DNA Repair in Drosophila: Mutagens, Models, and Missing Genes

History of exposure to copper influences transgenerational gene expression responses in Daphnia magna

The establishment of transgenerational effects following chemical exposure is a powerful phenomenon, capable of modulating ecosystem health beyond exposure periods. This study assessed the transgenerational effects occurring due to copper exposure in the invertebrate D. magna at the transcriptional level, while evaluating the role of exposure history on such responses. Thus, daphnids acclimated for several generations in a copper vs. clean medium were then exposed for one generation (F0) to this metal, and monitored for the following non-exposed generations (F1, F2 and F3). Organisms differing in exposure histories showed remarkably different transcriptional profiles at the F0, with naïve organisms being more profoundly affected. These trends were confirmed for F3 treatments, which presented different transcriptional patterns for genes involved in detoxification, oxidative stress, DNA damage repair, circadian clock functioning and epigenetic regulation. Furthermore, regardless of exposure history, a great number of histone modifier genes were always found transcriptionally altered, thus suggesting the involvement of histone modifications in the response of Daphnia to metal exposure. Lastly, remarkably distinct transgenerational transcriptional responses were found between naïve and non-naïve organisms, thereby highlighting the influence of exposure history on gene expression and confirming the capacity of metals to determine transgenerational transcriptional effects across non-exposed generations.

Annelid Comparative Genomics and the Evolution of Massive Lineage-Specific Genome Rearrangement in Bilaterians

The organization of genomes into chromosomes is critical for processes such as genetic recombination, environmental adaptation, and speciation. All animals with bilateral symmetry inherited a genome structure from their last common ancestor that has been highly conserved in some taxa but seemingly unconstrained in others. However, the evolutionary forces driving these differences and the processes by which they emerge have remained largely uncharacterized. Here, we analyze genome organization across the phylum Annelida using 23 chromosome-level annelid genomes. We find that while many annelid lineages have maintained the conserved bilaterian genome structure, the Clitellata, a group containing leeches and earthworms, possesses completely scrambled genomes. We develop a rearrangement index to quantify the extent of genome structure evolution and show that, compared to the last common ancestor of bilaterians, leeches and earthworms have among the most highly rearranged genomes of any currently sampled species. We further show that bilaterian genomes can be classified into two distinct categories-high and low rearrangement-largely influenced by the presence or absence, respectively, of chromosome fission events. Our findings demonstrate that animal genome structure can be highly variable within a phylum and reveal that genome rearrangement can occur both in a gradual, stepwise fashion, or rapid, all-encompassing changes over short evolutionary timescales.

REV1 coordinates a multi-faceted tolerance response to DNA alkylation damage and prevents chromosome shattering in Drosophila melanogaster

When replication forks encounter damaged DNA, cells utilize damage tolerance mechanisms to allow replication to proceed. These include translesion synthesis at the fork, postreplication gap filling, and template switching via fork reversal or homologous recombination. The extent to which these different damage tolerance mechanisms are utilized depends on cell, tissue, and developmental context-specific cues, the last two of which are poorly understood. To address this gap, we have investigated damage tolerance responses in Drosophila melanogaster. We report that tolerance of DNA alkylation damage in rapidly dividing larval tissues depends heavily on translesion synthesis. Furthermore, we show that the REV1 protein plays a multi-faceted role in damage tolerance in Drosophila. Larvae lacking REV1 are hypersensitive to methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) and have highly elevated levels of γ-H2Av (Drosophila γ-H2AX) foci and chromosome aberrations in MMS-treated tissues. Loss of the REV1 C-terminal domain (CTD), which recruits multiple translesion polymerases to damage sites, sensitizes flies to MMS. In the absence of the REV1 CTD, DNA polymerases eta and zeta become critical for MMS tolerance. In addition, flies lacking REV3, the catalytic subunit of polymerase zeta, require the deoxycytidyl transferase activity of REV1 to tolerate MMS. Together, our results demonstrate that Drosophila prioritize the use of multiple translesion polymerases to tolerate alkylation damage and highlight the critical role of REV1 in the coordination of this response to prevent genome instability.

DNA repair in tumor radioresistance: insights from fruit flies genetics

BACKGROUND

Radiation therapy (RT) is a key anti-cancer treatment that involves using ionizing radiation to kill tumor cells. However, this therapy can lead to short- and long-term adverse effects due to radiation exposure of surrounding normal tissue. The type of DNA damage inflicted by radiation therapy determines its effectiveness. High levels of genotoxic damage can lead to cell cycle arrest, senescence, and cell death, but many tumors can cope with this damage by activating protective mechanisms. Intrinsic and acquired radioresistance are major causes of tumor recurrence, and understanding these mechanisms is crucial for cancer therapy. The mechanisms behind radioresistance involve processes like hypoxia response, cell proliferation, DNA repair, apoptosis inhibition, and autophagy.

CONCLUSION

Here we briefly review the role of genetic and epigenetic factors involved in the modulation of DNA repair and DNA damage response that promote radioresistance. In addition, leveraging our recent results on the effects of low dose rate (LDR) of ionizing radiation on Drosophila melanogaster we discuss how this model organism can be instrumental in the identification of conserved factors involved in the tumor resistance to RT.

Large-language models facilitate discovery of the molecular signatures regulating sleep and activity

Sleep, locomotor and social activities are essential animal behaviors, but their reciprocal relationships and underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we elicit information from a cutting-edge large-language model (LLM), generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) 3.5, which interprets 10.2-13.8% of Drosophila genes known to regulate the 3 behaviors. We develop an instrument for simultaneous video tracking of multiple moving objects, and conduct a genome-wide screen. We have identified 758 fly genes that regulate sleep and activities, including mre11 which regulates sleep only in the presence of conspecifics, and NELF-B which regulates sleep regardless of whether conspecifics are present. Based on LLM-reasoning, an educated signal web is modeled for understanding of potential relationships between its components, presenting comprehensive molecular signatures that control sleep, locomotor and social activities. This LLM-aided strategy may also be helpful for addressing other complex scientific questions.

Functions of the Bloom Syndrome Helicase N-terminal Intrinsically Disordered Region

Bloom Syndrome helicase (Blm) is a RecQ family helicase involved in DNA repair, cell-cycle progression, and development. Pathogenic variants in human BLM cause the autosomal recessive disorder Bloom Syndrome, characterized by predisposition to numerous types of cancer. Prior studies of Drosophila Blm mutants lacking helicase activity or protein have shown sensitivity to DNA damaging agents, defects in repairing DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), female sterility, and improper segregation of chromosomes in meiosis. Blm orthologs have a well conserved and highly structured RecQ helicase domain, but more than half of the protein, particularly in the N-terminus, is predicted to be unstructured. Because this region is poorly conserved across multicellular organisms, we compared closely related species to identify regions of conservation, potentially indicating important functions. We deleted two of these Drosophila-conserved regions in D. melanogaster using CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing and assessed the effects on different Blm functions. Each deletion had distinct effects on different Blm activities. Deletion of either conserved region 1 (CR1) or conserved region 2 (CR2) compromised DSB repair through synthesis-dependent strand annealing and resulted in increased mitotic crossovers. In contrast, CR2 is critical for embryonic development but CR1 is not as important. CR1 deletion allows for proficient meiotic chromosome segregation but does lead to defects in meiotic crossover designation and patterning. Finally, deletion of CR2 does not lead to significant meiotic defects, indicating that while each region has overlapping functions, there are discreet roles facilitated by each. These results provide novel insights into functions of the N-terminal disordered region of Blm.

The impact of developmental stage, tissue type, and sex on DNA double-strand break repair in Drosophila melanogaster

Accurate repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is essential for the maintenance of genome integrity, as failure to repair DSBs can result in cell death. The cell has evolved two main mechanisms for DSB repair: non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) and homology-directed repair (HDR), which includes single-strand annealing (SSA) and homologous recombination (HR). While certain factors like age and state of the chromatin are known to influence DSB repair pathway choice, the roles of developmental stage, tissue type, and sex have yet to be elucidated in multicellular organisms. To examine the influence of these factors, DSB repair in various embryonic developmental stages, larva, and adult tissues in Drosophila melanogaster was analyzed through molecular analysis of the DR-white assay using Tracking across Indels by DEcomposition (TIDE). The proportion of HR repair was highest in tissues that maintain the canonical (G1/S/G2/M) cell cycle and suppressed in both terminally differentiated and polyploid tissues. To determine the impact of sex on repair pathway choice, repair in different tissues in both males and females was analyzed. When molecularly examining tissues containing mostly somatic cells, males and females demonstrated similar proportions of HR and NHEJ. However, when DSB repair was analyzed in male and female premeiotic germline cells utilizing phenotypic analysis of the DR-white assay, there was a significant decrease in HR in females compared to males. This study describes the impact of development, tissue-specific cycling profile, and, in some cases, sex on DSB repair outcomes, underscoring the complexity of repair in multicellular organisms.

Developmental progression of DNA double-strand break repair deciphered by a single-allele resolution mutation classifier

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are repaired by a hierarchically regulated network of pathways. Factors influencing the choice of particular repair pathways, however remain poorly characterized. Here we develop an Integrated Classification Pipeline (ICP) to decompose and categorize CRISPR/Cas9 generated mutations on genomic target sites in complex multicellular insects. The ICP outputs graphic rank ordered classifications of mutant alleles to visualize discriminating DSB repair fingerprints generated from different target sites and alternative inheritance patterns of CRISPR components. We uncover highly reproducible lineage-specific mutation fingerprints in individual organisms and a developmental progression wherein Microhomology-Mediated End-Joining (MMEJ) or Insertion events predominate during early rapid mitotic cell cycles, switching to distinct subsets of Non-Homologous End-Joining (NHEJ) alleles, and then to Homology-Directed Repair (HDR)-based gene conversion. These repair signatures enable marker-free tracking of specific mutations in dynamic populations, including NHEJ and HDR events within the same samples, for in-depth analysis of diverse gene editing events.

Alcohol-free synthesis, biological assessment, in vivo toxicological evaluation, and in silico analysis of novel silane quaternary ammonium compounds differing in structure and chain length as promising disinfectants

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are commonly used as disinfectants for industrial, medical, and residential applications. However, adverse health outcomes have been reported. Therefore, biocompatible disinfectants must be developed to reduce these adverse effects. In this context, QACs with various alkyl chain lengths (C12-C18) were synthesized by reacting QACs with the counterion silane. The antimicrobial activities of the novel compounds against four strains of microorganisms were assessed. Several in vivo assays were conducted on Drosophila melanogaster to determine the toxicological outcomes of Si-QACs, followed by computational analyses (molecular docking, simulation, and prediction of skin sensitization). The in vivo results were combined using a cheminformatics approach to understand the descriptors responsible for the safety of Si-QAC. Si-QAC-2 was active against all tested bacteria, with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 13.65 to 436.74 ppm. Drosophila exposed to Si-QAC-2 have moderate-to-low toxicological outcomes. The molecular weight, hydrophobicity/lipophilicity, and electron diffraction properties were identified as crucial descriptors for ensuring the safety of the Si-QACs. Furthermore, Si-QAC-2 exhibited good stability and notable antiviral potential with no signs of skin sensitization. Overall, Si-QAC-2 (C14) has the potential to be a novel disinfectant.

Bradysia (Sciara) coprophila larvae up-regulate DNA repair pathways and down-regulate developmental regulators in response to ionizing radiation

The level of resistance to radiation and the developmental and molecular responses can vary between species, and even between developmental stages of one species. For flies (order: Diptera), prior studies concluded that the fungus gnat Bradysia (Sciara) coprophila (sub-order: Nematocera) is more resistant to irradiation-induced mutations that cause visible phenotypes than the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (sub-order: Brachycera). Therefore, we characterized the effects of and level of resistance to ionizing radiation on B. coprophila throughout its life cycle. Our data show that B. coprophila embryos are highly sensitive to even low doses of gamma-irradiation, whereas late-stage larvae can tolerate up to 80 Gy (compared to 40 Gy for D. melanogaster) and still retain their ability to develop to adulthood, though with a developmental delay. To survey the genes involved in the early transcriptional response to irradiation of B. coprophila larvae, we compared larval RNA-seq profiles with and without radiation treatment. The up-regulated genes were enriched for DNA damage response genes, including those involved in DNA repair, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis, whereas the down-regulated genes were enriched for developmental regulators, consistent with the developmental delay of irradiated larvae. Interestingly, members of the PARP and AGO families were highly up-regulated in the B. coprophila radiation response. We compared the transcriptome responses in B. coprophila to the transcriptome responses in D. melanogaster from 3 previous studies: whereas pathway responses are highly conserved, specific gene responses are less so. Our study lays the groundwork for future work on the radiation responses in Diptera.

Whole transcriptome screening for novel genes involved in meiosis and fertility in Drosophila melanogaster

Reproductive success requires the development of viable oocytes and the accurate segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. Failure to segregate chromosomes properly can lead to infertility, miscarriages, or developmental disorders. A variety of factors contribute to accurate chromosome segregation and oocyte development, such as spindle assembly and sister chromatid cohesion. However, many proteins required for meiosis remain unknown. In this study, we aimed to develop a screening pipeline for identifying novel meiotic and fertility genes using the genome of Drosophila melanogaster. To accomplish this goal, genes upregulated within meiotically active tissues were identified. More than 240 genes with no known function were silenced using RNA interference (RNAi) and the effects on meiosis and fertility were assessed. We identified 94 genes that when silenced caused infertility and/or high levels of chromosomal nondisjunction. The vast majority of these genes have human and mouse homologs that are also poorly studied. Through this screening process, we identified novel genes that are crucial for meiosis and oocyte development but have not been extensively studied in human or model organisms. Understanding the function of these genes will be an important step towards the understanding of their biological significance during reproduction.

Efficient CRISPR genome editing and integrative genomic analyses reveal the mosaicism of Cas-induced mutations and pleiotropic effects of scarlet gene in an emerging model system

Despite the revolutionary impacts of CRISPR-Cas gene editing systems, the effective and widespread use of CRISPR technologies in emerging model organisms still faces significant challenges. These include the inefficiency in generating heritable mutations at the organismal level, limited knowledge about the genomic consequences of gene editing, and an inadequate understanding of the inheritance patterns of CRISPR-Cas-induced mutations. This study addresses these issues by 1) developing an efficient microinjection delivery method for CRISPR editing in the microcrustacean Daphnia pulex; 2) assessing the editing efficiency of Cas9 and Cas12a nucleases, examining mutation inheritance patterns, and analyzing the local and global mutation spectrum in the scarlet mutants; and 3) investigating the transcriptomes of scarlet mutants to understand the pleiotropic effects of scarlet underlying their swimming behavior changes. Our reengineered CRISPR microinjection method results in efficient biallelic editing with both nucleases. While indels are dominant in Cas-induced mutations, a few on-site large deletions (>1kb) are observed, most likely caused by microhomology-mediated end joining repair. Knock-in of a stop codon cassette to the scarlet locus was successful, despite complex induced mutations surrounding the target site. Moreover, extensive germline mosaicism exists in some mutants, which unexpectedly produce different phenotypes/genotypes in their asexual progenies. Lastly, our transcriptomic analyses unveil significant gene expression changes associated with scarlet knock-out and altered swimming behavior in mutants, including several genes (e.g., NMDA1, ABAT, CNTNAP2) involved in human neurodegenerative diseases. This study expands our understanding of the dynamics of gene editing in the tractable model organism Daphnia and highlights its promising potential as a neurological disease model.

Cross-species investigation into the requirement of XPA for nucleotide excision repair

After reconstitution of nucleotide excision repair (excision repair) with XPA, RPA, XPC, TFIIH, XPF-ERCC1 and XPG, it was concluded that these six factors are the minimal essential components of the excision repair machinery. All six factors are highly conserved across diverse organisms spanning yeast to humans, yet no identifiable homolog of the XPA gene exists in many eukaryotes including green plants. Nevertheless, excision repair is reported to be robust in the XPA-lacking organism, Arabidopsis thaliana, which raises a fundamental question of whether excision repair could occur without XPA in other organisms. Here, we performed a phylogenetic analysis of XPA across all species with annotated genomes and then quantitatively measured excision repair in the absence of XPA using the sensitive whole-genome qXR-Seq method in human cell lines and two model organisms, Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. We find that although the absence of XPA results in inefficient excision repair and UV-sensitivity in humans, flies, and worms, excision repair of UV-induced DNA damage is detectable over background. These studies have yielded a significant discovery regarding the evolution of XPA protein and its mechanistic role in nucleotide excision repair.

ATM/Chk2 and ATR/Chk1 Pathways Respond to DNA Damage Induced by Movento® 240SC and Envidor® 240SC Keto-Enol Insecticides in the Germarium of Drosophila melanogaster

DNA damage response (DDR) pathways in keto-enol genotoxicity have not been characterized, and few studies have reported genotoxic effects in non-target organisms. The present study shows that concentrations of 11.2, 22.4, 37.3 mg/L of Movento® 240SC and 12.3, 24.6, 41.1 mg/L of Envidor® 240SC for 72 h oral exposure induced DSBs by significantly increasing the percentage of γH2AV expression in regions 2b and 3 from the germarium of wild type females of Drosophila melanogaster Oregon R, compared to the control group (0.0 mg/L of insecticides), via confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. The comparison between both insecticides' reveals that only the Envidor® 240SC induces concentration-dependent DNA damage, as well as structural changes in the germarium. We determined that the DDR induced by Movento® 240SC depends on the activation of the ATMtefu, Chk1grp and Chk2lok kinases by significantly increasing the percentage of expression of γH2AV in regions 2b and 3 of the germarium, and that ATRmei-29D and p53dp53 kinases only respond at the highest concentration of 37.3 mg/L of Movento® 240SC. With the Envidor® 240SC insecticide, we determined that the DDR depends on the activation of the ATRmei-29D/Chk1grp and ATMtefu/Chk2lok kinases, and p53dp53 by significantly increasing the percentage of expression of γH2AV in the germarium.

A temperature-tolerant CRISPR base editor mediates highly efficient and precise gene editing in Drosophila

CRISPR nucleases generate a broad spectrum of mutations that includes undesired editing outcomes. Here, we develop optimized C-to-T base editing systems for the generation of precise loss- or gain-of-function alleles in Drosophila and identify temperature as a crucial parameter for efficiency. We find that a variant of the widely used APOBEC1 deaminase has attenuated activity at 18° to 29°C and shows considerable dose-dependent toxicity. In contrast, the temperature-tolerant evoCDA1 domain mediates editing of typically more than 90% of alleles and is substantially better tolerated. Furthermore, formation of undesired mutations is exceptionally rare in Drosophila compared to other species. The predictable editing outcome, high efficiency, and product purity enables near homogeneous induction of STOP codons or alleles encoding protein variants in vivo. Last, we demonstrate how optimized expression enables conditional base editing in marked cell populations. This work substantially facilitates creation of precise alleles in Drosophila and provides key design parameters for developing efficient base editing systems in other ectothermic species.

The Comet Assay in Drosophila: A Tool to Study Interactions between DNA Repair Systems in DNA Damage Responses In Vivo and Ex Vivo

The comet assay in Drosophila has been used in the last few years to study DNA damage responses (DDR) in different repair-mutant strains and to compare them to analyze DNA repair. We have used this approach to study interactions between DNA repair pathways in vivo. Additionally, we have implemented an ex vivo comet assay, in which nucleoids from treated and untreated cells were incubated ex vivo with cell-free protein extracts from individuals with distinct repair capacities. Four strains were used: wild-type OregonK (OK), nucleotide excision repair mutant mus201, dmPolQ protein mutant mus308, and the double mutant mus201;mus308. Methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) was used as a genotoxic agent. Both approaches were performed with neuroblasts from third-instar larvae; they detected the effects of the NER and dmPolQ pathways on the DDR to MMS and that they act additively in this response. Additionally, the ex vivo approach quantified that mus201, mus308, and the double mutant mus201;mus308 strains presented, respectively, 21.5%, 52.9%, and 14.8% of OK strain activity over MMS-induced damage. Considering the homology between mammals and Drosophila in repair pathways, the detected additive effect might be extrapolated even to humans, demonstrating that Drosophila might be an excellent model to study interactions between repair pathways.

DNA Damage Response Mechanisms in Model Systems

Cells are constantly assaulted by endogenous and exogenous sources of DNA damage that threaten genome stability [...].

Rapamycin supplementation of Drosophila melanogaster larvae results in less viable adults with smaller cells

The intrinsic sources of mortality relate to the ability to meet the metabolic demands of tissue maintenance and repair, ultimately shaping ageing patterns. Anti-ageing mechanisms compete for resources with other functions, including those involved in maintaining functional plasma membranes. Consequently, organisms with smaller cells and more plasma membranes should devote more resources to membrane maintenance, leading to accelerated intrinsic mortality and ageing. To investigate this unexplored trade-off, we reared Drosophila melanogaster larvae on food with or without rapamycin (a TOR pathway inhibitor) to produce small- and large-celled adult flies, respectively, and measured their mortality rates. Males showed higher mortality than females. As expected, small-celled flies (rapamycin) showed higher mortality than their large-celled counterparts (control), but only in early adulthood. Contrary to predictions, the median lifespan was similar between the groups. Rapamycin administered to adults prolongs life; thus, the known direct physiological effects of rapamycin cannot explain our results. Instead, we invoke indirect effects of rapamycin, manifested as reduced cell size, as a driver of increased early mortality. We conclude that cell size differences between organisms and the associated burdens of plasma membrane maintenance costs may be important but overlooked factors influencing mortality patterns in nature.

The effect of repeat length on Marcal1-dependent single-strand annealing in Drosophila

Proper repair of DNA double-strand breaks is essential to the maintenance of genomic stability and avoidance of genetic disease. Organisms have many ways of repairing double-strand breaks, including the use of homologous sequences through homology-directed repair. While homology-directed repair is often error free, in single-strand annealing homologous repeats flanking a double-strand break are annealed to one another, leading to the deletion of one repeat and the intervening sequences. Studies in yeast have shown a relationship between the length of the repeat and single-strand annealing efficacy. We sought to determine the effects of homology length on single-strand annealing in Drosophila, as Drosophila uses a different annealing enzyme (Marcal1) than yeast. Using an in vivo single-strand annealing assay, we show that 50 base pairs are insufficient to promote single-strand annealing and that 500-2,000 base pairs are required for maximum efficiency. Loss of Marcal1 generally followed the same homology length trend as wild-type flies, with single-strand annealing frequencies reduced to about a third of wild-type frequencies regardless of homology length. Interestingly, we find a difference in single-strand annealing rates between 500-base pair homologies that align to the annealing target either nearer or further from the double-strand break, a phenomenon that may be explained by Marcal1 dynamics. This study gives insights into Marcal1 function and provides important information to guide the design of genome engineering strategies that use single-strand annealing to integrate linear DNA constructs into a chromosomal double-strand break.

Dynamic changes in genomic 5-hydroxymethyluracil and N6-methyladenine levels in the Drosophila melanogaster life cycle and in response to different temperature conditions

In this study, the level of DNA modifications was investigated in three developmental stages of Drosophila melanogaster (larvae, pupae, imago) and in an in vitro model (Schneider 2 cells). Analysis was carried out using two-dimensional ultra-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Our method made it possible, for the first time, to analyze a broad spectrum of DNA modifications in the three stages of Drosophila. Each stage was characterized by a specific modification pattern, and the levels of these compounds fluctuated throughout the D. melanogaster life cycle. The level of DNA modification was also compared between insects bred at 25 °C (optimal temperature) and at 18 °C, and the groups differed significantly. The profound changes in N6-methyladenine and 5-hydroxymethyluracil levels during the Drosophila life cycle and as a result of breeding temperature changes indicate that these DNA modifications can play important regulatory roles in response to environmental changes and/or biological conditions. Moreover, the supplementation of Schneider 2 cells with 1 mM L-ascorbic acid caused a time-dependent increase in the level of 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2'-deoxyuridine. These data suggest that a certain pool of this compound may arise from the enzymatic activity of the dTET protein.

Genotoxic hazard assessment of cerium oxide and magnesium oxide nanoparticles in Drosophila

The use of metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) is steadily spreading, leading to increased environmental exposures to many organisms, including humans. To improve our knowledge of this potential hazard, we have evaluated the genotoxic risk of cerium oxide (CeO₂NPs) and magnesium oxide (MgONPs) nanoparticle exposures using Drosophila as an in vivo assay model. In this study, two well-known assays, such as the wing somatic mutation and recombination test (wing-spot assay) and the single-cell gel electrophoresis test (comet assay) were used. As a novelty, and for the first time, changes in the expression levels of a wide panel of DNA repair genes were also evaluated. Our results indicate that none of the concentrations of CeO₂NPs increased the total spot frequency in the wing-spot assay, while induction was observed at the highest dose of MgONPs. Regarding the comet assay, both tested NPs were unable to induce single DNA strand breaks or oxidative damage in DNA bases. Nevertheless, exposure to CeO₂NPs induced significant increases in the expression levels of the Mlh1 and Brca2 genes, which are involved in the double-strand break repair pathway, together with a decrease in the expression levels of the MCPH1 and Rad51D genes. Regarding the effects of MgONPs exposure, the expression levels of the Ercc1, Brca2, Rad1, mu2, and stg genes were significantly increased, while Mlh1 and MCPH1 genes were decreased. Our results show the usefulness of our approach in detecting mild genotoxic effects by evaluating changes in the expression of a panel of genes involved in DNA repair pathways.

Reduced Environmental Dose Rates Are Responsible for the Increased Susceptibility to Radiation-Induced DNA Damage in Larval Neuroblasts of Drosophila Grown inside the LNGS Underground Laboratory

A large amount of evidence from radiobiology studies carried out in Deep Underground Laboratories support the view that environmental radiation may trigger biological mechanisms that enable both simple and complex organisms to cope with genotoxic stress. In line with this, here we show that the reduced radiation background of the LNGS underground laboratory renders Drosophila neuroblasts more sensitive to ionizing radiation-induced (but not to spontaneous) DNA breaks compared to fruit flies kept at the external reference laboratory. Interestingly, we demonstrate that the ionizing radiation sensitivity of flies kept at the LNGS underground laboratory is rescued by increasing the underground gamma dose rate to levels comparable to the low-LET reference one. This finding provides the first direct evidence that the modulation of the DNA damage response in a complex multicellular organism is indeed dependent on the environmental dose rate.

CSB-independent, XPC-dependent transcription-coupled repair in Drosophila

Drosophila melanogaster has been extensively used as a model system to study ionizing radiation and chemical-induced mutagenesis, double-strand break repair, and recombination. However, there are only limited studies on nucleotide excision repair in this important model organism. An early study reported that Drosophila lacks the transcription-coupled repair (TCR) form of nucleotide excision repair. This conclusion was seemingly supported by the Drosophila genome sequencing project, which revealed that Drosophila lacks a homolog to CSB, which is known to be required for TCR in mammals and yeasts. However, by using excision repair sequencing (XR-seq) genome-wide repair mapping technology, we recently found that the Drosophila S2 cell line performs TCR comparable to human cells. Here, we have extended this work to Drosophila at all its developmental stages. We find TCR takes place throughout the life cycle of the organism. Moreover, we find that in contrast to humans and other multicellular organisms previously studied, the XPC repair factor is required for both global and transcription-coupled repair in Drosophila.

The Drosophila Mutagen-Sensitivity Gene mus109 Encodes DmDNA2

The identification of mutants through forward genetic screens is the backbone of Drosophila genetics research, yet many mutants identified through these screens have yet to be mapped to the Drosophila genome. This is especially true of mutants that have been identified as mutagen-sensitive (mus), but have not yet been mapped to their associated molecular locus. Our study addressed the need for additional mus gene identification by determining the locus and exploring the function of the X-linked mutagen-sensitive gene mus109 using three available mutant alleles: mus109^D1, mus109^D2, and mus109^lS. After first confirming that all three mus109 alleles were sensitive to methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) using complementation analysis, we used deletion mapping to narrow the candidate genes for mus109. Through DNA sequencing, we were able to determine that mus109 is the uncharacterized gene CG2990, which encodes the Drosophila ortholog of the highly conserved DNA2 protein that is important for DNA replication and repair. We further used the sequence and structure of DNA2 to predict the impact of the mus109 allele mutations on the final gene product. Together, these results provide a tool for researchers to further investigate the role of DNA2 in DNA repair processes in Drosophila.

Drosophila p53 isoforms have overlapping and distinct functions in germline genome integrity and oocyte quality control

p53 gene family members in humans and other organisms encode a large number of protein isoforms whose functions are largely undefined. Using Drosophila as a model, we find that a p53B isoform is expressed predominantly in the germline where it colocalizes with p53A into subnuclear bodies. It is only p53A, however, that mediates the apoptotic response to ionizing radiation in the germline and soma. In contrast, p53A and p53B are both required for the normal repair of meiotic DNA breaks, an activity that is more crucial when meiotic recombination is defective. We find that in oocytes with persistent DNA breaks p53A is also required to activate a meiotic pachytene checkpoint. Our findings indicate that Drosophila p53 isoforms have DNA lesion and cell type-specific functions, with parallels to the functions of mammalian p53 family members in the genotoxic stress response and oocyte quality control.

In vivo evaluation of the toxic activity and genotoxicity of the Hymenaea courbaril L.'s resin in Drosophila melanogaster

Due to the negative consequences carried by the usage of synthetic insecticides, a global interest into finding substitutes for these chemical compounds through natural products has arisen. When yielded to external attacks, plants generally produce metabolites to defend themselves. The physicochemical characteristics of this kind of compounds have allowed their usage as potential bioinsecticides. The Hymenaea courbaril L. (algarrobo) has proven to be a plant rich in metabolites with outstanding biological activity, in such a way that some of its extracts have been tested as insecticides. The goal of this study was to know the phytochemical composition of Hymenaea courbaril L.’s resin and perform evaluations in vivo of its toxic and genotoxic effects in the biological model Drosophila melanogaster. For this, two resin extracts were prepared and both a phytochemical analysis were carried out on them, having found in the ethanolic total extract the presence of terpenes, flavonoids and coumarins, while in the partial ethanolic extract only presence of terpenes and flavonoids was found. Drosophila larvae were submitted to different concentrations of the extracts and both the survival and the sexual ratio were evaluated, finding that larvae are more sensitive to the partial ethanolic extract. Subsequently, the induction of somatic mutation and mitotic recombination (SMART) was evaluated in the flies’ eyes. The most significant affectations at a genotoxic level were found when larvae were tested with the partial extract, indicating that possibly the coumarins absence makes this insect more susceptible to damages at a genetic material level.

Characterization of Stress Responses in a Drosophila Model of Werner Syndrome

As organisms age, their resistance to stress decreases while their risk of disease increases. This can be shown in patients with Werner syndrome (WS), which is a genetic disease characterized by accelerated aging along with increased risk of cancer and metabolic disease. WS is caused by mutations in WRN, a gene involved in DNA replication and repair. Recent research has shown that WRN mutations contribute to multiple hallmarks of aging including genomic instability, telomere attrition, and mitochondrial dysfunction. However, questions remain regarding the onset and effect of stress on early aging. We used a fly model of WS (WRNexoΔ) to investigate stress response during different life stages and found that stress sensitivity varies according to age and stressor. While larvae and young WRNexoΔ adults are not sensitive to exogenous oxidative stress, high antioxidant activity suggests high levels of endogenous oxidative stress. WRNexoΔ adults are sensitive to stress caused by elevated temperature and starvation suggesting abnormalities in energy storage and a possible link to metabolic dysfunction in WS patients. We also observed higher levels of sleep in aged WRNexoΔ adults suggesting an additional adaptive mechanism to protect against age-related stress. We suggest that stress response in WRNexoΔ is multifaceted and evokes a systemic physiological response to protect against cellular damage. These data further validate WRNexoΔ flies as a WS model with which to study mechanisms of early aging and provide a foundation for development of treatments for WS and similar diseases.

Persistent DNA damage signaling and DNA polymerase theta promote broken chromosome segregation

Cycling cells must respond to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) to avoid genome instability. Missegregation of chromosomes with DSBs during mitosis results in micronuclei, aberrant structures linked to disease. How cells respond to DSBs during mitosis is incompletely understood. We previously showed that Drosophilamelanogaster papillar cells lack DSB checkpoints (as observed in many cancer cells). Here, we show that papillar cells still recruit early acting repair machinery (Mre11 and RPA3) and the Fanconi anemia (FA) protein Fancd2 to DSBs. These proteins persist as foci on DSBs as cells enter mitosis. Repair foci are resolved in a stepwise manner during mitosis. DSB repair kinetics depends on both monoubiquitination of Fancd2 and the alternative end-joining protein DNA polymerase θ. Disruption of either or both of these factors causes micronuclei after DNA damage, which disrupts intestinal organogenesis. This study reveals a mechanism for how cells with inactive DSB checkpoints can respond to DNA damage that persists into mitosis.

The base excision repair process: comparison between higher and lower eukaryotes

The base excision repair (BER) pathway is essential for maintaining the stability of DNA in all organisms and defects in this process are associated with life-threatening diseases. It is involved in removing specific types of DNA lesions that are induced by both exogenous and endogenous genotoxic substances. BER is a multi-step mechanism that is often initiated by the removal of a damaged base leading to a genotoxic intermediate that is further processed before the reinsertion of the correct nucleotide and the restoration of the genome to a stable structure. Studies in human and yeast cells, as well as fruit fly and nematode worms, have played important roles in identifying the components of this conserved DNA repair pathway that maintains the integrity of the eukaryotic genome. This review will focus on the components of base excision repair, namely, the DNA glycosylases, the apurinic/apyrimidinic endonucleases, the DNA polymerase, and the ligases, as well as other protein cofactors. Functional insights into these conserved proteins will be provided from humans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Drosophila melanogaster, and Caenorhabditis elegans, and the implications of genetic polymorphisms and knockouts of the corresponding genes.

DNA Damage Responses during the Cell Cycle: Insights from Model Organisms and Beyond

Genome damage is a threat to all organisms. To respond to such damage, DNA damage responses (DDRs) lead to cell cycle arrest, DNA repair, and cell death. Many DDR components are highly conserved, whereas others have adapted to specific organismal needs. Immense progress in this field has been driven by model genetic organism research. This review has two main purposes. First, we provide a survey of model organism-based efforts to study DDRs. Second, we highlight how model organism study has contributed to understanding how specific DDRs are influenced by cell cycle stage. We also look forward, with a discussion of how future study can be expanded beyond typical model genetic organisms to further illuminate how the genome is protected.

DNA ligase IV mutations confer shorter lifespan and increased sensitivity to nutrient stress in Drosophila melanogaster

The nonhomologous end-joining pathway is a primary DNA double-strand break repair pathway in eukaryotes. DNA ligase IV (Lig4) catalyzes the final step of DNA end ligation in this pathway. Partial loss of Lig4 in mammals causes Lig4 syndrome, while complete loss is embryonically lethal. DNA ligase 4 (DNAlig4) null Drosophila melanogaster is viable, but sensitive to ionizing radiation during early development. We proposed to explore if DNAlig4 loss induced other long-term sensitivities and defects in D. melanogaster. We demonstrated that DNAlig4 mutant strains had decreased lifespan and lower resistance to nutrient deprivation, indicating Lig4 is required for maintaining health and longevity in D. melanogaster.

Genomic analysis finds no evidence of canonical eukaryotic DNA processing complexes in a free-living protist

Cells replicate and segregate their DNA with precision. Previous studies showed that these regulated cell-cycle processes were present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor and that their core molecular parts are conserved across eukaryotes. However, some metamonad parasites have secondarily lost components of the DNA processing and segregation apparatuses. To clarify the evolutionary history of these systems in these unusual eukaryotes, we generated a genome assembly for the free-living metamonad Carpediemonas membranifera and carried out a comparative genomics analysis. Here, we show that parasitic and free-living metamonads harbor an incomplete set of proteins for processing and segregating DNA. Unexpectedly, Carpediemonas species are further streamlined, lacking the origin recognition complex, Cdc6 and most structural kinetochore subunits. Carpediemonas species are thus the first known eukaryotes that appear to lack this suite of conserved complexes, suggesting that they likely rely on yet-to-be-discovered or alternative mechanisms to carry out these fundamental processes.

The Role of Drosophila CtIP in Homology-Directed Repair of DNA Double-Strand Breaks

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are a particularly genotoxic type of DNA damage that can result in chromosomal aberrations. Thus, proper repair of DSBs is essential to maintaining genome integrity. DSBs can be repaired by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), where ends are processed before joining through ligation. Alternatively, DSBs can be repaired through homology-directed repair, either by homologous recombination (HR) or single-strand annealing (SSA). Both types of homology-directed repair are initiated by DNA end resection. In cultured human cells, the protein CtIP has been shown to play a role in DNA end resection through its interactions with CDK, BRCA1, DNA2, and the MRN complex. To elucidate the role of CtIP in a multicellular context, CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing was used to create a DmCtIP^Δ allele in Drosophila melanogaster. Using the DSB repair reporter assay direct repeat of white (DR-white), a two-fold decrease in HR in DmCtIP^Δ/Δ mutants was observed when compared to heterozygous controls. However, analysis of HR gene conversion tracts (GCTs) suggests DmCtIP plays a minimal role in determining GCT length. To assess the function of DmCtIP on both short (~550 bp) and long (~3.6 kb) end resection, modified homology-directed SSA repair assays were implemented, resulting in a two-fold decrease in SSA repair in both short and extensive end resection requirements in the DmCtIP^Δ/Δ mutants compared to heterozygote controls. Through these analyses, we affirmed the importance of end resection on DSB repair pathway choice in multicellular systems, described the function of DmCtIP in short and extensive DNA end resection, and determined the impact of end resection on GCT length during HR.

Evidence for a force favoring GC over AT at short intronic sites in Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster

Population genetics studies often make use of a class of nucleotide site free from selective pressures, in order to make inferences about population size changes or natural selection at other sites. If such neutral sites can be identified, they offer the opportunity to avoid any confounding effects of selection. Here, we investigate evolution at putatively neutrally evolving short intronic sites in natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans, in order to understand the properties of spontaneous mutations and the extent of GC-biased gene conversion in these species. Use of data on the genetics of natural populations is advantageous because it integrates information from large numbers of individuals over long timescales. In agreement with direct evidence from observations of spontaneous mutations in Drosophila, we find a bias in the spectrum of mutations toward AT basepairs. In addition, we find that this bias is stronger in the D. melanogaster lineage than in the D. simulans lineage. The evidence for GC-biased gene conversion in Drosophila has been equivocal. Here, we provide evidence for a weak force favoring GC in both species, which is correlated with the GC content of introns and is stronger in D. simulans than in D. melanogaster.

Seasonal changes in recombination characteristics in a natural population of Drosophila melanogaster

Environmental seasonality is a potent evolutionary force, capable of maintaining polymorphism, promoting phenotypic plasticity and causing bet-hedging. In Drosophila, environmental seasonality has been reported to affect life-history traits, tolerance to abiotic stressors and immunity. Oscillations in frequencies of alleles underlying fitness-related traits were also documented alongside SNPs across the genome. Here, we test for seasonal changes in two recombination characteristics, crossover rate and crossover interference, in a natural D. melanogaster population from India using morphological markers of the three major chromosomes. We show that winter flies, collected after the dry season, have significantly higher desiccation tolerance than their autumn counterparts. This difference proved to hold also for hybrids with three independent marker stocks, suggesting its genetic rather than plastic nature. Significant between-season changes are documented for crossover rate (in 9 of 13 studied intervals) and crossover interference (in four of eight studied pairs of intervals); both single and double crossovers were usually more frequent in the winter cohort. The winter flies also display weaker plasticity of both recombination characteristics to desiccation. We ascribe the observed differences to indirect selection on recombination caused by directional selection on desiccation tolerance. Our findings suggest that changes in recombination characteristics can arise even after a short period of seasonal adaptation (~8-10 generations).

Multiple Losses of MSH1, Gain of mtMutS, and Other Changes in the MutS Family of DNA Repair Proteins in Animals

MutS is a key component of the mismatch repair (MMR) pathway. Members of the MutS protein family are present in prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and viruses. Six MutS homologs (MSH1-6) have been identified in yeast, of which three function in nuclear MMR, while MSH1 functions in mitochondrial DNA repair. MSH proteins are believed to be well conserved in animals, except for MSH1-which is thought to be lost. Two intriguing exceptions to this general picture have been found, both in the class Anthozoa within the phylum Cnidaria. First, an ortholog of the yeast-MSH1 was reported in one hexacoral species. Second, a MutS homolog (mtMutS) has been found in the mitochondrial genome of all octocorals. To understand the origin and potential functional implications of these exceptions, we investigated the evolution of the MutS family both in Cnidaria and in animals in general. Our study confirmed the acquisition of octocoral mtMutS by horizontal gene transfer from a giant virus. Surprisingly, we identified MSH1 in all hexacorals and several sponges and placozoans. By contrast, MSH1 orthologs were lacking in other cnidarians, ctenophores, and bilaterian animals. Furthermore, while we identified MSH2 and MSH6 in nearly all animals, MSH4, MSH5, and, especially, MSH3 were missing in multiple species. Overall, our analysis revealed a dynamic evolution of the MutS family in animals, with multiple losses of MSH1, MSH3, some losses of MSH4 and MSH5, and a gain of the octocoral mtMutS. We propose that octocoral mtMutS functionally replaced MSH1 that was present in the common ancestor of Anthozoa.

Differential activation of eMI by distinct forms of cellular stress

As one of the major, highly conserved catabolic pathways, autophagy delivers cytosolic components to lysosomes for degradation. It is essential for development, cellular homeostasis, and coping with stress. Reduced autophagy increases susceptibility to protein aggregation diseases and leads to phenotypes associated with aging. Of the three major forms of autophagy, macroautophagy (MA) can degrade organelles or aggregated proteins, and chaperone-mediated autophagy is specific for soluble proteins containing KFERQ-related targeting motifs. During endosomal microautophagy (eMI), cytoplasmic proteins are engulfed into late endosomes in an ESCRT machinery-dependent manner. eMI can be KFERQ-specific or occur in bulk and be induced by prolonged starvation. Its physiological regulation and function, however, are not understood. Here, we show that eMI in the Drosophila fat body, akin to the mammalian liver, is induced upon oxidative or genotoxic stress in an ESCRT and partially Hsc70-4-dependent manner. Interestingly, eMI activation is selective, as ER stress fails to elicit a response. Intriguingly, we find that reducing MA leads to a compensatory enhancement of eMI, suggesting a tight interplay between these degradative processes. Furthermore, we show that mutations in DNA damage response genes are sufficient to trigger eMI and that the response to oxidative stress is under the control of MAPK/JNK signaling. Our data suggest that, controlled by various signaling pathways, eMI allows an organ to react and adapt to specific types of stress and is thus likely critical to prevent disease.Abbreviations:Atg: autophagy-related; CMA: chaperone-mediated autophagy; DDR: DNA damage repair; Df: deficiency (deletion); (E)GFP: (enhanced) green fluorescent protein; eMI: endosomal microautophagy; ER: endoplasmatic reticulum; ESCRT: endosomal sorting complexes required for transport; Eto: etoposide; FLP: flipase; Hsc: heat shock cognate protein; LAMP2A: lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2A; LE: late endosome; MA: macroautophagy; MI: microautophagy; MVB: multivesicular body; PA: photoactivatable; Para: paraquat; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SEM: standard error of means; Tor: target of rapamycin [serine/threonine kinase]; UPR: unfolded protein response; Vps: vacuolar protein sorting.

Meiotic Crossover Patterning

Proper number and placement of meiotic crossovers is vital to chromosome segregation, with failures in normal crossover distribution often resulting in aneuploidy and infertility. Meiotic crossovers are formed via homologous repair of programmed double-strand breaks (DSBs). Although DSBs occur throughout the genome, crossover placement is intricately patterned, as observed first in early genetic studies by Muller and Sturtevant. Three types of patterning events have been identified. Interference, first described by Sturtevant in 1915, is a phenomenon in which crossovers on the same chromosome do not occur near one another. Assurance, initially identified by Owen in 1949, describes the phenomenon in which a minimum of one crossover is formed per chromosome pair. Suppression, first observed by Beadle in 1932, dictates that crossovers do not occur in regions surrounding the centromere and telomeres. The mechanisms behind crossover patterning remain largely unknown, and key players appear to act at all scales, from the DNA level to inter-chromosome interactions. There is also considerable overlap between the known players that drive each patterning phenomenon. In this review we discuss the history of studies of crossover patterning, developments in methods used in the field, and our current understanding of the interplay between patterning phenomena.

Genome and transcriptome analysis of the mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus: Correlation with its unique phenotypes

Mealybugs are aggressive pests with world-wide distribution and are suitable for the study of different phenomena like genomic imprinting and epigenetics. Genomic approaches facilitate these studies in absence of robust genetics in this system. We sequenced, de novo assembled, annotated Maconellicoccus hirsutus genome. We carried out comparative genomics it with four mealybug and eight other insect species, to identify expanded, specific and contracted gene classes that relate to pesticide and desiccation resistance. We identified horizontally transferred genes adding to the mutualism between the mealybug and its endosymbionts. Male and female transcriptome analysis indicates differential expression of metabolic pathway genes correlating with their physiology and the genes for sexual dimorphism. The significantly lower expression of endosymbiont genes in males relates to the depletion of endosymbionts in males during development.

Nonhomologous end joining: new accessory factors fine tune the machinery

Nonhomologous DNA end joining (NHEJ) is one of the major DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair pathways in eukaryotes. The well-known critical proteins involved in NHEJ include Ku70/80, DNA-PKcs, Artemis, DNA pol λ/μ, DNA ligase IV-XRCC4, and XLF. Recent studies have added a number of new proteins to the NHEJ repertoire namely paralog of XRCC4 and XLF (PAXX), modulator of retroviral infection (MRI)/ cell cycle regulator of NHEJ (CYREN), transactivation response DNA-binding protein (TARDBP) of 43 kDa (TDP-43), intermediate filament family orphan (IFFO1), ERCC excision repair 6 like 2 (ERCC6L2), and RNase H2. PAXX acts as a stabilizing factor for the main NHEJ components. MRI/CYREN seems to play a dual role stimulating NHEJ in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, while inhibiting the pathway in the S and G2 phases. TDP-43 can recruit the ligase IV-XRCC4 complex to the DSB sites and stimulate ligation in neuronal cells. RNase H2 excises out the ribonucleotides inserted during repair by DNA polymerase μ/TdT. This review provides a brief glimpse into how these new partners were discovered and their contribution to the mechanism and regulation of NHEJ.

DNA polymerase theta suppresses mitotic crossing over

Polymerase theta-mediated end joining (TMEJ) is a chromosome break repair pathway that is able to rescue the lethality associated with the loss of proteins involved in early steps in homologous recombination (e.g., BRCA1/2). This is due to the ability of polymerase theta (Pol θ) to use resected, 3' single stranded DNA tails to repair chromosome breaks. These resected DNA tails are also the starting substrate for homologous recombination. However, it remains unknown if TMEJ can compensate for the loss of proteins involved in more downstream steps during homologous recombination. Here we show that the Holliday junction resolvases SLX4 and GEN1 are required for viability in the absence of Pol θ in Drosophila melanogaster, and lack of all three proteins results in high levels of apoptosis. Flies deficient in Pol θ and SLX4 are extremely sensitive to DNA damaging agents, and mammalian cells require either Pol θ or SLX4 to survive. Our results suggest that TMEJ and Holliday junction formation/resolution share a common DNA substrate, likely a homologous recombination intermediate, that when left unrepaired leads to cell death. One major consequence of Holliday junction resolution by SLX4 and GEN1 is cancer-causing loss of heterozygosity due to mitotic crossing over. We measured mitotic crossovers in flies after a Cas9-induced chromosome break, and observed that this mutagenic form of repair is increased in the absence of Pol θ. This demonstrates that TMEJ can function upstream of the Holiday junction resolvases to protect cells from loss of heterozygosity. Our work argues that Pol θ can thus compensate for the loss of the Holliday junction resolvases by using homologous recombination intermediates, suppressing mitotic crossing over and preserving the genomic stability of cells.

Biological effects of low-dose γ-ray irradiation on chromosomes and DNA of Drosophila melanogaster

While the damage to chromosomes and genes induced by high-dose radiation (HDR) has been well researched in many organisms, the effects of low-dose radiation (LDR), defined as a radiation dose of ≤100 mSv, are still being debated. Recent research has suggested that the biological effects of LDR differ from those observed in HDR. To detect the effect of LDR on genes, we selected a gene of Drosophila melanogaster, known as the multiple wing hair (mwh) gene. The hatched heterozygous larvae with genotype mwh/+ were irradiated by γ-rays of a 60Co source. After eclosion, the wing hairs of the heterozygous flies were observed. The area of only one or two mwh cells (small spot) and that of more than three mwh cells (large spot) were counted. The ratio of the two kinds of spots were compared between groups irradiated by different doses including a non-irradiated control group. For the small spot in females, the eruption frequency increased in the groups irradiated with 20-75 mGy, indicating hypersensitivity (HRS) to LDR, while in the groups irradiated with 200 and 300 mGy, the frequency decreased, indicating induced radioresistance (IRR), while in males, 50 and 100 mGy conferred HRS and 75 and 200 mGy conferred IRR. For the large spot in females, 75 mGy conferred HRS and 100-800 mGy conferred IRR. In conclusion, HRS and IRR to LDR was found in Drosophila wing cells by delimiting the dose of γ-rays finely, except in the male large spot.

Mechanism and regulation of P element transposition

P elements were first discovered in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as the causative agents of a syndrome of aberrant genetic traits called hybrid dysgenesis. This occurs when P element-carrying males mate with females that lack P elements and results in progeny displaying sterility, mutations and chromosomal rearrangements. Since then numerous genetic, developmental, biochemical and structural studies have culminated in a deep understanding of P element transposition: from the cellular regulation and repression of transposition to the mechanistic details of the transposase nucleoprotein complex. Recent studies have revealed how piwi-interacting small RNA pathways can act to control splicing of the P element pre-mRNA to modulate transposase production in the germline. A recent cryo-electron microscopy structure of the P element transpososome reveals an unusual DNA architecture at the transposon termini and shows that the bound GTP cofactor functions to position the transposon ends within the transposase active site. Genome sequencing efforts have shown that there are P element transposase-homologous genes (called THAP9) in other animal genomes, including humans. This review highlights recent and previous studies, which together have led to new insights, and surveys our current understanding of the biology, biochemistry, mechanism and regulation of P element transposition.

Conservative route to genome compaction in a miniature annelid

The causes and consequences of genome reduction in animals are unclear because our understanding of this process mostly relies on lineages with often exceptionally high rates of evolution. Here, we decode the compact 73.8-megabase genome of Dimorphilus gyrociliatus, a meiobenthic segmented worm. The D. gyrociliatus genome retains traits classically associated with larger and slower-evolving genomes, such as an ordered, intact Hox cluster, a generally conserved developmental toolkit and traces of ancestral bilaterian linkage. Unlike some other animals with small genomes, the analysis of the D. gyrociliatus epigenome revealed canonical features of genome regulation, excluding the presence of operons and trans-splicing. Instead, the gene-dense D. gyrociliatus genome presents a divergent Myc pathway, a key physiological regulator of growth, proliferation and genome stability in animals. Altogether, our results uncover a conservative route to genome compaction in annelids, reminiscent of that observed in the vertebrate Takifugu rubripes.

This study reports the genome of the miniature segmented annelid Dimorphilus gyrociliatus and reveals no drastic changes in genome architecture and regulation, unlike other cases of genome miniaturization.

Genome-wide identification of DNA double-strand break repair genes and transcriptional modulation in response to benzo[α]pyrene in the monogonont rotifer Brachionus spp

The DNA repair system has evolved from the common ancestor of all life forms and its function is highly conserved within eukaryotes. In this study, to reveal the role of DNA double-strand break repair (DSB) genes in response to benzo[α]pyrene (B[α]P), we first identified DSB genes in relation to homologous recombination and non-homologous end joining events in four Brachionus rotifer spp.: B. calyciflorus, B. koreanus, B. plicatilis, and B. rotundiformis. In all the Brachionus spp., 39 orthologous genes to human DSB repair genes were identified. Furthermore, three genes in B. koreanus, two genes in B. plicatilis, and one gene in B. calyciflorus and B. rotundiformis were present as duplicated genes, indicating that these genes were diversified over speciation in the genus Brachionus. Moreover, we compared DSB repair genes on the gene structures in four monogonont Brachionus rotifers and the bdelloid rotifer Adineta vaga, which possesses highly efficient DNA repair ability. The transcriptional responses of four monogonont Brachionus rotifers in response to B[α]P exposure showed how B[α]P exposure led to DSBs and subsequently recruited DNA DSB repair pathways in the rotifer B. koreanus. Taken together, this study provides a better understanding of the potential role of DSB repair genes in the monogonont rotifer Brachionus spp. in response to B[α]P.

Drosophila melanogaster Mitochondrial Carriers: Similarities and Differences with the Human Carriers

Mitochondrial carriers are a family of structurally related proteins responsible for the exchange of metabolites, cofactors and nucleotides between the cytoplasm and mitochondrial matrix. The in silico analysis of the Drosophila melanogaster genome has highlighted the presence of 48 genes encoding putative mitochondrial carriers, but only 20 have been functionally characterized. Despite most Drosophila mitochondrial carrier genes having human homologs and sharing with them 50% or higher sequence identity, D. melanogaster genes display peculiar differences from their human counterparts: (1) in the fruit fly, many genes encode more transcript isoforms or are duplicated, resulting in the presence of numerous subfamilies in the genome; (2) the expression of the energy-producing genes in D. melanogaster is coordinated from a motif known as Nuclear Respiratory Gene (NRG), a palindromic 8-bp sequence; (3) fruit-fly duplicated genes encoding mitochondrial carriers show a testis-biased expression pattern, probably in order to keep a duplicate copy in the genome. Here, we review the main features, biological activities and role in the metabolism of the D. melanogaster mitochondrial carriers characterized to date, highlighting similarities and differences with their human counterparts. Such knowledge is very important for obtaining an integrated view of mitochondrial function in D. melanogaster metabolism.

Fruit Fly, Drosophila melanogaster, as an In Vivo Tool to Study the Biological Effects of Proton Irradiation

The clinical superiority of proton therapy over photon therapy has recently gained recognition; however, the biological effects of proton therapy remain poorly understood. The lack of in vivo evidence is especially important. Therefore, the goal of this study was to validate the usefulness of Drosophila melanogaster as an alternative tool in proton radiobiology. To determine whether the comparative biological effects of protons and X rays are detectable in Drosophila, we assessed their influence on survival and mRNA expression. Postirradiation observation revealed that protons inhibited their development and reduced the overall survival rates more effectively than X rays. The relative biological effectiveness of the proton beams compared to the X rays estimated from the 50% lethal doses was 1.31. At 2 or 24 h postirradiation, mRNA expression analysis demonstrated that the expression patterns of several genes (such as DNA-repair-, apoptosis- and angiogenesis-related genes) followed different time courses depending on radiation type. Moreover, our trials suggested that the knockdown of individual genes by the GAL4/UAS system changes the radiosensitivity in a radiation type-specific manner. We confirmed this Drosophila model to be considerably useful to evaluate the findings from in vitro studies in an in vivo system. Furthermore, this model has a potential to elucidate more complex biological mechanisms underlying proton irradiation.

The Importance of ATM and ATR in Physcomitrella patens DNA Damage Repair, Development, and Gene Targeting

Coordinated by ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) and ATM and Rad3-related (ATR), two highly conserved kinases, DNA damage repair ensures genome integrity and survival in all organisms. The Arabidopsis thaliana (A. thaliana) orthologues are well characterized and exhibit typical mammalian characteristics. We mutated the Physcomitrellapatens (P. patens) PpATM and PpATR genes by deleting functionally important domains using gene targeting. Both mutants showed growth abnormalities, indicating that these genes, particularly PpATR, are important for normal vegetative development. ATR was also required for repair of both direct and replication-coupled double-strand breaks (DSBs) and dominated the transcriptional response to direct DSBs, whereas ATM was far less important, as shown by assays assessing resistance to DSB induction and SuperSAGE-based transcriptomics focused on DNA damage repair genes. These characteristics differed significantly from the A. thaliana genes but resembled those in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). PpATR was not important for gene targeting, pointing to differences in the regulation of gene targeting and direct DSB repair. Our analysis suggests that ATM and ATR functions can be substantially diverged between plants. The differences in ATM and ATR reflect the differences in DSB repair pathway choices between A. thaliana and P. patens, suggesting that they represent adaptations to different demands for the maintenance of genome stability.