspa5 ameliorates long-term memory deficits in a tau-based mouse model of ADRD, pointing toward innovative therapeutic approaches for treating memory loss. Our findings establish a unique molecular concept underlying long-term memory and provide insights into the mechanistic basis of cognitive deficits in dementia.

Right stellate ganglion block improves learning and memory dysfunction and hippocampal injury in rats with sleep deprivation

Background

Sleep deprivation (SD) often leads to complex detrimental consequences, though the mechanisms underlying these dysfunctional effects remain largely unknown. We investigated whether the right stellate ganglion block in rats can improve the spatial learning and memory dysfunction induced by sleep deprivation by alleviating the damage of hippocampus in rats.

Methods

Sixty four male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups: Control, SD (sleep deprivation), SGB (stellate ganglion block) and SGB + SD (stellate ganglion block+ sleep deprivation) (n = 16). The SGB and SD + SGB groups were subjected to right stellate ganglion block through posterior approach method once per day. SD and SD + SGB groups were treated with modified multi-platform water environment method for 96 h sleep deprivation in rats and their body weights were analyzed. Histopathological changes of hippocampal neurons in rats and the expression of Caspase-3 in hippocampus of rats was detected by western blotting. ELISA was used to detect the content of IL-6, IL-1 in hippocampus and serum melatonin levels.

Results

Compared with the group SD, the spatial learning and memory function of the group SD + SGB was improved, the weight loss was alleviated, the pathological damage of the hippocampus was reduced and the expression of IL-6, IL-1β and Caspase-3 in the hippocampus was decreased. The content of rat serum melatonin was also increased.

Conclusions

The right stellate ganglion block can improve the spatial learning and memory dysfunction of rats with sleep deprivation, and the underlying mechanism may be related to alleviating the apoptosis and inflammation of hippocampus of rats with sleep deprivation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12871-021-01486-4.

Network pharmacology-based and molecular docking prediction of the active ingredients and mechanism of ZaoRenDiHuang capsules for application in insomnia treatment

BACKGROUND

The ZaoRenDiHuang (ZRDH) capsule is widely used in clinical practice and has significant therapeutic effects on insomnia. However, its active ingredients and mechanisms of action for insomnia remain unknown. In this study, network pharmacology was employed to elucidate the potential anti-insomnia mechanisms of ZRDH.

METHODS

The potential active ingredients of ZRDH were obtained from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database. Possible targets were predicted using SwissTargetPrediction tools. The insomnia-related targets were identified using the therapeutic target database, Drugbank database, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man database, and gene-disease associations database. A compound-target-disease network was constructed using Cytoscape for visualization. Additionally, the protein functional annotation and identification of signaling pathways of potential targets were performed using Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses using the Metascape platform.

RESULTS

In this study, 61 anti-insomnia components and 65 anti-insomnia targets of ZRDH were filtered through database mining. The drug-disease network was constructed with five key components. Sixty-five key targets were identified using topological analysis. Docking studies indicated that bioactive compounds could stably bind to the pockets of target proteins. Through data mining and network analysis, the GO terms and KEGG annotation suggested that the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, serotonergic synapse CAMP signaling, HIF-1a signaling, and toll-like receptor signaling pathways play vital roles against insomnia.

CONCLUSION

The potential mechanisms of ZRDH treatment for insomnia involve multiple components, targets, and pathways. These findings provide a reference for further investigations into the mechanisms underlying ZRDH treatment of insomnia.

Differential effect of sleep deprivation on place cell representations, sleep architecture, and memory in young and old mice

Poor sleep quality is associated with age-related cognitive decline, and whether reversal of these alterations is possible is unknown. In this study, we report how sleep deprivation (SD) affects hippocampal representations, sleep patterns, and memory in young and old mice. After training in a hippocampus-dependent object-place recognition (OPR) task, control animals sleep ad libitum, although experimental animals undergo 5 h of SD, followed by recovery sleep. Young controls and old SD mice exhibit successful OPR memory, whereas young SD and old control mice are impaired. Successful performance is associated with two cellular phenotypes: (1) "context" cells, which remain stable throughout training and testing, and (2) "object configuration" cells, which remap when objects are introduced to the context and during testing. Additionally, effective memory correlates with spindle counts during non-rapid eye movement (NREM)/rapid eye movement (REM) sigma transitions. These results suggest SD may serve to ameliorate age-related memory deficits and allow hippocampal representations to adapt to changing environments.

Inconsistent effects of sleep deprivation on memory function

In this review article, we aimed to discuss the role of sleep deprivation (SD) in learning and memory processing in basic and clinical studies. There are numerous studies investigating the effect of SD on memory, while most of these studies have shown the impairment effect of SD. However, some of these studies have reported conflicting results, indicating that SD does not impair memory performance or even improves it. So far, no study has discussed or compared the conflicting results of SD on learning and memory. Thus, this important issue in the neuroscience of sleep remains unknown. The main goal of this review article is to compare the similar mechanisms between the impairment and the improvement effects of SD on learning and memory, probably leading to a scientific solution that justifies these conflicting results. We focused on the inconsistent effects of SD on some mechanisms involved in learning and memory, and tried to discuss the inconsistent effects of SD on learning and memory.

Roflumilast, a cAMP-Specific Phosphodiesterase-4 Inhibitor, Reduces Oxidative Stress and Improves Synapse Functions in Human Cortical Neurons Exposed to the Excitotoxin Quinolinic Acid

The overexpression of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) enzymes is reported in several neurodegenerative diseases. PDE4 depletes cyclic 3'-5' adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and, in turn, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the key players in cognitive function. The present study was undertaken to investigate the mechanism behind the protective effects of roflumilast (ROF), a cAMP-specific PDE4 inhibitor, against quinolinic acid (QUIN)-induced neurotoxicity using human primary cortical neurons. Cytotoxicity was analyzed using an MTS assay. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial membrane potential were measured by DCF-DA and JC-10 staining, respectively. Caspase 3/7 activity was measured using an ApoTox-Glo Triplex assay kit. cAMP was measured using an ELISA kit. The protein expression of CREB, BDNF, SAP-97, synaptophysin, synapsin-I, and PSD-95 was analyzed by the Western blotting technique. QUIN exposure down-regulated CREB, BDNF, and synaptic protein expression in neurons. Pretreatment with ROF increased the intracellular cAMP, mitochondrial membrane potential, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) content and decreased the ROS and caspase 3/7 levels in QUIN-exposed neurons. ROF up-regulated the expression of synapse proteins SAP-97, synaptophysin, synapsin-I, PSD-95, and CREB and BDNF, which indicates its potential role in memory. This study suggests for the first time that QUIN causes pre- and postsynaptic protein damage. We further demonstrate the restorative effects of ROF on the mitochondrial membrane potential and antiapoptotic properties in human neurons. These data encourage further investigations to reposition ROF in neurodegenerative diseases and their associated cognitive deficits.

A brief period of sleep deprivation leads to subtle changes in mouse gut microbiota

Not getting enough sleep is a common problem in our society and contributes to numerous health problems, including high blood pressure, diabetes and obesity. Related to these observations, a wealth of studies has underscored the negative impact of both acute and chronic sleep deprivation on cognitive function. More recently it has become apparent that the gut microbiota composition can be rapidly altered, modulates brain function and is affected by the aforementioned health problems. As such, changes in the microbiota composition may contribute to the behavioural and physiological phenotypes associated with sleep deprivation. It is unclear, however, whether a brief period of sleep deprivation can also negatively impact the gut microbiota. Here, we examined the impact of 5 hr of sleep deprivation on gut microbiota composition of male C57Bl6/J mice. Despite the fact that the overall microbial composition did not change between the control- and sleep-deprived groups, the relative abundance of the Clostridiaceae and Lachnospiraceae were slightly altered in sleep-deprived animals compared to controls. Together, these data suggest that depriving mice of sleep for 5 hr leads to subtle changes in the gut microbiota composition.

Therapeutic activities of naringenin on efavirenz-induced sleep-like disorder in the midbrain of white albino mice

OBJECTIVES

Efavirenz, has proven to be effective in suppressing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) viral load; however, complaints of sleep disorders including hallucination, and insomnia have greatly contributed to non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy. This study aimed at investigating therapeutic activities of naringenin on efavirenz-induced sleep disorder.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty mice were divided into six groups of control, combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), efavirenz, naringenin, naringenin/efavirenz and naringenin/cART. Efavirenz, cART, and naringenin were administered orally and daily at 15 mg/kg, 24 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg, respectively for 28 days. Post neurobehavioral test, oxidative stress, histology and immunohistochemistry for dopamine were carried out after administration process.

RESULTS

Efavirenz (P<0.0001) and cART (P<0.01) significantly increased immobility during open field (P<0.01), escape time in seconds (sec) in Morris water maze (P<0.001) and numbers of head-twitch response (HTR) (P<0.0001). Similarly, there was a significant increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) (P<0.0001) and decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) (P<0.001) and reduced glutathione (GSH) (P<0.001); however, naringenin-treated groups potentiated anti-oxidant function by reducing oxidative stress (P<0.01). Histological evaluation demonstrated severe neurodegeneration, vacuolization and pyknosis in efavirenz and cART compared to naringenin groups. Dopaminergic neurons using immunohistochemial antibody (tyrosine hydroxylase) staining showed poor immunoreactivity in efavirenz and cART in contrast to naringenin groups.

CONCLUSION

Efavirenz and cART have the potential of inducing sleep disorder possibly due to their capability to trigger inflammation and deplete dopamine level. However, naringenin has proven to be effective in ameliorating these damages.

Phosphodiesterase inhibitors roflumilast and vardenafil prevent sleep deprivation-induced deficits in spatial pattern separation

Sleep deprivation (SD) is known to impair hippocampus‐dependent memory processes, in part by stimulating the phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity. In the present study, we assessed in mice whether SD also affects spatial pattern separation, a cognitive process that specifically requires the dentate gyrus (DG) subregion of the hippocampus. Adult male mice were trained in an object pattern separation (OPS) task in the middle of the light phase and then tested 24 hr thereafter. In total, we conducted three studies using the OPS task. In the first study, we validated the occurrence of pattern separation and tested the effects of SD. We found that 6 hr of SD during the first half of the light phase directly preceding the test trial impaired the spatial pattern separation performance. As a next step, we assessed in two consecutive studies whether the observed SD‐induced performance deficits could be prevented by the systemic application of two different PDE inhibitors that are approved for human use. Both the PDE4 inhibitor roflumilast and PDE5 inhibitor vardenafil successfully prevented SD‐induced deficits in spatial pattern separation. As a result, these PDE inhibitors have clinical potential for the prevention of memory deficits associated with loss of sleep.

Elucidating the role of protein synthesis in hippocampus‐dependent memory consolidation across the day and night

It is widely acknowledged that de novo protein synthesis is crucial for the formation and consolidation of long‐term memories. While the basal activity of many signaling cascades that modulate protein synthesis fluctuates in a circadian fashion, it is unclear whether the temporal dynamics of protein synthesis‐dependent memory consolidation vary depending on the time of day. More specifically, it is unclear whether protein synthesis inhibition affects hippocampus‐dependent memory consolidation in rodents differentially across the day (i.e., the inactive phase with an abundance of sleep) and night (i.e., the active phase with little sleep). To address this question, male and female C57Bl6/J mice were trained in a contextual fear conditioning task at the beginning or the end of the light phase. Animals received a single systemic injection with the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin or vehicle directly, 4, 8 hr, or 11.5 hr following training, and memory was assessed after 24 hr. Here, we show that protein synthesis inhibition impaired the consolidation of context–fear memories selectively when the protein synthesis inhibitor was administered at the first three time points, irrespective of timing of training. Even though the basal activity of signaling pathways regulating de novo protein synthesis may fluctuate across the 24‐hr cycle, these results suggest that the temporal dynamics of protein synthesis‐dependent memory consolidation are similar for day‐time and night‐time learning.

Transient cAMP elevation during systems consolidation enhances remote contextual fear memory

Memory is stored in our brains over a temporally graded transition. With time, recently formed memories are transformed into remote memories for permanent storage; multiple brain regions, such as the hippocampus and neocortex, participate in this process. In this study, we aimed to understand the molecular mechanism of systems consolidation of memory and to investigate the brain regions that contribute to this regulation. We first carried out a contextual fear memory test using a transgenic mouse line, which expressed exogenously-derived Aplysia octopamine receptors in the forebrain region, such that, in response to octopamine treatment, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels could be transiently elevated. From this experiment, we revealed that transient elevation of cAMP levels in the forebrain during systems consolidation led to an enhancement in remote fear memory and increased miniature excitatory synaptic currents in layer II/III of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Furthermore, using an adeno-associated-virus-driven DREADD system, we investigated the specific regions in the forebrain that contribute to the regulation of memory transfer into long-term associations. Our results implied that transient elevation of cAMP levels was induced chemogenetically in the ACC, but not in the hippocampus, and showed a significant enhancement of remote memory. This finding suggests that neuronal activation during systems consolidation through the elevation of cAMP levels in the ACC contributes to remote memory enhancement.

Rolipram treatment during consolidation ameliorates long-term object location memory in aged male mice

Normal aging is accompanied by cognitive and memory impairments that negatively impact quality of life for the growing elderly population. Hippocampal function is most vulnerable to the deleterious effects of aging, and deficits in hippocampus-dependent memories are common amongst aged individuals. Moreover, signaling networks such as the cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway, which are critical for memory consolidation, are dampened in healthy aged subjects. Phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzymes that break down cAMP are also affected by aging, and increased break down of cAMP by PDEs may contribute to reduced activity of the cAMP/PKA/CREB signaling network in the brain of aged individuals. Here, we report that the PDE4 inhibitor rolipram administered during consolidation of hippocampus-dependent object location memory improves aged-related spatial memory deficits in aged mice.

Sleep deprivation directly following eyeblink-conditioning impairs memory consolidation

The relation between sleep and different forms of memory formation continues to be a relevant topic in our daily life. Sleep has been found to affect cerebellum-dependent procedural memory formation, but it remains to be elucidated to what extent the level of sleep deprivation directly after motor training also influences our ability to store and retrieve memories. Here, we studied the effect of disturbed sleep in mice during two different time-windows, one covering the first four hours following eyeblink conditioning (EBC) and another window following the next period of four hours. Compared to control mice with sleep ad libitum, the percentage of conditioned responses and their amplitude were impaired when mice were deprived of sleep directly after conditioning. This impairment was still significant when the learned EBC responses were extinguished and later reacquired. However, consolidation of eyeblink responses was not affected when mice were deprived later than four hours after acquisition, not even when tested during a different day-night cycle for control. Moreover, mice that slept longer directly following EBC showed a tendency for more conditioned responses. Our data indicate that consolidation of motor memories can benefit from sleep directly following memory formation.

Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis: The role of disturbed sleep in attenuated brain plasticity and neurodegenerative processes

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive impairments. The classical symptoms of the disease include gradual deterioration of memory and language. Epidemiological studies indicate that around 25-40% of AD patients have sleep-wake cycle disturbances. Importantly, a series of studies suggested that the relationship between AD and sleep disturbance may be complex and bidirectional. Indeed, accumulation of the extracellular neuronal protein amyloid-beta (Aβ) leads to altered sleep-wake behavior in both mice and humans. At the same time, disturbances of the normal sleep-wake cycle may facilitate AD pathogenesis. This paper will review the mechanisms underlying this potential interrelated connection including locus coeruleus damage, reductions in orexin neurotransmission, alterations in melatonin levels, and elevated cytokine levels. In addition, we will also highlight how both the development of AD and sleep disturbances lead to changes in intracellular signaling pathways involved in regulating neuronal plasticity and connectivity, particularly extremes in cofilin phosphorylation. Finally, current pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapeutic approaches will be discussed.

Hippocampal Reactivation Extends for Several Hours Following Novel Experience

New memories are believed to be consolidated over several hours of post-task sleep. The reactivation or "replay" of hippocampal cell assemblies has been proposed to provide a key mechanism for this process. However, previous studies have indicated that such replay is restricted to the first 10-30 min of post-task sleep, suggesting that it has a limited role in memory consolidation. We performed long-duration recordings in sleeping and behaving male rats and applied methods for evaluating the reactivation of neurons in pairs as well as in larger ensembles while controlling for the continued activation of ensembles already present during pre-task sleep ("preplay"). We found that cell assemblies reactivate for up to 10 h, with a half-maximum timescale of ∼6 h, in sleep following novel experience, even when corrected for preplay. We further confirmed similarly prolonged reactivation in post-task sleep of rats in other datasets that used behavior in novel environments. In contrast, we saw limited reactivation in sleep following behavior in familiar environments. Overall, our findings reconcile the duration of replay with the timescale attributed to cellular memory consolidation and provide strong support for an integral role of replay in memory.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Neurons that are active during an experience reactivate again afterward during rest and sleep. This replay of ensembles of neurons has been proposed to help strengthen memories, but it has also been reported that replay occurs only in the first 10-30 min of sleep, suggesting a circumscribed role. We performed long-duration recordings in the hippocampus of rats and found that replay persists for several hours in sleep following novel experience, far beyond the limits found in previous reports based on shorter recordings. These findings reconcile the duration of replay with the hours-long timescales attributed to memory consolidation.

Computational models of memory consolidation and long-term synaptic plasticity during sleep

The brain stores memories by persistently changing the connectivity between neurons. Sleep is known to be critical for these changes to endure. Research on the neurobiology of sleep and the mechanisms of long-term synaptic plasticity has provided data in support of various theories of how brain activity during sleep affects long-term synaptic plasticity. The experimental findings - and therefore the theories - are apparently quite contradictory, with some evidence pointing to a role of sleep in the forgetting of irrelevant memories, whereas other results indicate that sleep supports the reinforcement of the most valuable recollections. A unified theoretical framework is in need. Computational modeling and simulation provide grounds for the quantitative testing and comparison of theoretical predictions and observed data, and might serve as a strategy to organize the rather complicated and diverse pool of data and methodologies used in sleep research. This review article outlines the emerging progress in the computational modeling and simulation of the main theories on the role of sleep in memory consolidation.

Exploring gene expression biomarker candidates for neurobehavioral impairment from total sleep deprivation

Background

Although sleep deprivation is associated with neurobehavioral impairment that may underlie significant risks to performance and safety, there is no reliable biomarker test to detect dangerous levels of impairment from sleep loss in humans. This study employs microarrays and bioinformatics analyses to explore candidate gene expression biomarkers associated with total sleep deprivation (TSD), and more specifically, the phenotype of neurobehavioral impairment from TSD. Healthy adult volunteers were recruited to a sleep laboratory for seven consecutive days (six nights). After two Baseline nights of 10 h time in bed, 11 subjects underwent an Experimental phase of 62 h of continuous wakefulness, followed by two Recovery nights of 10 h time in bed. Another six subjects underwent a well-rested Control condition of 10 h time in bed for all six nights. Blood was drawn for measuring gene expression on days two, four, and six at 4 h intervals from 08:00 to 20:00 h, corresponding to 12 timepoints across one Baseline, one Experimental, and one Recovery day.

Results

Altogether 212 genes changed expression in response to the TSD Treatment, with most genes exhibiting down-regulation during TSD. Also, 28 genes were associated with neurobehavioral impairment as measured by the Psychomotor Vigilance Test. The results support previous findings associating TSD with the immune response and ion signaling, and reveal novel candidate biomarkers such as the Speedy/RINGO family of cell cycle regulators.

Conclusions

This study serves as an important step toward understanding gene expression changes during sleep deprivation. In addition to exploring potential biomarkers for TSD, this report presents novel candidate biomarkers associated with lapses of attention during TSD. Although further work is required for biomarker validation, analysis of these genes may aid fundamental understanding of the impact of TSD on neurobehavioral performance.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-4664-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Fear memory consolidation in sleep requires protein kinase A

It is well established that protein kinase A (PKA) is involved in hippocampal dependent memory consolidation. Sleep is also known to play an important role in this process. However, whether sleep-dependent memory consolidation involves PKA activation has not been clearly determined. Using behavioral observation, animals were categorized into sleep and awake groups. We show that intrahippocampal injections of the PKA inhibitor Rp-cAMPs in post-contextual fear conditioning sleep produced a suppression of long-term fear memory, while injections of Rp-cAMPs during an awake state, at a similar time point, had no effect. In contrast, injections of the PKA activator Sp-cAMPs in awake state, rescued sleep deprivation-induced memory impairments. These results suggest that following learning, PKA activation specifically in sleep is required for the consolidation of long-term memory.

A brief period of sleep deprivation causes spine loss in the dentate gyrus of mice

Sleep and sleep loss have a profound impact on hippocampal function, leading to memory impairments. Modifications in the strength of synaptic connections directly influences neuronal communication, which is vital for normal brain function, as well as the processing and storage of information. In a recently published study, we found that as little as five hours of sleep deprivation impaired hippocampus-dependent memory consolidation, which was accompanied by a reduction in dendritic spine numbers in hippocampal area CA1. Surprisingly, loss of sleep did not alter the spine density of CA3 neurons. Although sleep deprivation has been reported to affect the function of the dentate gyrus, it is unclear whether a brief period of sleep deprivation impacts spine density in this region. Here, we investigated the impact of a brief period of sleep deprivation on dendritic structure in the dentate gyrus of the dorsal hippocampus. We found that five hours of sleep loss reduces spine density in the dentate gyrus with a prominent effect on branched spines. Interestingly, the inferior blade of the dentate gyrus seems to be more vulnerable in terms of spine loss than the superior blade. This decrease in spine density predominantly in the inferior blade of the dentate gyrus may contribute to the memory deficits observed after sleep loss, as structural reorganization of synaptic networks in this subregion is fundamental for cognitive processes.

Sleep deprivation impairs synaptic tagging in mouse hippocampal slices

Metaplasticity refers to the ability of experience to alter synaptic plasticity, or modulate the strength of neuronal connections. Sleep deprivation has been shown to have a negative impact on synaptic plasticity, but it is unknown whether sleep deprivation also influences processes of metaplasticity. Therefore, we tested whether 5 h of total sleep deprivation (SD) in mice would impair hippocampal synaptic tagging and capture (STC), a form of heterosynaptic metaplasticity in which combining strong stimulation in one synaptic input with weak stimulation at another input allows the weak input to induce long-lasting synaptic strengthening. STC in stratum radiatum of area CA1 occurred normally in control mice, but was impaired following SD. After SD, potentiation at the weakly stimulated synapses decayed back to baseline within 2 h. Thus, sleep deprivation disrupts a prominent form of metaplasticity in which two independent inputs interact to generate long-lasting LTP.

Sleep Deprivation and the Epigenome

Sleep deprivation disrupts the lives of millions of people every day and has a profound impact on the molecular biology of the brain. These effects begin as changes within a neuron, at the DNA and RNA level, and result in alterations in neuronal plasticity and dysregulation of many cognitive functions including learning and memory. The epigenome plays a critical role in regulating gene expression in the context of memory storage. In this review article, we begin by describing the effects of epigenetic alterations on the regulation of gene expression, focusing on the most common epigenetic mechanisms: (i) DNA methylation; (ii) histone modifications; and (iii) non-coding RNAs. We then discuss evidence suggesting that sleep loss impacts the epigenome and that these epigenetic alterations might mediate the changes in cognition seen following disruption of sleep. The link between sleep and the epigenome is only beginning to be elucidated, but clear evidence exists that epigenetic alterations occur following sleep deprivation. In the future, these changes to the epigenome could be utilized as biomarkers of sleep loss or as therapeutic targets for sleep-related disorders.

Light and Cognition: Roles for Circadian Rhythms, Sleep, and Arousal

Light exerts a wide range of effects on mammalian physiology and behavior. As well as synchronizing circadian rhythms to the external environment, light has been shown to modulate autonomic and neuroendocrine responses as well as regulating sleep and influencing cognitive processes such as attention, arousal, and performance. The last two decades have seen major advances in our understanding of the retinal photoreceptors that mediate these non-image forming responses to light, as well as the neural pathways and molecular mechanisms by which circadian rhythms are generated and entrained to the external light/dark (LD) cycle. By contrast, our understanding of the mechanisms by which lighting influences cognitive processes is more equivocal. The effects of light on different cognitive processes are complex. As well as the direct effects of light on alertness, indirect effects may also occur due to disrupted circadian entrainment. Despite the widespread use of disrupted LD cycles to study the role circadian rhythms on cognition, the different experimental protocols used have subtly different effects on circadian function which are not always comparable. Moreover, these protocols will also disrupt sleep and alter physiological arousal, both of which are known to modulate cognition. Studies have used different assays that are dependent on different cognitive and sensory processes, which may also contribute to their variable findings. Here, we propose that studies addressing the effects of different lighting conditions on cognitive processes must also account for their effects on circadian rhythms, sleep, and arousal if we are to fully understand the physiological basis of these responses.

Learning induces the translin/trax RNase complex to express activin receptors for persistent memory

Long-lasting forms of synaptic plasticity and memory require de novo protein synthesis. Yet, how learning triggers this process to form memory is unclear. Translin/trax is a candidate to drive this learning-induced memory mechanism by suppressing microRNA-mediated translational silencing at activated synapses. We find that mice lacking translin/trax display defects in synaptic tagging, which requires protein synthesis at activated synapses, and long-term memory. Hippocampal samples harvested from these mice following learning show increases in several disease-related microRNAs targeting the activin A receptor type 1C (ACVR1C), a component of the transforming growth factor-β receptor superfamily. Furthermore, the absence of translin/trax abolishes synaptic upregulation of ACVR1C protein after learning. Finally, synaptic tagging and long-term memory deficits in mice lacking translin/trax are mimicked by ACVR1C inhibition. Thus, we define a new memory mechanism by which learning reverses microRNA-mediated silencing of the novel plasticity protein ACVR1C via translin/trax.

Compartmentalized PDE4A5 Signaling Impairs Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity and Long-Term Memory

Alterations in cAMP signaling are thought to contribute to neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric disorders. Members of the cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) family, which contains >25 different isoforms, play a key role in determining spatial cAMP degradation so as to orchestrate compartmentalized cAMP signaling in cells. Each isoform binds to a different set of protein complexes through its unique N-terminal domain, thereby leading to targeted degradation of cAMP in specific intracellular compartments. However, the functional role of specific compartmentalized PDE4 isoforms has not been examined in vivo Here, we show that increasing protein levels of the PDE4A5 isoform in mouse hippocampal excitatory neurons impairs a long-lasting form of hippocampal synaptic plasticity and attenuates hippocampus-dependent long-term memories without affecting anxiety. In contrast, viral expression of a truncated version of PDE4A5, which lacks the unique N-terminal targeting domain, does not affect long-term memory. Further, overexpression of the PDE4A1 isoform, which targets a different subset of signalosomes, leaves memory undisturbed. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer sensor-based cAMP measurements reveal that the full-length PDE4A5, in contrast to the truncated form, hampers forskolin-mediated increases in neuronal cAMP levels. Our study indicates that the unique N-terminal localization domain of PDE4A5 is essential for the targeting of specific cAMP-dependent signaling underlying synaptic plasticity and memory. The development of compounds to disrupt the compartmentalization of individual PDE4 isoforms by targeting their unique N-terminal domains may provide a fruitful approach to prevent cognitive deficits in neuropsychiatric and neurocognitive disorders that are associated with alterations in cAMP signaling.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Neurons exhibit localized signaling processes that enable biochemical cascades to be activated selectively in specific subcellular compartments. The phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) family coordinates the degradation of cAMP, leading to the local attenuation of cAMP-dependent signaling pathways. Sleep deprivation leads to increased hippocampal expression of the PDE4A5 isoform. Here, we explored whether PDE4A5 overexpression mimics behavioral and synaptic plasticity phenotypes associated with sleep deprivation. Viral expression of PDE4A5 in hippocampal neurons impairs long-term potentiation and attenuates the formation of hippocampus-dependent long-term memories. Our findings suggest that PDE4A5 is a molecular constraint on cognitive processes and may contribute to the development of novel therapeutic approaches to prevent cognitive deficits in neuropsychiatric and neurocognitive disorders that are associated with alterations in cAMP signaling.

Fast and slow Ca2+-dependent hyperpolarization mechanisms connect membrane potential and sleep homeostasis

Several lines of evidence indicate that the sleep-wake state of cortical neurons is regulated not only through neuronal projections from the lower brain, but also through the cortical neurons' intrinsic ability to initiate a slow firing pattern related to the slow-wave oscillation observed in electroencephalography of the sleeping brain. Theoretical modeling and experiments with genetic and pharmacological perturbation suggest that ion channels and kinases acting downstream of calcium signaling regulate the cortical-membrane potential and sleep duration. In this review, we introduce possible Ca²⁺-dependent hyperpolarization mechanisms in cortical neurons, in which Ca²⁺ signaling associated with neuronal excitation evokes kinase cascades, and the activated kinases modify ion channels or pumps to regulate the cortical sleep/wake firing mode.

The role of sleep in regulating structural plasticity and synaptic strength: Implications for memory and cognitive function

Dendritic spines are the major sites of synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. Alterations in the strength of synaptic connections directly affect the neuronal communication, which is crucial for brain function as well as the processing and storage of information. Sleep and sleep loss bidirectionally alter structural plasticity, by affecting spine numbers and morphology, which ultimately can affect the functional output of the brain in terms of alertness, cognition, and mood. Experimental data from studies in rodents suggest that sleep deprivation may impact structural plasticity in different ways. One of the current views, referred to as the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, suggests that wake promotes synaptic potentiation whereas sleep facilitates synaptic downscaling. On the other hand, several studies have now shown that sleep deprivation can reduce spine density and attenuate synaptic efficacy in the hippocampus. These data are the basis for the view that sleep promotes hippocampal structural plasticity critical for memory formation. Altogether, the impact of sleep and sleep loss may vary between regions of the brain. A better understanding of the role that sleep plays in regulating structural plasticity may ultimately lead to novel therapeutic approaches for brain disorders that are accompanied by sleep disturbances and sleep loss.

The tired hippocampus: the molecular impact of sleep deprivation on hippocampal function

Memory consolidation, the process by which information is stored following training, consists of synaptic consolidation and systems consolidation. It is widely acknowledged that sleep deprivation has a profound effect on synaptic consolidation, particularly for memories that require the hippocampus. It is unclear, however, which of the many molecular changes associated with sleep deprivation directly contribute to memory deficits. In this review, we highlight recent studies showing that sleep deprivation impairs hippocampal cAMP and mTOR signaling, and ultimately causes spine loss in CA1 neurons in a cofilin-dependent fashion. Reversing these molecular alterations made memory consolidation resistant to the negative impact of sleep deprivation. Together, these studies have started to identify the molecular underpinnings by which sleep deprivation impairs synaptic consolidation.

The PDE4 cAMP-Specific Phosphodiesterases: Targets for Drugs with Antidepressant and Memory-Enhancing Action

The PDE4 cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases are essential regulators of cAMP abundance in the CNS through their ability to regulate PKA activity, the phosphorylation of CREB, and other important elements of signal transduction. In pre-clinical models and in early-stage clinical trials, PDE4 inhibitors have been shown to have antidepressant and memory-enhancing activity. However, the development of clinically-useful PDE4 inhibitors for CNS disorders has been limited by variable efficacy and significant side effects. Recent structural studies have greatly enhanced our understanding of the molecular configuration of PDE4 enzymes, especially the "long" PDE4 isoforms that are abundant in the CNS. The new structural data provide a rationale for the development of a new generation of PDE4 inhibitors that specifically act on long PDE4 isoforms. These next generation PDE4 inhibitors may also be capable of targeting the interactions of select long forms with their "partner" proteins, such as RACK1, β-arrestin, and DISC1. They would therefore have the ability to affect cAMP levels in specific cellular compartments and target localized cellular functions, such as synaptic plasticity. These new agents might also be able to target PDE4 populations in select regions of the CNS that are implicated in learning and memory, affect, and cognition. Potential therapeutic uses of these agents could include affective disorders, memory enhancement, and neurogenesis.

Acute Sleep Deprivation Blocks Short- and Long-Term Operant Memory in Aplysia

STUDY OBJECTIVES

Insufficient sleep in individuals appears increasingly common due to the demands of modern work schedules and technology use. Consequently, there is a growing need to understand the interactions between sleep deprivation and memory. The current study determined the effects of acute sleep deprivation on short and long-term associative memory using the marine mollusk Aplysia californica, a relatively simple model system well known for studies of learning and memory.

METHODS

Aplysia were sleep deprived for 9 hours using context changes and tactile stimulation either prior to or after training for the operant learning paradigm, learning that food is inedible (LFI). The effects of sleep deprivation on short-term (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) were assessed.

RESULTS

Acute sleep deprivation prior to LFI training impaired the induction of STM and LTM with persistent effects lasting at least 24 h. Sleep deprivation immediately after training blocked the consolidation of LTM. However, sleep deprivation following the period of molecular consolidation did not affect memory recall. Memory impairments were independent of handling-induced stress, as daytime handled control animals demonstrated no memory deficits. Additional training immediately after sleep deprivation failed to rescue the induction of memory, but additional training alleviated the persistent impairment in memory induction when training occurred 24 h following sleep deprivation.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute sleep deprivation inhibited the induction and consolidation, but not the recall of memory. These behavioral studies establish Aplysia as an effective model system for studying the interactions between sleep and memory formation.

Sleep deprivation causes memory deficits by negatively impacting neuronal connectivity in hippocampal area CA1

Brief periods of sleep loss have long-lasting consequences such as impaired memory consolidation. Structural changes in synaptic connectivity have been proposed as a substrate of memory storage. Here, we examine the impact of brief periods of sleep deprivation on dendritic structure. In mice, we find that five hours of sleep deprivation decreases dendritic spine numbers selectively in hippocampal area CA1 and increased activity of the filamentous actin severing protein cofilin. Recovery sleep normalizes these structural alterations. Suppression of cofilin function prevents spine loss, deficits in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, and impairments in long-term memory caused by sleep deprivation. The elevated cofilin activity is caused by cAMP-degrading phosphodiesterase-4A5 (PDE4A5), which hampers cAMP-PKA-LIMK signaling. Attenuating PDE4A5 function prevents changes in cAMP-PKA-LIMK-cofilin signaling and cognitive deficits associated with sleep deprivation. Our work demonstrates the necessity of an intact cAMP-PDE4-PKA-LIMK-cofilin activation-signaling pathway for sleep deprivation-induced memory disruption and reduction in hippocampal spine density.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13424.001

The demands of modern society means that millions of people do not get sufficient sleep on a daily basis. Sleep deprivation, even if only for brief periods, can impair learning and memory. In many cases, this impairment appears to be related to changes in the activity of a brain region called the hippocampus. However, the exact processes responsible for producing the effects of sleep deprivation remain unclear.

During learning or forming a new memory, the connections between the relevant neurons in the brain change. Havekes et al. found that depriving mice of sleep for just five hours dramatically reduced the connectivity between neurons in the hippocampus. This reduction is caused by the increased activity of cofilin, a protein that breaks down the actin filaments that shape the connections between neurons.

Havekes et al. then used a virus to introduce an inactive version of cofilin into hippocampal neurons to suppress the activity of the naturally present cofilin. This manipulation prevented both the loss of the connections between neurons and the memory deficits normally associated with sleep deprivation. Havekes et al. also found that recovery sleep leads to the re-wiring of neurons in the hippocampus. Future studies are now needed to determine how the neurons are able to re-wire themselves during recovery sleep.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.13424.002

Sleep deprivation impairs memory by attenuating mTORC1-dependent protein synthesis

Sleep deprivation is a public health epidemic that causes wide-ranging deleterious consequences, including impaired memory and cognition. Protein synthesis in hippocampal neurons promotes memory and cognition. The kinase complex mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) stimulates protein synthesis by phosphorylating and inhibiting the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 2 (4EBP2). We investigated the involvement of the mTORC1-4EBP2 axis in the molecular mechanisms mediating the cognitive deficits caused by sleep deprivation in mice. Using an in vivo protein translation assay, we found that loss of sleep impaired protein synthesis in the hippocampus. Five hours of sleep loss attenuated both mTORC1-mediated phosphorylation of 4EBP2 and the interaction between eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) and eIF4G in the hippocampi of sleep-deprived mice. Increasing the abundance of 4EBP2 in hippocampal excitatory neurons before sleep deprivation increased the abundance of phosphorylated 4EBP2, restored the amount of eIF4E-eIF4G interaction and hippocampal protein synthesis to that seen in mice that were not sleep-deprived, and prevented the hippocampus-dependent memory deficits associated with sleep loss. These findings collectively demonstrate that 4EBP2-regulated protein synthesis is a critical mediator of the memory deficits caused by sleep deprivation.

Characterization of a Novel Chromatin Sorting Tool Reveals Importance of Histone Variant H3.3 in Contextual Fear Memory and Motor Learning

The consolidation of short-term labile memories for long-term storage requires transcription and there is growing interest in defining the epigenetic mechanisms regulating these transcriptional events. In particular, it has been hypothesized that combinations of histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) have the potential to store memory by dynamically defining the transcriptional status of any given gene loci. Studying epigenetic phenomena during long-term memory consolidation, however, is complicated by the complex cellular heterogeneity of the brain, in which epigenetic signal from memory-relevant cells can be obscured or diluted by the surrounding milieu. To address this issue, we have developed a transgenic mouse line expressing a tetO-regulated, hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged histone H3.3 exclusively in excitatory neurons of the forebrain. Unlike canonical histones, histone H3.3 is incorporated at promoter regions of transcriptionally active genes in a DNA replication-independent manner, stably “barcoding” active regions of the genome in post-mitotic cells. Immunoprecipitating H3.3-HA containing nucleosomes from the hippocampus will therefore enrich for memory-relevant chromatin by isolating actively transcribed regions of the excitatory neuron genome. To evaluate the validity of using H3.3 “barcoding” to sort chromatin, we performed a molecular and behavioral characterization of the H3.3-HA transgenic mouse line. Expectedly, we find that H3.3-HA is incorporated preferentially at promoter regions of actively-transcribed neuronal genes and that expression can be effectively regulated by doxycycline. Additionally, H3.3-HA overexpression does not adversely affect exploratory or anxiety-related behaviors, nor does it affect spatial memory. Transgenic animals do, however, exhibit deficits in contextual memory and motor learning, revealing the importance of this histone isoform in the brain. Future studies in the H3.3-HA transgenic mouse line will define the combinatorial histone PTM landscape during spatial memory consolidation and will investigate the important contributions of histone H3.3 to the normal functioning of the brain.

Molecular Genetic Strategies in the Study of Corticohippocampal Circuits

The first reproductively viable genetically modified mice were created in 1982 by Richard Palmiter and Ralph Brinster (Palmiter RD, Brinster RL, Hammer RE, Trumbauer ME, Rosenfeld MG, Birnberg NC, Evans RM. 1982. Dramatic growth of mice that develop from eggs microinjected with metallothionein-growth hormone fusion genes. Nature 300: 611-615). In the subsequent 30 plus years, numerous ground-breaking technical advancements in genetic manipulation have paved the way for improved spatially and temporally targeted research. Molecular genetic studies have been especially useful for probing the molecules and circuits underlying how organisms learn and remember—one of the most interesting and intensively investigated questions in neuroscience research. Here, we discuss selected genetic tools, focusing on corticohippocampal circuits and their implications for understanding learning and memory.

Stress-free automatic sleep deprivation using air puffs

BACKGROUND

Sleep deprivation via gentle handling is time-consuming and personnel-intensive.

NEW METHOD

We present here an automated sleep deprivation system via air puffs. Implanted EMG and EEG electrodes were used to assess sleep/waking states in six male Sprague-Dawley rats. Blood samples were collected from an implanted intravenous catheter every 4h during the 12-h light cycle on baseline, 8h of sleep deprivation via air puffs, and 8h of sleep deprivation by gentle handling days.

RESULTS

The automated system was capable of scoring sleep and waking states as accurately as our offline version (∼90% for sleep) and with sufficient speed to trigger a feedback response within an acceptable amount of time (1.76s). Manual state scoring confirmed normal sleep on the baseline day and sleep deprivation on the two manipulation days (68% decrease in non-REM, 63% decrease in REM, and 74% increase in waking). No significant differences in levels of ACTH and corticosterone (stress hormones indicative of HPA axis activity) were found at any time point between baseline sleep and sleep deprivation via air puffs.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD

There were no significant differences in ACTH or corticosterone concentrations between sleep deprivation by air puffs and gentle handling over the 8-h period.

CONCLUSIONS

Our system accurately detects sleep and delivers air puffs to acutely deprive rats of sleep with sufficient temporal resolution during the critical 4-5h post learning sleep-dependent memory consolidation period. The system is stress-free and a viable alternative to existing sleep deprivation techniques.

Sleep deprivation and hippocampal vulnerability: changes in neuronal plasticity, neurogenesis and cognitive function

Despite the ongoing fundamental controversy about the physiological function of sleep, there is general consensus that sleep benefits neuronal plasticity, which ultimately supports brain function and cognition. In agreement with this are numerous studies showing that sleep deprivation (SD) results in learning and memory impairments. Interestingly, such impairments appear to occur particularly when these learning and memory processes require the hippocampus, suggesting that this brain region may be particularly sensitive to the consequences of sleep loss. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying sleep and memory formation remain to be investigated, available evidence suggests that SD may impair hippocampal neuronal plasticity and memory processes by attenuating intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) signaling which may lead to alterations in cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-mediated gene transcription, neurotrophic signaling, and glutamate receptor expression. When restricted sleep becomes a chronic condition, it causes a reduction of hippocampal cell proliferation and neurogenesis, which may eventually lead to a reduction in hippocampal volume. Ultimately, by impairing hippocampal plasticity and function, chronically restricted and disrupted sleep contributes to cognitive disorders and psychiatric diseases.

Chronically restricted or disrupted sleep as a causal factor in the development of depression

Sleep problems are a common complaint in the majority of people suffering from depression. While sleep complaints were traditionally seen as a symptom of mood disorders, accumulating evidence suggests that in many cases the relationship may be reverse as well. A long list of longitudinal studies shows that sleep complaints often precede the onset of depression and constitute an independent risk factor for the development of the disorder. Additionally, experimental studies in animals show that chronically restricted or disrupted sleep may gradually induce neurobiological changes that are very similar to what has been reported for depressed patients. The mechanisms through which insufficient sleep increases the risk for depression are poorly understood but may include effects of sleep disturbance on neuroendocrine stress systems, serotonergic neurotransmission, and various interacting signaling pathways involved in the regulation of neuronal plasticity and neurogenesis. Because sleep is considered to play a crucial role in regulating neuronal plasticity and synaptic strength, chronically insufficient sleep may contribute to depression through an impairment of these plasticity processes leading to altered connectivity and communication within and between brain regions involved in the regulation of mood.