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Wu J, Ding X, Pang Y, Liu Q, Lei J, Zhang H, Zhang T. Research advance of occupational exposure risks and toxic effects of semiconductor nanomaterials. J Appl Toxicol 2024. [PMID: 38837250 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, semiconductor nanomaterials, as one of the most promising and applied classes of engineered nanomaterials, have been widely used in industries such as photovoltaics, electronic devices, and biomedicine. However, occupational exposure is unavoidable during the production, use, and disposal stages of products containing these materials, thus posing potential health risks to workers. The intricacies of the work environment present challenges in obtaining comprehensive data on such exposure. Consequently, there remains a significant gap in understanding the exposure risks and toxic effects associated with semiconductor nanomaterials. This paper provides an overview of the current classification and applications of typical semiconductor nanomaterials. It also delves into the existing state of occupational exposure, methodologies for exposure assessment, and prevailing occupational exposure limits. Furthermore, relevant epidemiological studies are examined. Subsequently, the review scrutinizes the toxicity of semiconductor nanomaterials concerning target organ toxicity, toxicity mechanisms, and influencing factors. The aim of this review is to lay the groundwork for enhancing the assessment of occupational exposure to semiconductor nanomaterials, optimizing occupational exposure limits, and promoting environmentally sustainable development practices in this domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaomeng Ding
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yanting Pang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jialin Lei
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Haopeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biomaterials and Devices Southeast University, Nanjing, China
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Matsumura N, Tanaka YK, Ogra Y, Koga K, Shiratani M, Nagano K, Tanaka A. Subchronic toxicity study of indium-tin oxide nanoparticles following intratracheal administration into the lungs of rats. J Occup Health 2024; 66:uiae019. [PMID: 38626325 PMCID: PMC11131026 DOI: 10.1093/joccuh/uiae019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We aimed to analyze the subchronic toxicity and tissue distribution of indium after the intratracheal administration of indium-tin oxide nanoparticles (ITO NPs) to the lungs of rats. METHODS Male Wistar rats were administered a single intratracheal dose of 10 or 20 mg In/kg body weight (BW) of ITO NPs. The control rats received only an intratracheal dose of distilled water. A subset of rats was periodically euthanized throughout the study from 1 to 20 weeks after administration. Indium concentrations in the serum, lungs, mediastinal lymph nodes, kidneys, liver, and spleen as well as pathological changes in the lungs and kidneys were determined. Additionally, the distribution of ionic indium and indium NPs in the kidneys was analyzed using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. RESULTS Indium concentrations in the lungs of the 2 ITO NP groups gradually decreased over the 20-week observation period. Conversely, the indium concentrations in the mediastinal lymph nodes of the 2 ITO groups increased and were several hundred times higher than those in the kidneys, spleen, and liver. Pulmonary and renal toxicities were observed histopathologically in both the ITO groups. Both indium NPs and ionic indium were detected in the kidneys, and their distributions were similar to the strong indium signals detected at the sites of inflammatory cell infiltration and tubular epithelial cells. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that intratracheal administration of 10 or 20 mg In/kg BW of ITO NPs in male rats produces pulmonary and renal toxicities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagisa Matsumura
- Environmental Health, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yu-ki Tanaka
- Toxicology and Environmental Health, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yasumitsu Ogra
- Toxicology and Environmental Health, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kazunori Koga
- Department of Electronics, Faculty of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Masaharu Shiratani
- Department of Electronics, Faculty of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kasuke Nagano
- Nagano Toxicologic-Pathology Consulting, Hadano, Japan
| | - Akiyo Tanaka
- Environmental Health, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Pang Y, Qu J, Zhang H, Cao Y, Ma X, Wang S, Wang J, Wu J, Zhang T. Nose-to-brain translocation and nervous system injury in response to indium tin oxide nanoparticles of long-term low-dose exposures. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:167314. [PMID: 37742979 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Indium tin oxide (ITO) is a semiconductor nanomaterial with broad application in liquid crystal displays, solar cells, and electrochemical immune sensors. It is worth noting that, with the gradual increase in worker exposure opportunities, the exposure risk in occupational production cannot be ignored. At present, the toxicity of ITO mainly focuses on respiratory toxicity. ITO inhaled through the upper respiratory tract can cause pathological changes such as interstitial pneumonia and pulmonary fibrosis. Still, extrapulmonary toxicity after nanoscale ITO nanoparticle (ITO NPs) exposure, such as long-term effects on the central nervous system, should also be of concern. Therefore, we set up exposure dose experiments (0 mg·kg-1, 3.6 mg·kg-1, and 36 mg·kg-1) based on occupational exposure limits to treat C57BL/6 mice via nasal drops for 15 weeks. Moreover, we conducted a preliminary assessment of the neurotoxicity of ITO NPs (20-30 nm) in vivo. The results indicated that ITO NPs can cause diffuse inflammatory infiltrates in brain tissue, increased glial cell responsiveness, abnormal neuronal cell lineage transition, neuronal migration disorders, and neuronal apoptosis related to the oxidative stress induced by ITO NPs exposure. Hence, our findings provide useful information for the fuller risk assessment of ITO NPs after occupational exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanting Pang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jing Qu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Haopeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yuna Cao
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xinmo Ma
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Shile Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jianli Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jingying Wu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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Liu N, Guan Y, Yu Y, Li G, Xue L, Li W, Qu X, Li N, Yao S. Pulmonary effects of exposure to indium and its compounds: cross-sectional survey of exposed workers and experimental findings in rodents. Part Fibre Toxicol 2022; 19:69. [PMID: 36539793 PMCID: PMC9764635 DOI: 10.1186/s12989-022-00510-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many studies have shown that occupational exposure to indium and its compounds could induce lung disease. Although animal toxicological studies and human epidemiological studies suggest indium exposure may cause lung injury, inflammation, pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, and even lung cancer, related data collected from humans is currently limited and confined to single workplaces, and the early effects of exposure on the lungs are not well understood. OBJECTIVES This study combined population studies and animal experiments to examine the links of indium with pulmonary injury, as well as its mechanism of action. A cross-sectional epidemiological study of indium-exposed workers from China was conducted to evaluate associations between occupational indium exposure and serum biomarkers of early effect. This study also compares and analyzes the causal perspectives of changes in human serum biomarkers induced by indium compound exposure and indium exposure-related rat lung pathobiology, and discusses possible avenues for their recognition and prevention. METHODS This is a study of 57 exposed (at least 6 h per day for one year) workers from an indium ingot production plant, and 63 controls. Indium concentration in serum, urine, and airborne as exposure indices were measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Sixteen serum biomarkers of pulmonary injury, inflammation, and oxidative stress were measured using ELISA. The associations between serum indium and 16 serum biomarkers were analyzed to explore the mechanism of action of indium on pulmonary injury in indium-exposed workers. Animal experiments were conducted to measure inflammatory factors levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissue protein expressions in rats. Four different forms of indium compound-exposed rat models were established (intratracheal instillation twice per week, 8 week exposure, 8 week recovery). Model I: 0, 1.2, 3, and 6 mg/kg bw indium tin oxide group; Model II: 0, 1.2, 3, and 6 mg/kg bw indium oxide (In2O3) group; Model III: 0, 0.523, 1.046, and 2.614 mg/kg bw indium sulfate (In2(SO4)3) group; Model IV: 0, 0.065, 0.65, and 1.3 mg/kg bw indium trichloride (InCl3) group. Lung pathological changes were assessed by hematoxylin & eosin, periodic acid Schiff, and Masson's staining, transmission electron microscopy, and the protein changes were determined by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS In the production workshop, the airborne indium concentration was 78.4 μg/m3. The levels of serum indium and urine indium in indium-exposed workers were 39.3 μg/L and 11.0 ng/g creatinine. Increased lung damage markers, oxidative stress markers, and inflammation markers were found in indium-exposed workers. Serum indium levels were statistically and positively associated with the serum levels of SP-A, IL-1β, IL-6 in indium-exposed workers. Among them, SP-A showed a duration-response pattern. The results of animal experiments showed that, with an increase in dosage, indium exposure significantly increased the levels of serum indium and lung indium, as well as the BALF levels of IL‑1β, IL‑6, IL‑10, and TNF‑α and up-regulated the protein expression of SP-A, SP-D, KL-6, GM-CSF, NF-κB p65, and HO-1 in all rat models groups. TEM revealed that In2(SO4)3 and InCl3 are soluble and that no particles were found in lung tissue, in contrast to the non-soluble compounds (ITO and In2O3). No PAS-staining positive substance was found in the lung tissue of In2(SO4)3 and InCl3 exposure groups, whereas ITO and In2O3 rat models supported findings of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and interstitial fibrosis seen in human indium lung disease. ITO and InCl3 can accelerate interstitial fibrosis. Findings from our in vivo studies demonstrated that intra-alveolar accumulation of surfactant (immunohistochemistry) and characteristic cholesterol clefts granulomas of indium lung disease (PAS staining) were triggered by a specific form of indium (ITO and In2O3). CONCLUSIONS In indium-exposed workers, biomarker findings indicated lung damage, oxidative stress and an inflammatory response. In rat models of the four forms of indium encountered in a workplace, the biomarkers response to all compounds overall corresponded to that in humans. In addition, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis was found following exposure to indium tin oxide and indium oxide in the rat models, and interstitial fibrosis was found following exposure to indium tin oxide and indium trichloride, supporting previous report of human disease. Serum SP-A levels were positively associated with indium exposure and may be considered a potential biomarker of exposure and effect in exposed workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Liu
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China
| | - Yi Guan
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China
| | - Yan Yu
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China
| | - Gai Li
- grid.470203.2North China University of Science and Technology Affiliated Hospital, Tangshan, 063000 Hebei China
| | - Ling Xue
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China
| | - Weikang Li
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China
| | - Xiaoyu Qu
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China
| | - Ning Li
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China
| | - Sanqiao Yao
- grid.440734.00000 0001 0707 0296School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Health and Safety in Hebei, Tangshan, 063210 Hebei China ,grid.412990.70000 0004 1808 322XXinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003 Henan China
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Takeda T, Yamano S, Goto Y, Hirai S, Furukawa Y, Kikuchi Y, Misumi K, Suzuki M, Takanobu K, Senoh H, Saito M, Kondo H, Daghlian G, Hong YK, Yoshimatsu Y, Hirashima M, Kobashi Y, Okamoto K, Kishimoto T, Umeda Y. Dose-response relationship of pulmonary disorders by inhalation exposure to cross-linked water-soluble acrylic acid polymers in F344 rats. Part Fibre Toxicol 2022; 19:27. [PMID: 35395797 PMCID: PMC8994297 DOI: 10.1186/s12989-022-00468-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In Japan, six workers handling cross-linked water-soluble acrylic acid polymer (CWAAP) at a chemical plant suffered from lung diseases, including fibrosis, interstitial pneumonia, emphysema, and pneumothorax. We recently demonstrated that inhalation of CWAAP-A, one type of CWAAP, causes pulmonary disorders in rats. It is important to investigate dose–response relationships and recoverability from exposure to CWAAPs for establishing occupational health guidelines, such as setting threshold limit value for CWAAPs in the workplace. Methods Male and female F344 rats were exposed to 0.3, 1, 3, or 10 mg/m3 CWAAP-A for 6 h/day, 5 days/week for 13 weeks using a whole-body inhalation exposure system. At 1 h, 4 weeks, and 13 weeks after the last exposure the rats were euthanized and blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and all tissues including lungs and mediastinal lymph nodes were collected and subjected to biological and histopathological analyses. In a second experiment, male rats were pre-treated with clodronate liposome or polymorphonuclear leukocyte-neutralizing antibody to deplete macrophages or neutrophils, respectively, and exposed to CWAAP-A for 6 h/day for 2 days. Results CWAAP-A exposure damaged only the alveoli. The lowest observed adverse effect concentration (LOAEC) was 1 mg/m3 and the no observed adverse effect concentration (NOAEC) was 0.3 mg/m3. Rats of both sexes were able to recover from the tissue damage caused by 13 weeks exposure to 1 mg/m3 CWAAP-A. In contrast, tissue damage caused by exposure to 3 and 10 mg/m3 was irreversible due to the development of interstitial lung lesions. There was a gender difference in the recovery from CWAAP-A induced pulmonary disorders, with females recovering less than males. Finally, acute lung effects caused by CWAAP-A were significantly reduced by depletion of alveolar macrophages. Conclusions Pulmonary damage caused by inhalation exposure to CWAAP-A was dose-dependent, specific to the lung and lymph nodes, and acute lung damage was ameliorated by depleting macrophages in the lungs. CWAAP-A had both a LOAEC and a NOAEC, and tissue damage caused by exposure to 1 mg/m3 CWAAP-A was reversible: recovery in female rats was less than for males. These findings indicate that concentration limits for CWAAPs in the workplace can be determined. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12989-022-00468-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoki Takeda
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan.
| | - Shotaro Yamano
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan.
| | - Yuko Goto
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Shigeyuki Hirai
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Yusuke Furukawa
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Kikuchi
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Kyohei Misumi
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Masaaki Suzuki
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Kenji Takanobu
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Hideki Senoh
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Misae Saito
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Hitomi Kondo
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - George Daghlian
- Department of Surgery, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Young-Kwon Hong
- Department of Surgery, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Yasuhiro Yoshimatsu
- Division of Pharmacology, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
| | - Masanori Hirashima
- Division of Pharmacology, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata, 951-8510, Japan
| | - Yoichiro Kobashi
- Department of Pathology, Tenri Hospital, Tenri, Nara, 632-8552, Japan
| | - Kenzo Okamoto
- Department of Pathology, Hokkaido Chuo Rosai Hospital, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Iwamizawa, Hokkaido, 068-0004, Japan
| | - Takumi Kishimoto
- Director of Research and Training Center for Asbestos-Related Diseases, Okayama, Okayama, 702-8055, Japan
| | - Yumi Umeda
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Organization of Occupational Health and Safety, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
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Liu N, Guan Y, Zhou C, Wang Y, Ma Z, Yao S. Pulmonary and Systemic Toxicity in a Rat Model of Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis Induced by Indium-Tin Oxide Nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine 2022; 17:713-731. [PMID: 35210771 PMCID: PMC8860399 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s338955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nan Liu
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yi Guan
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chunling Zhou
- Baoding Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Baoding, 071030, Hebei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yongheng Wang
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhanfei Ma
- Institute of Industrial Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, Xian, 710065, Shanxi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sanqiao Yao
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, People’s Republic of China
- XinXiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Sanqiao Yao, North China University of Science and Technology, Bohai Avenue 21, Tangshan, 063210, Hebei, People’s Republic of China, Fax +86-315-8805583, Email
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Qu J, Wang J, Zhang H, Wu J, Ma X, Wang S, Zang Y, Huang Y, Ma Y, Cao Y, Wu D, Zhang T. Toxicokinetics and systematic responses of differently sized indium tin oxide (ITO) particles in mice via oropharyngeal aspiration exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 290:117993. [PMID: 34428702 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Indium tin oxide (ITO) is an important semiconductor material, because of increasing commercial products consumption and potentially exposed workers worldwide. So, urgently we need to assess and manage potential health risks of ITO. Although the Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) has been established for ITO exposure, there is still a lack of distinguishing the risks of exposure to particles of different sizes. Therefore, obtaining toxicological data of small-sized particles will help to improve its risk assessment data. Important questions raised in quantitative risk assessments for ITO particles are whether biodistribution of ITO particles is affected by particle size and to what extent systematic adverse responses is subsequently initiated. In order to determine whether this toxicological paradigm for size is relevant in ITO toxic effect, we performed comparative studies on the toxicokinetics and sub-acute toxicity test of ITO in mice. The results indicate both sized-ITO resided in the lung tissue and slowly excreted from the mice, and the smaller size of ITO being cleared more slowly. Only a little ITO was transferred to other organs, especially with higher blood flow. Two type of ITO which deposit in the lung mainly impacts respiratory system and may injure liver or kidney. After sub-acute exposure to ITO, inflammation featured by neutrophils infiltration and fibrosis with both dose and size effects have been observed. Our findings revealed toxicokinetics and dose-dependent pulmonary toxicity in mice via oropharyngeal aspiration exposure, also replenish in vivo risk assessment of ITO. Collectively, these data indicate that under the current OEL, there are potential toxic effects after exposure to the ITO particles. The observed size-dependent biodistribution patterns and toxic effect might be important for approaching the hazard potential of small-sized ITO in an occupational environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Qu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Jianli Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Haopeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Jingying Wu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xinmo Ma
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Shile Wang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Yiteng Zang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Yuhui Huang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ying Ma
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Yuna Cao
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Daming Wu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
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Exposure profiles of workers from indium tin oxide target manufacturing and recycling factories in Taiwan. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2021; 233:113708. [PMID: 33588194 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Indium tin oxide exposure poses a potential health risk, but the exposure assessment in occupational setting remains incomplete and continues to be a significant challenge. To this end, we investigated the association of work type, airborne indium concentration, respirable fraction of total indium, and cumulative indium exposure index (CEI) with the levels of plasma indium (P-In) and urinary indium (U-In) among 302 indium tin oxide target manufacturing and recycling workers in Taiwan. We observed that recycling-crushing produced the highest concentrations of total indium (area: 2084.8 μg/m3; personal: 3494.5 μg/m3) and respirable indium (area: 533.4 μg/m3; personal: 742.0 μg/m3). Powdering produced the highest respirable fraction of total indium (area: 58.6%; personal: 81.5%), where the workers had the highest levels of P-In (geometric mean: 2.0 μg/L) and U-In (1.0 μg/g creatinine). After adjusting for the confounder, the CEIs of powdering (βPR = 0.78; βPR = 0.44), bonding (βPT = 0.61; βPT = 0.37), and processing workers (βPT = 0.43; βPT = 0.28) showed significant associations with P-In and U-In, validating its utility in monitoring the exposure. Also, the respirable fraction of total indium significantly contributed to the increased levels of P-In and U-In among workers. The varying levels of relationship noted between indium exposure and the levels of P-In and U-In among workers with different work types suggested that setting the exposure limits among different work types is warranted.
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Bomhard EM. The toxicology of gallium oxide in comparison with gallium arsenide and indium oxide. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2020; 80:103437. [PMID: 32565349 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2020.103437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium oxide (In2O3) are used in electronic industries at high and increasing tonnages since decades. Gallium oxide (Ga2O3) is an emerging wide-bandgap transparent conductive oxide with as yet little industrial use. Since GaAs has received critical attention due to the arsenic ion, it seemed reasonable to compare its toxicology with the respective endpoints of Ga2O3 and In2O3 toxicology in order to find out if and to what extent arsenic contributes. In addition, the toxicology of Ga2O3 has not yet been adequately reviewed, Therefore, this review provides the first evaluation of all available toxicity data on Ga2O3. The acute toxicity of all three compounds is rather low. Subchronic inhalation studies in rats and mice revealed persistent pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) and/or alveolar histiocytic infiltrates down to the lowest tested concentration in rats and mice, i.e. 0.16 mg Ga2O3/m3. These are also the predominant effects after GaAs and In2O3 exposure at similarly low levels, i.e. 0.1 mg/m3 each. Subchronic Ga2O3 exposure caused a minimal microcytic anemia with erythrocytosis in rats (at 6.4 mg/m3 and greater) and mice (at 32 and 64 mg/m3), a decrease in epididymal sperm motility and concentration as well as testicular degeneration at 64 mg/m3. At comparable concentrations the hematological effects and male fertility of GaAs were much stronger. The stronger effects of GaAs are due to its better solubility and presumed higher bioavailability. The database for In2O3 is too small and subchronic testing was at very low levels to allow conclusive judgements if blood/blood forming or degrading and male fertility organs/tissues would also be targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernst M Bomhard
- REACh ChemConsult GmbH, Strehlener Str. 14, D-01069 Dresden, Germany.
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10
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Yang J, Zhang W, Feng J. Low serum indium levels induce expression disorders of some inflammatory factors. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2020; 94:23-30. [PMID: 32514666 DOI: 10.1007/s00420-020-01553-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES It has been reported that occupational exposure to indium compounds, including indium-tin oxide, can induce pulmonary inflammation resulting in serious indium lung disease. However, whether there is an early effect of indium exposure on inflammatory factor expression remains unclear. METHODS Twenty indium-tin oxide processing workers and 15 healthy volunteers were recruited to measure serum indium levels, respiratory symptoms, pulmonary function, and serum inflammatory factor levels. RESULTS Although low serum indium was detected in workers, lung abnormalities were not increased, compared with healthy population. However, serum G-CSF, IL-4, IL-5, TNF-alpha, and TNF-beta levels were significantly increased, while IL-16 and TIMP-1 were obviously down-regulated in indium-tin oxide processing workers. These inflammatory factor levels showed a significant correlation with serum indium levels. CONCLUSIONS Basing on our findings, we speculate that low serum indium levels may induce inflammatory responses, which may be an adaptive response or may cause lung diseases. Therefore, further experiments or follow-up is needed. However, better safeguard procedures and indium exposure reduction should be considered in ITO industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Yang
- Shenzhen Bao'an District Center for Disease Control and Prevention, No. 3, Haixiu Road, Bao'an District, Shenzhen, 518053, China.
| | - Wenjuan Zhang
- Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, No. 601, Huangpu Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
| | - Jing Feng
- Occupational Health Department, Bao'an Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 3# Haixiu Road, Bao'an District, Shenzhen, China
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11
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Cohen MD, Prophete C, Horton L, Sisco M, Park SH, Lee HW, Zelikoff J, Chen LC. Impact on rats from acute intratracheal inhalation exposures to WTC dusts. Inhal Toxicol 2020; 32:218-230. [PMID: 32448006 DOI: 10.1080/08958378.2020.1768322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Background: Studies have revealed the increased incidence of health disorders in First Responders (FR) who were at Ground Zero over the initial 72 hr after the World Trade Center (WTC) collapses. Previous studies in rats exposed to WTC dusts using exposure scenarios that mimicked FR mouthbreathing showed exposure led to altered expression of genes whose products could be involved in lung ailments. Nevertheless, it was uncertain if repeated exposures (as occurred in earliest days post-disaster) might have given rise to long-term changes in the lungs/other organs, in white blood cell (WBC) profiles, and/or systemic expression of select (mostly immune-related) proteins.Methods: To examine this, rats were exposed on 2 consecutive days (2 hr/d, intratracheal inhalation) to WTC dusts and then examined over a 1-yr period thereafter. At select times post-exposure, organ (lung, heart, liver, kidney, spleen) weights, WBC profiles, and blood levels of a variety of proteins were evaluated.Results: The study showed that over the 1-yr period, there were nominal effects on organ weights (absolute, index) as a result of the dust exposures. There were significant changes (relative to in naïve rats) in WBC profiles, with exposed rats having increased monocyte-macrophage and decreased lymphocyte percentages. The study also found that dust exposure led to significant systemic increases in many proteins, including MCP-1, RANTES, MMP-9, RAGE, and Galectin-3.Conclusions: These results provide further support for our longstanding hypothesis that the WTC dusts could potentially have acted as direct inducers of many of the health effects that have been seen in the exposed FR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell D Cohen
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Colette Prophete
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lori Horton
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Maureen Sisco
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sung-Hyun Park
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hyun-Wook Lee
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Judith Zelikoff
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lung-Chi Chen
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University of School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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12
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Chonan T, Amata A, Kawabata Y, Omae K. Indium Lung: Discovery, Pathophysiology and Prevention. TOHOKU J EXP MED 2020; 248:143-150. [PMID: 31257311 DOI: 10.1620/tjem.248.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Indium is mainly used as indium-tin oxide (ITO), which has a unique character of transparency, and is a requisite in making liquid crystal displays. Pulmonary toxicity of indium compounds in humans were not recognized until the last 2 decades. Several initial human cases of indium-related lung disease, named indium lung, were reported in Japan, with their main pathologic findings being interstitial pneumonia, emphysema and cholesterol crystals-containing granulomas. In 2010, three cases with alveolar proteinosis were reported from the United States and China. As of March 2019, more than 10 cases of interstitial pneumonia-dominant indium lung have been reported. Cross-sectional studies in indium workers indicate that the serum indium concentration (sIn) is closely related to the exposure period, the extent of interstitial as well as emphysematous changes of the lung on high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) and serum biomarkers of interstitial pneumonia, including KL-6 and surfactant protein-D (SP-D). Longitudinal studies have shown it is possible to reduce the sIn as well as the interstitial shadows on HRCT; however, emphysematous lesions increased progressively in heavily exposed workers, even after cessation of exposure. Early detection is required to prevent irreversible changes. The first case of lung cancer associated with indium lung developed in a nonsmoking ex-worker. He had been diagnosed with indium lung and stopped working in indium processing 17 years before. This suggested there is a need for appropriate screening to detect for complications of lung cancer at early stages for those with indium lung.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yoshinori Kawabata
- Division of Diagnostic Pathology, Saitama Prefectural Cardiovascular and Respiratory Center
| | - Kazuyuki Omae
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Keio University School of Medicine
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13
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Kim SH, Jeon S, Lee DK, Lee S, Jeong J, Kim JS, Cho WS. The early onset and persistent worsening pulmonary alveolar proteinosis in rats by indium oxide nanoparticles. Nanotoxicology 2019; 14:468-478. [PMID: 31775551 DOI: 10.1080/17435390.2019.1694184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Workplace inhalation exposure to indium compounds has been reported to produce 'indium lung disease' characterized by pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP), granulomas, and pulmonary fibrosis. However, there is little information about the pulmonary toxicity of nano-sized indium oxide (In2O3), which is widely used in various applications such as liquid crystal displays. In this study, we evaluated the time-course and dose-dependent lung injuries by In2O3 nanoparticles (NPs) after a single intratracheal instillation to rats. In2O3 NPs were instilled to female Wistar rats at 7.5, 30, and 90 cm2/rat and lung injuries were evaluated at day 1, 3, 7, 14, 30, 90, and 180 after a single intratracheal instillation. Treatment of In2O3 NPs induced worsening diverse pathological changes including PAP, persistent neutrophilic inflammation, type II cell hyperplasia, foamy macrophages, and granulomas in a time- and dose-dependent manner. PAP was induced from day 3 and worsened throughout the study. The concentrations of interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) showed dose- and time-dependent increases and the levels of these inflammatory mediators are consistent with the data of inflammatory cells in BALF and progressive lung damages by In2O3 NPs. This study suggests that a single inhalation exposure to In2O3 NPs can produce worsening lung damages such as PAP, chronic active inflammation, infiltration of foamy macrophages, and granulomas. The early onset and persistent PAP even at the very low dose (7.5 cm2/rat) implies that the re-evaluation of occupational recommended exposure limit for In2O3 NPs is urgently needed to protect workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hyun Kim
- Lab of Toxicology, Department of Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Soyeon Jeon
- Lab of Toxicology, Department of Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Keun Lee
- Lab of Toxicology, Department of Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Seonghan Lee
- Lab of Toxicology, Department of Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiyoung Jeong
- Lab of Toxicology, Department of Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Sung Kim
- Department of Community Health and Epidemiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Wan-Seob Cho
- Lab of Toxicology, Department of Medicinal Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Dong-A University, Busan, Republic of Korea
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14
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Bomhard EM. The toxicology of indium oxide. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2018; 58:250-258. [PMID: 29448164 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2018.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Indium oxide (In2O3) is a technologically important semiconductor essentially used, doped with tin oxide, to form indium tin oxide (ITO). It is poorly soluble in all so far tested physiologic media. After repeated inhalation, In2O3 particles accumulate in the lungs. Their mobilization can cause significant systemic exposure over long periods of time. An increasing number of cases of severe lung effects (characterized by pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, emphysema and/or interstitial fibrosis) in workers of the ITO industry warrants a review of the toxicological hazards also of In2O3. The database on acute and chronic toxicity/carcinogenicity/genotoxicity/reproductive toxicity as well skin/eye irritation and sensitization is very limited or even lacking. Short-term and subchronic inhalation studies in rats and mice revealed persistent alveolar proteinosis, inflammation and early indicators of fibrosis in the lungs down to concentrations of 1 mg/m3. Epidemiological and medical surveillance studies, serum/blood indium levels in workers as well as data on the exposure to airborne indium concentrations indicate a need for measures to reduce exposure at In2O3 workplaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernst M Bomhard
- REAChChemConsult GmbH, Strehlener Str. 14, D-01069 Dresden, Germany.
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15
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New interplay between interstitial and alveolar macrophages explains pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) induced by indium tin oxide particles. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:1349-1361. [PMID: 29484482 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2168-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Occupational exposure to indium tin oxide (ITO) particles has been associated with the development of severe lung diseases, including pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP). The mechanisms of this lung toxicity remain unknown. Here, we reveal the respective roles of resident alveolar (Siglec-Fhigh AM) and recruited interstitial (Siglec-Flow IM) macrophages contributing in concert to the development of PAP. In mice treated with ITO particles, PAP is specifically associated with IL-1α (not GM-CSF) deficiency and Siglec-Fhigh AM (not Siglec-Flow IM) depletion. Mechanistically, ITO particles are preferentially phagocytosed and dissolved to soluble In3+ by Siglec-Flow IM. In contrast, Siglec-Fhigh AM weakly phagocytose or dissolve ITO particles, but are sensitive to released In3+ through the expression of the transferrin receptor-1 (TfR1). Blocking pulmonary Siglec-Flow IM recruitment in CCR2-deficient mice reduces ITO particle dissolution, In3+ release, Siglec-Fhigh AM depletion, and PAP formation. Restoration of IL-1-related Siglec-Fhigh AM also prevented ITO-induced PAP. We identified a new mechanism of secondary PAP development according to which metal ions released from inhaled particles by phagocytic IM disturb IL-1α-dependent AM self-maintenance and, in turn, alveolar clearance.
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16
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Stefaniak AB, Virji MA, Badding MA, Cummings KJ. Application of the ICRP respiratory tract model to estimate pulmonary retention of industrially sampled indium-containing dusts. Inhal Toxicol 2017; 29:169-178. [PMID: 28595469 PMCID: PMC5746041 DOI: 10.1080/08958378.2017.1333548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Inhalation of indium-containing dusts is associated with the development of indium lung disease. Workers may be exposed to several different chemical forms of indium; however, their lung dosimetry is not fully understood. We characterized the physicochemical properties and measured the lung dissolution kinetics of eight indium-containing dusts. Indium dissolution rates in artificial lung fluids spanned two orders of magnitude. We used the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) human respiratory model (HRTM) to estimate pulmonary indium deposition, retention and biokinetic clearance to blood. For a two-year (median workforce tenure at facility) exposure to respirable-sized particles of the indium materials, modeled indium clearance (>99.99% removed) from the alveolar-interstitial compartment was slow for all dusts; salts would clear in 4 years, sintered indium-tin oxide (ITO) would clear in 9 years, and indium oxide would require 48 years. For this scenario, the ICRP HRTM predicted that indium translocated to blood would be present in that compartment for 3.5-18 years after cessation of exposure, depending on the chemical form. For a 40-year exposure (working lifetime), clearance from the alveolar-interstitial compartment would require 5, 10 and 60 years for indium salts, sintered ITO and indium oxide, respectively and indium would be present in blood for 5-53 years after exposure. Consideration of differences in chemical forms of indium, dissolution rates, alveolar clearance and residence time in blood should be included in exposure assessment and epidemiological studies that rely on measures of total indium in air or blood to derive risk estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandr B Stefaniak
- a National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Morgantown , WV , USA
| | - M Abbas Virji
- a National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Morgantown , WV , USA
| | - Melissa A Badding
- a National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Morgantown , WV , USA
| | - Kristin J Cummings
- a National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Morgantown , WV , USA
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17
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Bomhard EM. Particle-induced Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis and Subsequent Inflammation and Fibrosis: A Toxicologic and Pathologic Review. Toxicol Pathol 2017; 45:389-401. [DOI: 10.1177/0192623316688959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This review analyzes the published data on cases of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) in workers inhaling crystalline aluminum, indium, silicon, and titanium particles and possible sequelae, that is, inflammation and fibrosis, and compares these findings with those from animal experiments. In inhalation studies in rodents using crystalline indium and gallium compounds, pronounced PAP followed by inflammation and fibrosis down to very low concentration ranges have been reported. Crystalline aluminum, silicon, and titanium compounds also induced comparable pulmonary changes in animals, though at higher exposure levels. Laboratory animal species appear to react to the induction of PAP with varying degrees of sensitivity. The sensitivity of humans to environmental causes of PAP seems to be relatively low. Up to now, no cases of PAP, or other pulmonary diseases in humans, have been described for gallium compounds. However, a hazard potential can be assumed based on the results of animal studies. Specific particle properties, responsible for the induction of PAP and its sequelae, have not been identified. This review provides indications that, both in animal studies and in humans, PAP is not often recognized due to the absence of properly directed investigation or is concealed behind other forms of lung pathology.
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18
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Bomhard EM. The toxicology of indium tin oxide. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2016; 45:282-294. [PMID: 27343753 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Indium tin oxide (ITO) is a technologically important semiconductor. An increasing number of cases of severe lung effects (characterized by pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and/or interstitial fibrosis) in ITO-exposed workers warrants a review of the toxicological hazards. Short- and long-term inhalation studies in rats and mice revealed persistent alveolar proteinosis, inflammation and fibrosis in the lungs down to concentrations as low as 0.01mg/m(3). In rats, the incidences of bronchiolo-alveolar adenomas and carcinomas were significantly increased at all concentrations. In mice, ITO was not carcinogenic. A few bronchiolo-alveolar adenomas occurring after repeated intratracheal instillation of ITO to hamsters have to be interpreted as treatment-related. In vitro and in vivo studies on the formation of reactive oxygen species suggest epigenetic effects as cause of the lung tumor development. Repeated intratracheal instillation of ITO to hamsters slightly affected the male sexual organs, which might be interpreted as a secondary effect of the lung damage. Epidemiological and medical surveillance studies, serum/blood indium levels in workers as well as data on the exposure to airborne indium concentrations indicate a need for measures to reduce exposure at ITO workplaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernst M Bomhard
- REACh ChemConsult GmbH, Strehlener Str. 14, D-01069 Dresden, Germany.
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19
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Cummings KJ, Virji MA, Park JY, Stanton ML, Edwards NT, Trapnell BC, Carey B, Stefaniak AB, Kreiss K. Respirable indium exposures, plasma indium, and respiratory health among indium-tin oxide (ITO) workers. Am J Ind Med 2016; 59:522-31. [PMID: 27219296 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Workers manufacturing indium-tin oxide (ITO) are at risk of elevated indium concentration in blood and indium lung disease, but relationships between respirable indium exposures and biomarkers of exposure and disease are unknown. METHODS For 87 (93%) current ITO workers, we determined correlations between respirable and plasma indium and evaluated associations between exposures and health outcomes. RESULTS Current respirable indium exposure ranged from 0.4 to 108 μg/m(3) and cumulative respirable indium exposure from 0.4 to 923 μg-yr/m(3) . Plasma indium better correlated with cumulative (rs = 0.77) than current exposure (rs = 0.54) overall and with tenure ≥1.9 years. Higher cumulative respirable indium exposures were associated with more dyspnea, lower spirometric parameters, and higher serum biomarkers of lung disease (KL-6 and SP-D), with significant effects starting at 22 μg-yr/m(3) , reached by 46% of participants. CONCLUSIONS Plasma indium concentration reflected cumulative respirable indium exposure, which was associated with clinical, functional, and serum biomarkers of lung disease. Am. J. Ind. Med. 59:522-531, 2016. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin J. Cummings
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Morgantown West Virginia
| | - M. Abbas Virji
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Morgantown West Virginia
| | - Ji Young Park
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Morgantown West Virginia
- Institute of Health and Environment; Seoul National University; Seoul Republic of Korea
| | - Marcia L. Stanton
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Morgantown West Virginia
| | - Nicole T. Edwards
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Morgantown West Virginia
| | - Bruce C. Trapnell
- Translational Pulmonary Science Center; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati Ohio
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine; University of Cincinnati College of Medicine; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - Brenna Carey
- Translational Pulmonary Science Center; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center; Cincinnati Ohio
| | - Aleksandr B. Stefaniak
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Morgantown West Virginia
| | - Kathleen Kreiss
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Morgantown West Virginia
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Noguchi S, Eitoku M, Kiyosawa H, Suganuma N. Fibrotic gene expression coexists with alveolar proteinosis in early indium lung. Inhal Toxicol 2016; 28:421-8. [DOI: 10.1080/08958378.2016.1193573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuhei Noguchi
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan
| | - Masamitsu Eitoku
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan
| | - Hidenori Kiyosawa
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan
| | - Narufumi Suganuma
- Department of Environmental Medicine, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Kochi, Japan
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Liu HH, Chen CY, Lan CH, Chang CP, Peng CY. Effects of a powered air-purifying respirator intervention on indium exposure reduction and indium related biomarkers among ITO sputter target manufacturing workers. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2016; 13:346-355. [PMID: 26771526 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2015.1125487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs) worn by the workers, and to investigate the effect of this application on exposure and preclinical effects in terms of workplace measuring and biomarker monitoring in ITO sputter target manufacturing plants and workers, respectively. Fifty-four workers were recruited and investigated from 2010-2012, during which PAPRs were provided to on-site workers in September 2011. Each worker completed questionnaires and provided blood and urine samples for analysis of biomarkers of indium exposure and preclinical effects. Area and personal indium air samples were randomly collected from selected worksites and from participants. The penetration percentage of the respirator (concentration inside respirator divided by concentration outside respirator) was 6.6%. Some biomarkers, such as S-In, SOD, GPx, GST, MDA, and TMOM, reflected the decrease in exposure and showed lower levels, after implementation of PAPRs. This study is the first to investigate the efficacy of PAPRs for reducing indium exposure. The measurement results clearly showed that the implementation of PAPRs reduces levels of indium-related biomarkers. These findings have practical applications for minimizing occupational exposure to indium and for managing the health of workers exposed to indium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hung-Hsin Liu
- a Department of Occupational Safety and Health , Chung Shan Medical University and Chung Shan Medical University Hospital , Taichung , Taiwan
| | - Chang-Yuh Chen
- b Institute of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health, Ministry of Labor , Taipei , Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Hang Lan
- c Department of Occupational Safety and Health , Chung-Hwa University of Medical Technology , Tainan , Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ping Chang
- d Department of Occupational Safety and Health , Chang Jung Christian University , Tainan , Taiwan
| | - Chiung-Yu Peng
- e Department of Public Health , Kaohsiung Medical University , Kaohsiung , Taiwan
- f Research Center for Environmental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University , Kaohsiung , Taiwan
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Badding MA, Fix NR, Orandle MS, Barger MW, Dunnick KM, Cummings KJ, Leonard SS. Pulmonary toxicity of indium-tin oxide production facility particles in rats. J Appl Toxicol 2015; 36:618-26. [PMID: 26472246 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Indium-tin oxide (ITO) is used to make transparent conductive coatings for touch-screen and liquid crystal display electronics. Occupational exposures to potentially toxic particles generated during ITO production have increased in recent years as the demand for consumer electronics continues to rise. Previous studies have demonstrated cytotoxicity in vitro and animal models have shown pulmonary inflammation and injury in response to various indium-containing particles. In humans, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) and fibrotic interstitial lung disease have been observed in ITO facility workers. However, which indium materials or specific processes in the workplace may be the most toxic to workers is unknown. Here we examined the pulmonary toxicity of three different particle samples that represent real-life worker exposures, as they were collected at various production stages throughout an ITO facility. Indium oxide (In2O3), sintered ITO (SITO) and ventilation dust (VD) particles each caused pulmonary inflammation and damage in rats over a time course (1, 7 and 90 days post-intratracheal instillation), but SITO and VD appeared to induce greater toxicity in rat lungs than In2O3 at a dose of 1 mg per rat. Downstream pathological changes such as PAP and fibrosis were observed in response to all three particles 90 days after treatment, with a trend towards greatest severity in animals exposed to VD when comparing animals that received the same dose. These findings may inform workplace exposure reduction efforts and provide a better understanding of the pathogenesis of an emerging occupational health issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Badding
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Natalie R Fix
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Marlene S Orandle
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Mark W Barger
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Katherine M Dunnick
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Kristin J Cummings
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Stephen S Leonard
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
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Badding MA, Schwegler-Berry D, Park JH, Fix NR, Cummings KJ, Leonard SS. Sintered indium-tin oxide particles induce pro-inflammatory responses in vitro, in part through inflammasome activation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0124368. [PMID: 25874458 PMCID: PMC4395338 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0124368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Indium-tin oxide (ITO) is used to make transparent conductive coatings for touch-screen and liquid crystal display electronics. As the demand for consumer electronics continues to increase, so does the concern for occupational exposures to particles containing these potentially toxic metal oxides. Indium-containing particles have been shown to be cytotoxic in cultured cells and pro-inflammatory in pulmonary animal models. In humans, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and fibrotic interstitial lung disease have been observed in ITO facility workers. However, which ITO production materials may be the most toxic to workers and how they initiate pulmonary inflammation remain poorly understood. Here we examined four different particle samples collected from an ITO production facility for their ability to induce pro-inflammatory responses in vitro. Tin oxide, sintered ITO (SITO), and ventilation dust particles activated nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) within 3 h of treatment. However, only SITO induced robust cytokine production (IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, and IL-8) within 24 h in both RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages and BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells. Our lab and others have previously demonstrated SITO-induced cytotoxicity as well. These findings suggest that SITO particles activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, which has been implicated in several immune-mediated diseases via its ability to induce IL-1β release and cause subsequent cell death. Inflammasome activation by SITO was confirmed, but it required the presence of endotoxin. Further, a phagocytosis assay revealed that pre-uptake of SITO or ventilation dust impaired proper macrophage phagocytosis of E. coli. Our results suggest that adverse inflammatory responses to SITO particles by both macrophage and epithelial cells may initiate and propagate indium lung disease. These findings will provide a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind an emerging occupational health issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A. Badding
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Diane Schwegler-Berry
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, United States of America
| | - Ju-Hyeong Park
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, United States of America
| | - Natalie R. Fix
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, United States of America
| | - Kristin J. Cummings
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, United States of America
| | - Stephen S. Leonard
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, 26505, United States of America
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Gwinn WM, Qu W, Bousquet RW, Price H, Shines CJ, Taylor GJ, Waalkes MP, Morgan DL. Macrophage solubilization and cytotoxicity of indium-containing particles as in vitro correlates to pulmonary toxicity in vivo. Toxicol Sci 2014; 144:17-26. [PMID: 25527823 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophage-solubilized indium-containing particles (ICPs) were previously shown in vitro to be cytotoxic. In this study, we compared macrophage solubilization and cytotoxicity of indium phosphide (InP) and indium-tin oxide (ITO) with similar particle diameters (∼ 1.5 µm) and then determined if relative differences in these in vitro parameters correlated with pulmonary toxicity in vivo. RAW 264.7 macrophages were treated with InP or ITO particles and cytotoxicity was assayed at 24 h. Ionic indium was measured in 24 h culture supernatants. Macrophage cytotoxicity and particle solubilization in vitro were much greater for InP compared with ITO. To correlate changes in vivo, B6C3F1 mice were treated with InP or ITO by oropharyngeal aspiration. On Days 14 and 28, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and pleural lavage (PL) fluids were collected and assayed for total leukocytes. Cell differentials, lactate dehydrogenase activity, and protein levels were also measured in BAL. All lavage parameters were greatly increased in mice treated with InP compared with ITO. These data suggest that macrophage solubilization and cytotoxicity of some ICPs in vitro are capable of predicting pulmonary toxicity in vivo. In addition, these differences in toxicity were observed despite the two particulate compounds containing similar amounts of indium suggesting that solubilization, not total indium content, better reflects the toxic potential of some ICPs. Soluble InCl3 was shown to be more cytotoxic than InP to macrophages and lung epithelial cells in vitro further suggesting that ionic indium is the primary cytotoxic component of InP.
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Affiliation(s)
- William M Gwinn
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Wei Qu
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Ronald W Bousquet
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Herman Price
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Cassandra J Shines
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Genie J Taylor
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Michael P Waalkes
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | - Daniel L Morgan
- *NTP Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences; and Alion Science and Technology Corporation, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
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Jouneau S, Kerjouan M, Briens E, Lenormand JP, Meunier C, Letheulle J, Chiforeanu D, Lainé-Caroff C, Desrues B, Delaval P. La protéinose alvéolaire pulmonaire. Rev Mal Respir 2014; 31:975-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rmr.2014.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Lim CH, Han JH, Cho HW, Kang M. Studies on the toxicity and distribution of indium compounds according to particle size in sprague-dawley rats. Toxicol Res 2014; 30:55-63. [PMID: 24795801 PMCID: PMC4007045 DOI: 10.5487/tr.2014.30.1.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The use of indium compounds, especially those of small size, for the production of semiconductors, liquid-crystal panels, etc., has increased recently. However, the role of particle size or the chemical composition of indium compounds in their toxicity and distribution in the body has not been sufficiently investigated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of particle size and the chemical composition of indium compounds on their toxicity and distribution. METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to two different-sized indium oxides (average particle sizes under 4,000 nm [IO_4000] and 100 nm [IO_100]) and one nano-sized indium-tin oxide (ITO; average particle size less than 50 nm) by inhalation for 6 hr daily, 5 days per week, for 4 weeks at approximately 1 mg/m(3) of indium by mass concentration. RESULTS We observed differences in lung weights and histopathological findings, differential cell counts, and cell damage indicators in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid between the normal control group and IO- or ITO-exposed groups. However, only ITO affected respiratory functions in exposed rats. Overall, the toxicity of ITO was much higher than that of IOs; the toxicity of IO_4000 was higher than that of IO_100. A 4-week recovery period was not sufficient to alleviate the toxic effects of IO and ITO exposure. Inhaled indium was mainly deposited in the lungs. ITO in the lungs was removed more slowly than IOs; IO_4000 was removed faster than IO_100. IOs were not distributed to other organs (i.e., the brain, liver, and spleen), whereas ITO was. Concentrations of indium in the blood and organ tissues were higher at 4 weeks after exposure. CONCLUSIONS The effect of particle size on the toxicity of indium compounds was not clear, whereas chemical composition clearly affected toxicity; ITO showed much higher toxicity than that of IO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheol Hong Lim
- Toxicity Research Team, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, Exporo, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Jeong-Hee Han
- Toxicity Research Team, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, Exporo, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Hae-Won Cho
- Toxicity Research Team, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, Exporo, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, Korea
| | - Mingu Kang
- Toxicity Research Team, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, Exporo, Yuseong-Gu, Daejeon, Korea
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Brock K, Anderson SE, Lukomska E, Long C, Anderson K, Marshall N, Meade BJ. Immune stimulation following dermal exposure to unsintered indium tin oxide. J Immunotoxicol 2013; 11:268-72. [PMID: 24164313 DOI: 10.3109/1547691x.2013.843620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, several types of pulmonary pathology, including alveolar proteinosis, fibrosis, and emphysema, have been reported in workers in the indium industry. To date, there remains no clear understanding of the underlying mechanism(s). Pulmonary toxicity studies in rats and mice have demonstrated the development of mediastinal lymph node hyperplasia and granulomas of mediastinal lymph nodes and bronchus-associated lymphoid tissues following exposure to indium tin oxide. Given the association between exposure to other metals and the development of immune-mediated diseases, these studies were undertaken to begin to investigate the immuno-modulatory potential of unsintered indium tin oxide (uITO) in a mouse model. Using modifications of the local lymph node assay, BALB/c mice (five animals/group) were exposed topically via intact or breached skin or injected intradermally at the base of the ear pinnae with either vehicle or increasing concentrations 2.5-10% uITO (90:10 indium oxide/tin oxide, particle size <50 nm). Dose-responsive increases in lymphocyte proliferation were observed with a calculated EC3 of 4.7% for the intact skin study. Phenotypic analysis of draining lymph node cells following intradermal injection with 5% uITO yielded a profile consistent with a T-cell-mediated response. These studies demonstrate the potential for uITO to induce sensitization and using lymphocyte proliferation as a biomarker of exposure, and demonstrate the potential for uITO to penetrate both intact and breached skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristie Brock
- Case Western University, ARC Veterinary Services , Cleveland, OH , USA and
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Cummings KJ, Suarthana E, Edwards N, Liang X, Stanton ML, Day GA, Saito R, Kreiss K. Serial evaluations at an indium-tin oxide production facility. Am J Ind Med 2013; 56:300-7. [PMID: 23109040 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.22125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We evaluated the effectiveness of workplace changes to prevent indium lung disease, using 2002-2010 surveillance data collected by an indium-tin oxide production facility. METHODS We assessed pulmonary function using lower limits of normal. Blood indium concentration and personal air sampling data were used to estimate exposure. RESULTS Abnormalities were uncommon at hire. After hire, prevalence of spirometric restriction was 31% (n = 14/45), about fourfold higher than expected. Excessive decline in FEV1 was elevated at 29% (n = 12/41). Half (n = 21/42) had blood indium ≥5 µg/l. More recent hires had fewer abnormalities. There was a suggestion that abnormalities were more common among workers with blood indium ≥5 µg/l, but otherwise an exposure-response relationship was not evident. Peak dust concentrations were obscured by time averaging. CONCLUSIONS Evolving lung function abnormalities consistent with subclinical indium lung disease appeared common and merit systematic investigation. Traditional measures of exposure and response were not illustrative, suggesting fresh approaches will be needed. Workplace changes seemed to have had a positive though incomplete impact; novel preventive interventions are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin J Cummings
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA.
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Hines CJ, Roberts JL, Andrews RN, Jackson MV, Deddens JA. Use of and occupational exposure to indium in the United States. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2013; 10:723-733. [PMID: 24195539 PMCID: PMC4476525 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2013.836279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Indium use has increased greatly in the past decade in parallel with the growth of flat-panel displays, touchscreens, optoelectronic devices, and photovoltaic cells. Much of this growth has been in the use of indium tin oxide (ITO). This increased use has resulted in more frequent and intense exposure of workers to indium. Starting with case reports and followed by epidemiological studies, exposure to ITO has been linked to serious and sometimes fatal lung disease in workers. Much of this research was conducted in facilities that process sintered ITO, including manufacture, grinding, and indium reclamation from waste material. Little has been known about indium exposure to workers in downstream applications. In 2009-2011, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) contacted 89 potential indium-using companies; 65 (73%) responded, and 43 of the 65 responders used an indium material. Our objective was to identify current workplace applications of indium materials, tasks with potential indium exposure, and exposure controls being used. Air sampling for indium was either conducted by NIOSH or companies provided their data for a total of 63 air samples (41 personal, 22 area) across 10 companies. Indium exposure exceeded the NIOSH recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.1 mg/m(3) for certain methods of resurfacing ITO sputter targets, cleaning sputter chamber interiors, and in manufacturing some inorganic indium compounds. Indium air concentrations were low in sputter target bonding with indium solder, backside thinning and polishing of fabricated indium phosphide-based semiconductor devices, metal alloy production, and in making indium-based solder pastes. Exposure controls such as containment, local exhaust ventilation (LEV), and tool-mounted LEV can be effective at reducing exposure. In conclusion, occupational hygienists should be aware that the manufacture and use of indium materials can result in indium air concentrations that exceed the NIOSH REL. Given recent findings of adverse health effects in workers, research is needed to determine if the current REL sufficiently protects workers against indium-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia J. Hines
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | | | - Ronnee N. Andrews
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | | | - James A. Deddens
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, Ohio
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
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Zimmermann YS, Schäffer A, Hugi C, Fent K, Corvini PFX, Lenz M. Organic photovoltaics: potential fate and effects in the environment. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2012; 49:128-140. [PMID: 23022661 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2012.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Revised: 08/21/2012] [Accepted: 08/24/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In times of dwindling fossil fuels it is particularly crucial to develop novel "green" technologies in order to cover the increasing worldwide demand for energy. Organic photovoltaic solar cells (OPVs) are promising as a renewable energy source due to low energy requirement for production, low resource extraction, and no emission of greenhouse gasses during use. In contrast to silicium-based solar cells, OPVs offer the advantages of light-weight, semi-transparency and mechanical flexibility. As to a possible forthcoming large-scale production, the environmental impact of such OPVs should be assessed and compared to currently best available technologies. For the first time, this review compiles the existing knowledge and identifies gaps regarding the environmental impact of such OPVs in a systematic manner. In this regard, we discuss the components of a typical OPV layer by layer. We discuss the probability of enhanced release of OPV-borne components into the environment during use-phase (e.g. UV- and biodegradation) and end-of-life phase (e.g. incineration and waste disposal). For this purpose, we compiled available data on bioavailability, bioaccumulation, biodegradation, and ecotoxicity. Whereas considerable research has already been carried out concerning the ecotoxicity of certain OPV components (e.g. nanoparticles and fullerenes), others have not been investigated at all so far. In conclusion, there is a general lack of information about fate, behavior as well as potential ecotoxicity of most of the main OPV components and their degradation/transformation products. So far, there is no evidence for a worrying threat coming from OPVs, but since at present, no policy and procedures regarding recycling of OPVs are in action, in particular improper disposal upon end-of-life might result in an adverse effect of OPVs in the environment when applied in large-scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannick-Serge Zimmermann
- Institute for Ecopreneurship, School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Gründenstrasse 40, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
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Tanaka A, Hirata M, Shiratani M, Koga K, Kiyohara Y. Subacute Pulmonary Toxicity of Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide Following Intratracheal Instillations into the Lungs of Rats. J Occup Health 2012; 54:187-95. [DOI: 10.1539/joh.11-0164-oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Akiyo Tanaka
- Department of Environmental MedicineGraduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu UniversityJapan
| | - Miyuki Hirata
- Department of Environmental MedicineGraduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu UniversityJapan
| | - Masaharu Shiratani
- Department of ElectronicsGraduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu UniversityJapan
| | - Kazunori Koga
- Department of ElectronicsGraduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu UniversityJapan
| | - Yutaka Kiyohara
- Department of Environmental MedicineGraduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu UniversityJapan
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Cummings KJ, Nakano M, Omae K, Takeuchi K, Chonan T, Xiao YL, Harley RA, Roggli VL, Hebisawa A, Tallaksen RJ, Trapnell BC, Day GA, Saito R, Stanton ML, Suarthana E, Kreiss K. Indium lung disease. Chest 2011; 141:1512-1521. [PMID: 22207675 DOI: 10.1378/chest.11-1880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reports of pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, and, more recently, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) in indium workers suggested that workplace exposure to indium compounds caused several different lung diseases. METHODS To better understand the pathogenesis and natural history of indium lung disease, a detailed, systematic, multidisciplinary analysis of clinical, histopathologic, radiologic, and epidemiologic data for all reported cases and workplaces was undertaken. RESULTS Ten men (median age, 35 years) who produced, used, or reclaimed indium compounds were diagnosed with interstitial lung disease 4-13 years after first exposure (n = 7) or PAP 1-2 years after first exposure (n = 3). Common pulmonary histopathologic features in these patients included intraalveolar exudate typical of alveolar proteinosis (n = 9), cholesterol clefts and granulomas (n = 10), and fibrosis (n = 9). Two patients with interstitial lung disease had pneumothoraces. Lung disease progressed following cessation of exposure in most patients and was fatal in two. Radiographic data revealed that two patients with PAP subsequently developed fibrosis and one also developed emphysematous changes. Epidemiologic investigations demonstrated the potential for exposure to respirable particles and an excess of lung abnormalities among coworkers. CONCLUSIONS Occupational exposure to indium compounds was associated with PAP, cholesterol ester crystals and granulomas, pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, and pneumothoraces. The available evidence suggests exposure to indium compounds causes a novel lung disease that may begin with PAP and progress to include fibrosis and emphysema, and, in some cases, premature death. Prospective studies are needed to better define the natural history and prognosis of this emerging lung disease and identify effective prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin J Cummings
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV.
| | - Makiko Nakano
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Omae
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koichiro Takeuchi
- Occupational Respiratory Disease Center, Toyama Rosai Hospital, Toyama, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Chonan
- Department of Medicine, Nikko Memorial Hospital, Hitachi, Japan
| | - Yong-Long Xiao
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Russell A Harley
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| | - Victor L Roggli
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
| | - Akira Hebisawa
- Department of Pathology, Tokyo National Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Robert J Tallaksen
- Department of Radiology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, WV
| | - Bruce C Trapnell
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH
| | - Gregory A Day
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV
| | - Rena Saito
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV
| | - Marcia L Stanton
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV
| | - Eva Suarthana
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
| | - Kathleen Kreiss
- Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, WV
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Cummings KJ, Kreiss K, Roggli VL. Indium-Tin Oxide Does Not Induce GM-CSF Autoantibodies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011. [DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm.184.6.741a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Hoet P, De Graef E, Swennen B, Seminck T, Yakoub Y, Deumer G, Haufroid V, Lison D. Occupational exposure to indium: what does biomonitoring tell us? Toxicol Lett 2011; 213:122-8. [PMID: 21771645 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The industrial uses of indium, a rare metal with no known physiological role in humans, have increased dramatically over the past 15 years. The results of animal toxicity studies showing pulmonary and systemic effects as well as some reports in workers have created a growing concern about the possible occurrence of toxic effects in exposed workers. Validated biomarkers to assess exposure to indium are not available. OBJECTIVES This work aimed at investigating the kinetics of indium in urine (In-U) and plasma (In-Pl) in workers manufacturing In ingots and mainly exposed to hardly water-soluble In compounds. All nine workers from the In department of a large metallurgical concern participated in the study as well as 5 retired workers and 20 controls. METHODS Personal breathing zone air was collected throughout the work shift on Monday and Friday. Blood and urine samples were collected, before and after the shift, on the same day as the air sampling and on preshift the next Monday after a non-working week-end. Moreover, rats were given either InCl(3) by intraperitoneal injection or In(2)O(3) by pharyngeal aspiration, In was followed in plasma during 120 days and measured in tissues 120 days after exposure. RESULTS Higher In-Pl and In-U concentrations were found in both current (range 0.32-12.61 μg/L plasma; 0.22-3.50 μg/g creat) and former (0.03-4.38 μg/L plasma; 0.02-0.69 μg/g creat) workers compared with controls (<0.03 μg/L plasma; <0.02 μg/g creat). Both biological parameters were highly correlated but no correlation was found between In-air (10-1030 μg/m(3)) and In-Pl or In-U. Normalizing In-U by the urinary creatinine concentration reduced the inter- (from 90% to 70%) and intra-individual variability (from 54% to 35%). In-Pl remained remarkably stable along the working week (inter- and intra-individual variability: 89% and 10%, respectively). Neither In-U nor In-Pl significantly increased during the day or the week. A week-end without occupational exposure was not sufficient to reach the background In-Pl and In-U levels measured in controls. The results of the experimental investigations confirmed the hypothesis that inhalation of hardly soluble In compounds may cause accumulation of In in the body leading to a prolonged "endogenous exposure" from both a lung depot of "insoluble" particles that are progressively absorbed and from a retention depot in other internal organs. CONCLUSION This study shows that in workers exposed to hardly soluble In compounds, In-U and In-Pl are very sensitive to detect exposure and mainly reflect long-term exposure. In-Pl levels are particularly stable for a given individual. In-U might be more influenced than In-Pl by recent exposure. Both parameters remained high years after withdrawal from exposure, indicating a possible endogenous exposure and a prolonged risk of pulmonary and systemic diseases even after work exposure has ceased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Perrine Hoet
- Louvain Centre for Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology (LTAP), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL), Brussels, Belgium.
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Nagano K, Nishizawa T, Eitaki Y, Ohnishi M, Noguchi T, Arito H, Fukushima S. Pulmonary Toxicity in Mice by 2‐ and 13‐week Inhalation Exposures to Indium‐tin Oxide and Indium Oxide Aerosols. J Occup Health 2011; 53:234-9. [DOI: 10.1539/joh.10-0053-br] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kasuke Nagano
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health AssociationJapan
| | - Tomoshi Nishizawa
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health AssociationJapan
| | - Yoko Eitaki
- Occupational Health Research and Development Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health AssociationJapan
| | - Makoto Ohnishi
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health AssociationJapan
| | - Tadashi Noguchi
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health AssociationJapan
| | - Heihachiro Arito
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health AssociationJapan
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health AssociationJapan
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Nagano K, Nishizawa T, Umeda Y, Kasai T, Noguchi T, Gotoh K, Ikawa N, Eitaki Y, Kawasumi Y, Yamauchi T, Arito H, Fukushima S. Inhalation carcinogenicity and chronic toxicity of indium-tin oxide in rats and mice. J Occup Health 2011; 53:175-87. [PMID: 21471693 DOI: 10.1539/joh.10-0057-oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Carcinogenicity and chronic toxicity of indium-tin oxide (ITO) were examined by inhalation exposure of rats and mice to ITO aerosol. METHODS Fifty mice of both sexes were exposed to ITO at 0 (control), 0.01, 0.03 or 0.1 mg/m(3) for 6 h/day, 5 day/wk for 104 wk, and 50 rats of both sexes were exposed to 0, 0.01 or 0.03 mg/m(3) ITO for the same time period. The repeated exposure of 50 rats of both sexes to 0.1 mg/m(3) ITO was discontinued at the 26th wk, followed by clean air exposure for the remaining 78 wk. RESULTS In rats, incidences of bronchiolo-alveolar adenomas and carcinomas, bronchiolo-alveolar hyperplasia, alveolar wall fibrosis and thickened pleural wall, alveolar proteinosis and infiltrations of alveolar macrophages and inflammatory cells were significantly increased. Combined incidences of malignant lung tumors in male rats and total lung tumors in male and female rats were significantly increased at exposure to 0.01 mg/m(3) ITO. In mice, no carcinogenic response occurred, but thickened pleural wall, alveolar proteinosis and alveolar macrophage infiltration were induced. Mice were less susceptible to ITO than rats. The lung content of indium was the greatest, followed by the spleen, kidney and liver. Blood indium levels increased dose-dependently. CONCLUSIONS There was clear evidence of carcinogenicity of inhaled ITO in male and female rats but not clear evidence in mice, together with occurrence of the chronic pulmonary lesions in both rats and mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasuke Nagano
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association, Japan
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