Growth, efficacy, and safety of feeding an iron-fortified human milk fortifier

The Effects of Iron Administration on Anemia Development during the 7th and 21st Day of Life in Premature Newborns: A Prospective Cohort Study

Background and Objectives: The administration of iron to premature newborns is a common intervention aimed at preventing iron deficiency (ID). However, there is no consensus on the optimal timing and dosage for iron supplementation in this population. This study evaluates the effects and potential adverse outcomes of administering iron on the 7th and 21st days of life in premature infants. Materials and Methods: This research was conducted on 108 premature neonates at the "Louis Turcanu" Children's Emergency Clinical Hospital in Timisoara, Romania. The study population was divided into a control group of 48 newborns who did not receive iron supplementation and an intervention group of 60 newborns who did. The analysis utilized univariate and multivariate regression to examine binary outcomes. Results: The findings indicate that iron supplementation significantly increased the risk of anemia during the premature period at 21 days of life, as demonstrated by both univariate and multivariate regression analyses, with an odds ratio (OR) of 2.40 (95% CI, 1.01-5.68) and an adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of 2.75 (95% CI, 1.06-7.11), respectively. Contrary to expectations, iron supplementation did not significantly alter the risk of abnormal serum ferritin or iron levels at 21 days of life, according to the univariate analysis (p = 0.380 and p = 0.526, respectively). Conclusions: The observed increase in the risk of anemia without a corresponding improvement in the serum ferritin or iron levels suggests the need for further investigation into alternative strategies for iron supplementation in premature newborns.

Nutrition in chronic inflammatory conditions: Bypassing the mucosal block for micronutrients

Nutritional Immunity is one of the most ancient innate immune responses, during which the body can restrict nutrients availability to pathogens and restricts their uptake by the gut mucosa (mucosal block). Though this can be a beneficial strategy during infection, it also is associated with non-communicable diseases-where the pathogen is missing; leading to increased morbidity and mortality as micronutritional uptake and distribution in the body is hindered. Here, we discuss the acute immune response in respect to nutrients, the opposing nutritional demands of regulatory and inflammatory cells and particularly focus on some nutrients linked with inflammation such as iron, vitamins A, Bs, C, and other antioxidants. We propose that while the absorption of certain micronutrients is hindered during inflammation, the dietary lymph path remains available. As such, several clinical trials investigated the role of the lymphatic system during protein absorption, following a ketogenic diet and an increased intake of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, in reducing inflammation and ameliorating disease.

Enteral Iron Supplementation in Preterm or Low Birth Weight Infants: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Iron is needed for growth and development of infants globally, but preterm and low birth weight (LBW) infants are at risk for severe iron deficiencies. To assess the effect of enteral iron supplementation on mortality, morbidity, growth, and neurodevelopment outcomes in preterm or LBW infants fed human milk. Secondary objectives were to assess the effect on biomarkers and dose and timing.

METHODS

Data sources include PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library databases to March 16, 2021. Study Selection includes controlled or quasi experimental study designs. Two reviewers independently extracted data.

RESULTS

Eight trials (eleven reports; 1093 participants, 7 countries) were included. No trials reported mortality. At latest follow-up, there was little effect on infection (very low certainty evidence, 4 studies, 401 participants, relative risk [RR] 0.98, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.56 to 1.73, I2 = 0.00%) and necrotising enterocolitis (3 studies, 375 participants, RR 1.47, 95% CI 0.68 to 3.20, I2 = 0.00%). There was an increase in linear growth (length) (moderate certainty evidence, 3 studies, 384 participants, mean difference 0.69 cm, 95% CI 0.01 to 1.37, I2 = 0%) but little effect on weight, head circumference, or cognitive development. There was an improvement in anemia (moderate certainty evidence, 2 studies, 381 participants, RR 0.25, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.62, I2 = 0.00%) but no effect on serum ferritin. Limitations include heterogeneity in the included studies.

CONCLUSIONS

There are important benefits for human milk-fed preterm and LBW infants from enteral iron supplementation. However, more randomized control trials are required to improve the certainty of evidence.

A systematic review of the definitions and prevalence of feeding intolerance in preterm infants

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Feeding intolerance (FI) is a common phenomenon experienced in preterm infants in neonatal intensive care units, as well as being a focus of many research studies into feeding methods, particularly in relation to comorbidities. There is no widely accepted definition of FI. This systematic review aimed to explore the range of definitions used for FI and provide an estimate of the prevalence amongst preterm infants.

METHODS

Searches were completed on MEDLINE (includes the Cochrane library), Embase, PsycInfo, CINAHL, NHS Evidence and Web of Science. Inclusion criteria; preterm infants in neonatal units, a clear definition of FI, >10 patients and be available in English language. Case reports were excluded.

RESULTS

One hundred studies were included. Definitions of FI were inconsistent. Studies were grouped according to definition used into: Group A - measuring gastric residual volume (GRV) only; group B - GRV and abdominal distension (AD); group C - GRV, AD and gastrointestinal symptoms (GI) which included any of vomiting, bilious vomiting and blood in stool; group D- GRV and GI; group E - AD and GI; group F - GI only and group G - any other elements used. Meta-analysis demonstrated that prevalence of FI between groups varied from 15 to 30% with an overall prevalence of 27% (95% confidence interval 23-31%). Group A had the highest prevalence. Review of time to full enteral feed was performed (37 studies) which demonstrated a range of 11.3-18.3 days depending on which FI definition used.

DISCUSSION

Definitions of FI in research are inconsistent, a similar finding to that seen in studies in both paediatric and adult critical care populations. The difficulty of defining FI in the preterm population is the concern regarding necrotising enterocolitis, with some studies using an overlap in their definitions, despite differing pathophysiology and management. Due to the heterogeneity of data obtained in this review regarding definitions used, further robust research is required in order to conclude which elements which should be used to define FI in this population.

PROSPERO NUMBER

CRD42019155596. Registered November 2019.

Comparison of different protein concentrations of human milk fortifier for promoting growth and neurological development in preterm infants

BACKGROUND

Human milk alone may provide inadequate amounts of protein to meet the growth requirements of preterm infants because of restrictions in the amount of fluid they can tolerate. It has become common practice to feed preterm infants with breast milk fortified with protein and other nutrients but there is debate about the optimal concentration of protein in commercially available fortifiers.

OBJECTIVES

To compare the effects of different protein concentrations in human milk fortifier, fed to preterm infants, on growth and neurodevelopment.

SEARCH METHODS

We used the standard search strategy of Cochrane Neonatal to search CENTRAL (2019, Issue 8), Ovid MEDLINE and CINAHL on 15 August 2019. We also searched clinical trials databases and the reference lists of retrieved articles for randomised controlled trials and quasi-randomised trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all published and unpublished randomised, quasi-randomised and cluster-randomised trials comparing two different concentrations of protein in human milk fortifier. We included preterm infants (less than 37 weeks' gestational age). Participants may have been exclusively fed human milk or have been supplemented with formula. The concentration of protein was classified as low (< 1g protein/100 mL expressed breast milk (EBM)), moderate (≥ 1g to < 1.4g protein/100 mL EBM) or high (≥ 1.4g protein/100 mL EBM). We excluded trials that compared two protein concentrations that fell within the same category.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We undertook data collection and analyses using the standard methods of Cochrane Neonatal. Two review authors independently evaluated trials. Primary outcomes included growth, neurodevelopmental outcome and mortality. Data were synthesised using risk ratios (RR), risk differences and mean differences (MD), with 95% confidence intervals (CI). We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of the evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified nine trials involving 861 infants. There is one trial awaiting classification, and nine ongoing trials. The trials were mostly conducted in infants born < 32 weeks' gestational age or < 1500 g birthweight, or both. All used a fortifier derived from bovine milk. Two trials fed infants exclusively with mother's own milk, three trials gave supplementary feeds with donor human milk and four trials supplemented with preterm infant formula. Overall, trials were small but generally at low or unclear risk of bias. High versus moderate protein concentration of human milk fortifier There was moderate certainty evidence that a high protein concentration likely increased in-hospital weight gain compared to moderate concentration of human milk fortifier (MD 0.66 g/kg/day, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.82; trials = 6, participants = 606). The evidence was very uncertain about the effect of high versus moderate protein concentration on length gain (MD 0.01 cm/week, 95% CI -0.01 to 0.03; trials = 5, participants = 547; very low certainty evidence) and head circumference gain (MD 0.00 cm/week, 95% CI -0.01 to 0.02; trials = 5, participants = 549; very low certainty evidence). Only one trial reported neonatal mortality, with no deaths in either group (participants = 45). Moderate versus low protein concentration of human milk fortifier A moderate versus low protein concentration fortifier may increase weight gain (MD 2.08 g/kg/day, 95% CI 0.38 to 3.77; trials = 2, participants = 176; very low certainty evidence) with little to no effect on head circumference gain (MD 0.13 cm/week, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.26; I² = 85%; trials = 3, participants = 217; very low certainty evidence), but the evidence is very uncertain. There was low certainty evidence that a moderate protein concentration may increase length gain (MD 0.09 cm/week, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.14; trials = 3, participants = 217). Only one trial reported mortality and found no difference between groups (RR 0.48, 95% CI 0.05 to 5.17; participants = 112). No trials reported long term growth or neurodevelopmental outcomes including cerebral palsy and developmental delay.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Feeding preterm infants with a human milk fortifier containing high amounts of protein (≥ 1.4g/100 mL EBM) compared with a fortifier containing moderate protein concentration (≥ 1 g to < 1.4 g/100 mL EBM) results in small increases in weight gain during the neonatal admission. There may also be small increases in weight and length gain when infants are fed a fortifier containing moderate versus low protein concentration (< 1 g protein/100 mL EBM). The certainty of this evidence is very low to moderate; therefore, results may change when the findings of ongoing studies are available. There is insufficient evidence to assess the impact of protein concentration on adverse effects or long term outcomes such as neurodevelopment. Further trials are needed to determine whether modest increases in weight gain observed with higher protein concentration fortifiers are associated with benefits or harms to long term growth and neurodevelopment.

Early fortification of human milk versus late fortification to promote growth in preterm infants

BACKGROUND

Uncertainty exists about the optimal point at which multi-component fortifier should be added to human milk for promoting growth in preterm infants. The most common practice is to start fortification when the infant's daily enteral feed volume reaches 100 mL/kg body weight. Another approach is to commence fortification earlier, in some cases as early as the first enteral feed. Early fortification of human milk could increase nutrient intake and growth rates but may increase the risk of feed intolerance and necrotising enterocolitis (NEC).

OBJECTIVES

To assess effects on growth and safety of early fortification of human milk versus late fortification in preterm infants To assess whether effects vary based upon gestational age (≤ 27 weeks; 28 to 31 weeks; ≥ 32 weeks), birth weight (< 1000 g; 1000 to 1499 g; ≥ 1500 g), small or appropriate for gestational age, or type of fortifier (bovine milk-based human milk fortifier (HMF); human milk-based HMF; formula powder) SEARCH METHODS: We used the standard strategy of Cochrane Neonatal to search the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; 2019, Issue 8); OVID MEDLINE (R) and Epub Ahead of Print, In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, Daily and Versions (R) (1946 to 15 August 2019); MEDLINE via PubMed (1 August 2018 to 15 August 2019) for the previous year; and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literatue (CINAHL) (1981 to 15 August 2019). We searched clinical trials databases and reference lists of included studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials that compared early versus late fortification of human milk in preterm infants. We defined early fortification as fortification started at < 100 mL/kg/d enteral feed volume or < 7 days postnatal age, and late fortification as fortification started at ≥ 100 mL/kg/d feeds or ≥ 7 days postnatal age.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Both review authors assessed trial eligibility and risk of bias and independently extracted data. We analysed treatment effects in individual trials, and we reported risk ratio (RR) for dichotomous data and mean difference (MD) for continuous data, with respective 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

We included two trials with a total of 237 infants. All participants were very low birth weight infants (birth weight < 1500 g). Early fortification was started at 20 mL/kg/d enteral feeds in one study and 40 mL/kg/d in the other study. Late fortification was started at 100 mL/kg/d feeds in both studies. One study used bovine milk-based fortifier, and the other used human milk-based fortifier. Meta-analysis showed that early fortification may have little or no effect on growth outcomes including time to regain birth weight (MD -0.06 days, 95% CI -1.32 to 1.20 days), linear growth (MD 0.10 cm/week, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.22 cm/week), or head growth (MD -0.01 cm/week, 95% CI -0.07 to 0.06 cm/week) during the initial hospitalisation period. Early fortification may have little or no effect on the risk of NEC (MD -0.01, 95% CI -0.07 to 0.06). The certainty of evidence was low for these outcomes due to risk of bias (lack of blinding) and imprecision (small sample size). Early fortification may have little or no effect on incidence of surgical NEC, time to reach full enteral feeds, extrauterine growth restriction at discharge, proportion of infants with feed interruption episodes, duration of total parenteral nutrition (TPN), duration of central venous line usage, or incidence of invasive infection, all-cause mortality, and duration of hospital stay. The certainty of evidence was low for these outcomes due to risk of bias (lack of blinding) and imprecision (small sample size). We did not have data for other outcomes such as subsequent weight gain after birth weight is regained, parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease, postdischarge growth, and neurodevelopmental outcomes.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Available evidence is insufficient to support or refute early fortification of human milk in preterm infants. Further large trials would be needed to provide data of sufficient quality and precision to inform policy and practice.

Feeding Interventions for Infants with Growth Failure in the First Six Months of Life: A Systematic Review

(1) Introduction: Current evidence on managing infants under six months with growth failure or other nutrition-related risk is sparse and low quality. This review aims to inform research priorities to fill this evidence gap, focusing on breastfeeding practices. (2) Methods: We searched PubMed, CINAHL Plus, and Cochrane Library for studies on feeding interventions that aim to restore or improve the volume or quality of breastmilk and breastfeeding when breastfeeding practices are sub-optimal or prematurely stopped. We included studies from both low- and middle-income countries and high-income countries. (3) Results: Forty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Most were from high-income countries (n = 35, 74.5%) and included infants who were at risk of growth failure at birth (preterm infants/small for gestational age) and newborns with early growth faltering. Interventions included formula fortification or supplementation (n = 31, 66%), enteral feeds (n = 8, 17%), cup feeding (n = 2, 4.2%), and other (n = 6, 12.8%). Outcomes included anthropometric change (n = 40, 85.1%), reported feeding practices (n = 16, 34%), morbidity (n = 11, 23.4%), and mortality (n = 5, 10.6%). Of 31 studies that assessed formula fortification or supplementation, 30 reported anthropometric changes (n = 17 no effect, n = 9 positive, n = 4 mixed), seven morbidity (n = 3 no effect, n = 2 positive, n = 2 negative), five feeding (n = 2 positive, n = 2 no effect, n = 1 negative), and four mortality (n = 3 no effect, n = 1 negative). Of eight studies that assessed enteral feed interventions, seven reported anthropometric changes (n = 4 positive, n = 3 no effect), five feeding practices (n = 2 positive, n = 2 no effect, n = 1 negative), four morbidity (n = 4 no effect), and one reported mortality (n = 1 no effect). Overall, interventions with positive effects on feeding practices were cup feeding compared to bottle-feeding among preterm; nasogastric tube feed compared to bottle-feeding among low birth weight preterm; and early progressive feeding compared to delayed feeding among extremely low birth weight preterm. Bovine/cow milk feeding and high volume feeding interventions had an unfavourable effect, while electric breast pump and Galactagogue had a mixed effect. Regarding anthropometric outcomes, overall, macronutrient fortified formula, cream supplementation, and fortified human milk formula had a positive effect (weight gain) on preterm infants. Interventions comparing human breastmilk/donor milk with formula had mixed effects. Overall, only human milk compared to formula intervention had a positive effect on morbidity among preterm infants, while none of the interventions had any positive effect on mortality. Bovine/cow milk supplementation had unfavourable effects on both morbidity and mortality. (4) Conclusion: Future research should prioritise low- and middle-income countries, include infants presenting with growth failure in the post-neonatal period and record effects on morbidity and mortality outcomes.

Iron supplementation in preterm and low-birth-weight infants: a systematic review of intervention studies

Context

Enteral iron supplementation in preterm infants is recommended to supply sufficient iron for growth and development without increasing the risk of iron overload. However, the current recommendations date from 2010 and are based on limited evidence.

Objective

This systematic review aimed to investigate the effects of enteral iron supplementation on iron status, growth, neurological development, and adverse clinical outcomes in preterm (<37 weeks’ gestation) and low-birth-weight (LBW, <2500 g) infants.

Data sources

The PubMed/Medline and Cochrane Library databases were searched to 31 October 2018.

Data extraction

Of the 684 records identified, 27 articles, describing 18 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) plus 4 nonrandomized interventions, were included. Using the Cochrane Collaboration’s criteria, study quality was found to be poor to fair overall.

Results

Most articles (23/27) reported iron status indices; supplementation for ≥8 weeks resulted in increased hemoglobin and ferritin concentrations and a reduction in iron deficiency and anemia. No article reported on iron overload. Growth-related parameters reported in 12 articles were not affected by supplementation. Among the 7 articles on neurological development, a positive effect on behavior at 3.5 and 7 years was observed in one Swedish RCT. No association was found between supplementation and adverse clinical outcomes in the 9 articles reporting on studies in which such data was collected.

Conclusions

Long-term iron supplementation appears to result in improved iron status and a reduction in iron deficiency and anemia in preterm and LBW infants. However, high-quality evidence regarding the long-term effects of supplementation on functional health outcomes is lacking. Iron overload has largely been ignored. Well-designed, long-term, dose-response RCTs are required to ascertain the optimal dose and delivery method for the provision of dietary iron in preterm infants, with consideration of short- and long-term health effects.

Systematic Review Registration

PROSPERO registration no. CRD42018085214.

Growth and Nutritional Biomarkers of Preterm Infants Fed a New Powdered Human Milk Fortifier: A Randomized Trial

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to assess growth and nutritional biomarkers of preterm infants fed human milk (HM) supplemented with a new powdered HM fortifier (nHMF) or a control HM fortifier (cHMF). The nHMF provides similar energy content, 16% more protein (partially hydrolyzed whey), and higher micronutrient levels than the cHMF, along with medium-chain triglycerides and docosahexaenoic acid.

METHODS

In this controlled, multicenter, double-blind study, a sample of preterm infants ≤32 weeks or ≤1500 g were randomized to receive nHMF (n = 77) or cHMF (n = 76) for a minimum of 21 days. Weight gain was evaluated for noninferiority (margin = -1 g/day) and superiority (margin = 0 g/day). Nutritional status and gut inflammation were assessed by blood, urine, and fecal biochemistries. Adverse events were monitored.

RESULTS

Adjusted mean weight gain (analysis of covariance) was 2.3 g/day greater in nHMF versus cHMF; the lower limit of the 95% CI (0.4 g/day) exceeded both noninferiority (P < 0.001) and superiority margins (P = 0.01). Weight gain rate (unadjusted) was 18.3 (nHMF) and 16.8 g · kg · day (cHMF) between study days 1 and 21 (D1-D21). Length and head circumference (HC) gains between D1 and D21 were not different. Adjusted weight-for-age z score at D21 and HC-for-age z score at week 40 corrected age were greater in nHMF versus cHMF (P = 0.013, P = 0.003 respectively). nHMF had higher serum blood urea nitrogen, pre-albumin, alkaline phosphatase, and calcium (all within normal ranges; all P ≤ 0.019) at D21 versus cHMF. Both HMFs were well tolerated with similar incidence of gastrointestinal adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

nHMF providing more protein and fat compared to a control fortifier is safe, well-tolerated, and improves the weight gain of preterm infants.

Anthropometric trends from 1997 to 2012 in infants born at ⩽28 weeks' gestation or less

OBJECTIVE

Postnatal growth failure is common after preterm birth, in particular for infants born at ⩽28 weeks' gestation, but it is unknown if growth-to-term equivalent age has improved over the years as neonatal intensive care in general, and infant nutrition in particular, have improved. The objective of the study was to evaluate anthropometric trends at NICU discharge for infants born at ⩽28 weeks' gestation using a large national database.

STUDY DESIGN

Analysis of growth in weight, length, head circumference and body mass index (kg m²) in 23 005 infants born in 1997 to 2012 who survived to neonatal intensive care unit discharge at ⩽41 weeks' postmenstrual age.

RESULTS

Discharge weight, length, head circumference and body mass index were converted to Z-scores using a reference database, and growth trends over the 16 years were summarized. Discharge results also were summarized for common neonatal morbidities, including chronic lung disease. Gestational age at birth and postmenstrual age at discharge were similar across the 16 years. Discharge weight, length and head circumference Z-scores were all below the median, but head circumference Z-scores consistently were closer to the median than were weight and length. In 1997 compared with 2012, the weight Z-score improved from -1.5 to -0.6; the length Z-score increased the least, from -1.68 to just -1.16; the head circumference Z-score improved from -0.68 to -0.30; and the body mass index Z-score increased from -0.66 to 0.19. Percent small-for-gestational age at birth was stable across the years at 8.4 to 9.3%, and the frequency of postnatal growth failure at discharge improved from 55.4% in 1997 to 19.6% in 2012.

CONCLUSIONS

Growth-to-discharge progressively improved from 1997 to 2012, but Z-scores remained below the reference median for weight, length and head circumference. Length Z-scores were consistently significantly less than for weight, and body mass index Z-scores have been above the reference median since 2002. Prospective studies are needed to quantify anthropometric trends in relation to body composition and to current nutritional strategies.

Early versus Delayed Human Milk Fortification in Very Low Birth Weight Infants-A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effect of initiating human milk fortification at 2 different feeding volumes on feeding intolerance and the time to reach full feeding volume.

STUDY DESIGN

Very low birth weight infants (n = 100) were prospectively randomized to early fortification (EF) (beginning at a feeding volume of 20 mL/kg/d) or delayed fortification (at a feeding volume of 100 mL/kg/d). We employed a standardized feeding protocol and parenteral nutrition guidelines for the nutritional management of all study infants.

RESULTS

The median days to reach full feeding volumes were equivalent in the 2 groups (20 vs 20, P = .45). No significant difference was observed in the total number of episodes of feeding intolerance (58 vs 57). Two cases of necrotizing enterocolitis (Bell stage ≥2) and deaths occurred in each group. Median daily protein intake (g/kg/d) was higher in EF group in week 1 (3.3 [3.2, 3.5] vs 3.1 [2.9, 3.3], P < .001), week 2 (3.6 [3.5, 3.8] vs 3.2 [2.9, 3.4], P < .001), and week 3 (3.7 [3.4, 3.9] vs 3.5 [2.8, 3.8], P = .006). Cumulative protein intake (g/kg) in the first 4 weeks of life was higher in EF group (98.6 [93.8, 104] vs 89.6 [84.2, 96.4], P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Very early human milk fortification may improve early protein intake in very low birth weight infants without increasing frequencies of adverse events.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01988792.

Comparing apples with apples: it is time for standardized reporting of neonatal nutrition and growth studies

The ultimate goal of neonatal nutrition care is optimal growth, neurodevelopment, and long-term health for preterm babies. International consensus is that increased energy and protein intakes in the neonatal period improve growth and neurodevelopment, but after more than 100 y of research the optimum intakes of energy and protein remain unknown. We suggest an important factor contributing to the lack of progress is the lack of a standardized approach to reporting nutritional intake data and growth in the neonatal literature. We reviewed randomized controlled trials and observational studies documented in MEDLINE and the Web of Science from 2008 to 2015 that compared approximately 3 vs. 4 g.kg(-1).d(-1) protein for preterm babies in the first month after birth. Consistency might be expected in the calculation of nutritional intake and assessment of growth outcomes in this relatively narrow scope of neonatal nutrition research. Twenty-two studies were reviewed. There was substantial variation in methods used to estimate and calculate nutritional intakes and in the approaches used in reporting these intakes and measures of infant growth. Such variability makes comparisons amongst studies difficult and meta-analysis unreliable. We propose the StRONNG Checklist-Standardized Reporting Of Neonatal Nutrition and Growth to address these issues.

[Homologous human milk supplement for very low birth weight preterm infant feeding]

OBJECTIVE

To develop a homologous additive of human milk for feeding the very low weight infants with an original and simplified methodology, to know the nutritional composition of fortified human milk with this additive and to evaluate its suitability for feeding these infants.

METHODS

For the production and analysis of human milk with the homologous additive, 25 human milk samples of 45 mL have undergone a lactose removal process, lyophilization and they were diluted in 50 mL of human milk. Doses of lactose, proteins, lipids, energy, sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus and osmolality were measured.

RESULTS

The composition of the additive milk was lactose 9.22 ± 1.00 g/dL; proteins 2.20 ± 0.36 g/dL; lipids 2.91 ± 0.57 g/dL; calories 71.93 ± 8.69 kcal/dL; osmolality 389.6 ± 32.4 mOsmol/kg H2O; sodium 2.04 ± 0.45 mEq/dL; potassium 1.42 ± 0.15 mEq/dL; calcium 43.44 ± 2.98 mg/dL; and phosphorus 23.69 ± 1.24 mg/dL.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the nutritional contents analyzed, except for calcium and phosphorus, the human milk with the proposed additive can achieve the nutritional needs of the very low birth weight preterm infant.

Guidelines for feeding very low birth weight infants

Despite the fact that feeding a very low birth weight (VLBW) neonate is a fundamental and inevitable part of its management, this is a field which is beset with controversies. Optimal nutrition improves growth and neurological outcomes, and reduces the incidence of sepsis and possibly even retinopathy of prematurity. There is a great deal of heterogeneity of practice among neonatologists and pediatricians regarding feeding VLBW infants. A working group on feeding guidelines for VLBW infants was constituted in McMaster University, Canada. The group listed a number of important questions that had to be answered with respect to feeding VLBW infants, systematically reviewed the literature, critically appraised the level of evidence, and generated a comprehensive set of guidelines. These guidelines form the basis of this state-of-art review. The review touches upon trophic feeding, nutritional feeding, fortification, feeding in special circumstances, assessment of feed tolerance, and management of gastric residuals, gastro-esophageal reflux, and glycerin enemas.

Protein Intake and Growth in Preterm Infants: A Systematic Review

Objective. This review aimed to investigate the relationship between varying levels of enteral protein intake and growth in preterm infants, regardless of feeding method. Data Sources. Electronic databases were searched for relevant studies, as were review articles, reference lists, and text books. Study Selection. Trials were included if they were randomized or quasirandomized, participants were <37 weeks gestation at birth, and protein intakes were intentionally or statistically different between study groups. Trials reporting weight, length, and head circumference gains in infants fed formula, human milk, or fortified human milk were included. Data Extraction. Studies were categorized by feeding-type and relevant data were extracted into summary tables by one reviewer and cross-checked by a second. Data Synthesis. A meta-analysis could not be conducted due to extensive variability among studies; thus, results were synthesized graphically and narratively. Twenty-four trials met the inclusion criteria and were included in a narrative synthesis and 19 in a graphical synthesis of study results. Conclusions. There was extensive variability in study design, participant characteristics, and study quality. Nonetheless, results are fairly consistent that higher protein intake results in increased growth with graphical representation indicating a potentially linear relationship. Additionally, intakes as high as 4.5 g/kg/day were shown to be safe in infants weighing >1000 g.

Human milk fortifier: an occult cause of bowel obstruction in extremely premature neonates

BACKGROUND

Human milk fortifier (HMF) is used in neonatal units throughout North America to facilitate growth of preterm infants. Little data is available on the gastrointestinal side effects and potential adverse events. The purpose of this paper was to present a series of infants presenting with bowel obstruction associated with HMF.

METHODS

Cases of HMF obstruction were collected between January 2010 and December 2012. Charts were reviewed and relevant data was collected.

RESULTS

During the study period, 7 premature infants presented with bowel obstruction secondary to intestinal concretions of HMF. All babies were premature with gestational ages from 25 to 27 weeks. Birth weight was less than 1000 grams in all patients. Patients presented with feeding intolerance, bilious aspirates, abdominal distension, and obstipation. Four of the patients presented with acute deterioration and required urgent surgical intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

HMF is an important source of nutritional support in infants, which is felt to be safe. We present a series of infants where its use has resulted in significant complications. HMF should be used with caution in infants, especially those with a history of necrotizing enterocolitis. Further research should examine the calcium, protein, and fatty acid concentration tolerable in the gastrointestinal tract of infants.

Optimizing nutrition in preterm infants

Extrauterine growth restriction is common in very preterm infants. The incidence in very-low-birth-weight infants ranges between 43% and 97% in various centers, with a wide variability due to the use of different reference growth charts and nonstandard nutritional strategies. Extrauterine growth restriction is associated with an increased risk of poor neurodevelopmental outcome. Inadequate postnatal nutrition is an important factor contributing to growth failure, as most very preterm infants experience major protein and energy deficits during neonatal intensive care unit hospitalization. First-week protein and energy intake are associated with 18-month developmental outcomes in very preterm infants. Early aggressive nutrition, including parenteral and enteral, is well tolerated in the very preterm infant and is effective in improving growth. Continued provision of appropriate nutrition (fortified human milk or premature formula) is important throughout the growing care during the hospitalization. After discharge, exclusively breast-fed infants require additional supplementation. If formula-fed, nutrient-enriched postdischarge formula should be continued for approximately 9 months corrected age. Supplementation of the preterm formulas with protein would increase the protein/energy ratio (3 g/100 kcal), leading to increased lean mass with relatively decreased fat deposition. Further research is required to optimize the nutritional needs of preterm infants and to evaluate the effects of nutritional interventions on long-term growth, neurodevelopment, and other health outcomes.

Does milk fortification increase the risk of necrotising enterocolitis in preterm infants with congenital heart disease?

Prematurity and low birth weight adds to the risk of serious congenital heart disease in infants. It may also delay surgical intervention, especially when cardiopulmonary bypass is required, or where an aortopulmonary shunt is necessary to maintain adequate oxygenation. In this setting, neonatologists are faced with the challenge of accelerating the infant's growth to allow for early surgery. We describe the cases of two infants in whom an attempt to fortify the feeds was associated with necrotising enterocolitis, with a lethal outcome in one. The outcome suggests caution in fortifying feeds in premature infants with serious congenital heart disease.

Australasian neonatal intensive care enteral nutrition survey: implications for practice

AIM

This survey investigated standardised feeding guidelines and nutrition policy in Australasian neonatal intensive care units and compared these with previously published surveys and international consensus nutrition recommendations.

METHODS

An electronic survey on enteral nutrition comprising a wide range of questions about clinical practice was e-mailed to all 25 Australasian neonatal intensive care unit directors of tertiary perinatal centres.

RESULTS

Twenty-five surveys were distributed; 24 (96%) were completed. All respondents preferred breast milk as the first feed. For infants <1000 g, 58% started feeds at 1 mL every 4 hours and 83% started enteral feeds on day 0-2 in the absence of contraindications. The identification of bile-stained gastric aspirates significant enough to withhold feeds varied. Multicomponent breast milk fortifiers were added by 58% when enteral feeds reached 150 mL/kg day, while 21% added these earlier at 120 mL/kg day or less. Iron supplementation was started at 4 weeks by 63% and at 6 weeks by 27%. Only 42% of units had a neonatal dietitian. Of the 24 units who responded, 58% had no written enteral feeding guidelines.

CONCLUSION

Enteral nutrition was initiated earlier than in the past. Great variation remains in clinical practices. Nutritional implications are discussed. Standardisation of feeding guidelines and enteral nutrition policy based on current evidence and international consensus nutrition recommendations may be beneficial and should be encouraged.

Selected macro/micronutrient needs of the routine preterm infant

Requirements for optimal nutrition, especially for micronutrients, are not well defined for premature infants. The "reference fetus," developed by Ziegler et al,(1) has served as a model to define nutritional needs and studies designed to determine nutrient requirements. Revision of nutrient requirements and provision of optimal nutrition may lead to improved outcomes in preterm infants. Appropriate provision of nutrients also may help prevent nutritional disorders, such as metabolic bone disease and anemia. In this review, we discuss calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, vitamin D, iron, and copper, and define optimal intakes based on the available published data.

Parenteral amino acid intakes: possible influences of higher intakes on growth and bone status in preterm infants

OBJECTIVE

To study the possible influences of amino acid (AA) intakes on growth and bone status in preterms.

STUDY DESIGN

Newborns, weighing <1250 g, received standard (S) or higher (H) parenteral AA intakes (3 or 4 g kg(-1) per day). Anthropometry, biochemistry and quantitative ultrasound (metacarpus bone transmission time (mcBTT), in μs) were measured prospectively.

RESULT

A total of 55 patients in group S and 60 in group H were studied. Significantly better growth rate was found in the H group during the study without signs of intolerance. We found a significant decrease in mcBTT from birth to 21 days in the H group; nonetheless, mcBTT at 36 weeks of gestational age significantly positively correlated with early AA and energy intakes. A significant positive correlation between mcBTT and lower limb length (LLL) at 21 days was found.

CONCLUSION

Early higher AA intakes improved growth without short-term AA intolerance. Nutritional parameters could influence bone growth. LLL was the anthropometric parameter that best correlated to bone status.

Effect of iron-fortified foods on hematologic and biological outcomes: systematic review of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

The utility of iron fortification of food to improve iron deficiency, anemia, and biological outcomes is not proven unequivocally.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives were to evaluate 1) the effect of iron fortification on hemoglobin and serum ferritin and the prevalence of iron deficiency and anemia, 2) the possible predictors of a positive hemoglobin response, 3) the effect of iron fortification on zinc and iron status, and 4) the effect of iron-fortified foods on mental and motor development, anthropometric measures, and infections.

DESIGN

Randomized and pseudorandomized controlled trials that included food fortification or biofortification with iron were included.

RESULTS

Data from 60 trials showed that iron fortification of foods resulted in a significant increase in hemoglobin (0.42 g/dL; 95% CI: 0.28, 0.56; P < 0.001) and serum ferritin (1.36 μg/L; 95% CI: 1.23, 1.52; P < 0.001), a reduced risk of anemia (RR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.48, 0.71; P < 0.001) and iron deficiency (RR: 0.48; 95% CI: 0.38, 0.62; P < 0.001), improvement in other indicators of iron nutriture, and no effect on serum zinc concentrations, infections, physical growth, and mental and motor development. Significant heterogeneity was observed for most of the evaluated outcomes. Sensitivity analyses and meta-regression for hemoglobin suggested a higher response with lower trial quality (suboptimal allocation concealment and blinding), use of condiments, and sodium iron edetate and a lower response when adults were included.

CONCLUSION

Consumption of iron-fortified foods results in an improvement in hemoglobin, serum ferritin, and iron nutriture and a reduced risk of remaining anemic and iron deficient.

Evaluation of human milk fortification from the time of the first feeding: effects on infants of less than 31 weeks gestational age

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether human milk fortification from the time of the first feeding significantly improves weight gain and bone mineral status in infants of <31 weeks estimated gestational age as compared with delayed or standard human milk fortification.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective pre-post design. In all, 95 infants born at <31 weeks estimated gestational age were compared. There were 53 infants in the early fortification group (EFG) and 42 infants in the delayed fortification group (DFG). They were compared with regard to weight gain at 34 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA), and their serum levels of calcium, phosphorus and alkaline phosphatase levels were compared as an indicator of bone mineral status. The practice change of fortifying all human milk given to preterm infants at <34 weeks PMA commenced in June 2009. The usual practice of fortification took place once an infant had reached a feeding volume of 50 to 100 ml kg(-1) per day. The new practice fortified all human milk with a powdered human milk fortifier to 24 calories per ounce, starting with the first feeding, no matter how small the volume.

RESULT

There were no differences in weight gain between the EFG and the DFG. The group that received fortification from the time of the first feeding were significantly less likely to have alkaline phosphatase levels >500 U l(-1) from 33 weeks PMA onward. There was no incidence of feeding intolerance with early fortification.

CONCLUSION

Fortification of human milk from the time of the first feeding does not affect weight gain at 34 weeks PMA, but is related to a lower incidence of elevated alkaline phosphate levels and does not cause feeding intolerance.

Growth and tolerance of infants fed formula supplemented with polydextrose (PDX) and/or galactooligosaccharides (GOS): double-blind, randomized, controlled trial

Background

To ensure the suitability of an infant formula as the sole source of nutrition or provide benefits similar to outcomes in breastfed infants, advancements in formula composition are warranted as more research detailing the nutrient composition of human milk becomes available. This study was designed to evaluate growth and tolerance in healthy infants who received one of two investigational cow’s milk-based formulas with adjustments in carbohydrate, fat, and calcium content and supplemented with a prebiotic blend of polydextrose (PDX) and galactooligosaccharides (GOS) or GOS alone.

Methods

In this multi-center, double-blind, parallel-designed, gender-stratified prospective study 419 infants were randomized and consumed either a marketed routine cow’s milk-based infant formula (Control; Enfamil® LIPIL®, Mead Johnson Nutrition, Evansville, IN) (n = 142) or one of two investigational formulas from 14 to 120 days of age. Investigational formulas were supplemented with 4 g/L (1:1 ratio) of a prebiotic blend of PDX and GOS (PDX/GOS; n = 139) or 4 g/L of GOS alone (GOS; n = 138). Anthropometric measurements were taken at 14, 30, 60, 90, and 120 days of age. Daily recall of formula intake, tolerance, and stool characteristics was collected during study weeks 1 and 2 and 24-h recall was collected at 60, 90, and 120 days of age. Medically-confirmed adverse events were recorded throughout the study.

Results

There were no group differences in growth rate from 14 to 120 days of age. Discontinuation rates were not significantly different among study groups. No differences in formula intake or infant fussiness or gassiness were observed. During study weeks 1 and 2 and at 60 days of age stool consistency ratings were higher (i.e. softer stools) for infants in the PDX/GOS and GOS groups versus Control and remained higher at 120 days for the PDX/GOS group (all P < 0.05). The overall incidence of medically-confirmed adverse events was similar among groups.

Conclusions

Investigational routine infant formulas supplemented with 4 g/L of either a prebiotic blend of PDX and GOS or GOS alone were well-tolerated and supported normal growth. Compared to infants who received the unsupplemented control formula, infants who received prebiotic supplementation experienced a softer stooling pattern similar to that reported in breastfed infants.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00712608

Enteral iron supplementation in preterm and low birth weight infants

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants are at risk of exhausting their body iron stores much earlier than healthy term newborns. It is widespread practice to give enteral iron supplementation to preterm and low birth weight infants to prevent iron deficiency anaemia. However, it is unclear whether supplementing preterm and low birth weight infants with iron improves growth and neurodevelopment. It is suspected that excess exogenous iron can contribute to oxidative injury in preterm babies, causing or exacerbating conditions such as necrotising enterocolitis and retinopathy of prematurity. Additionally, the optimal dose and timing of commencement and cessation of iron supplementation are uncertain.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effect of prophylactic enteral iron supplementation on growth and neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm and low birth weight infants. The secondary objectives were to determine whether iron supplementation results in improved haematological parameters and prevents other causes of morbidity and mortality.

SEARCH METHODS

We used the standard search strategy of the Cochrane Neonatal Review Group. We searched Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2011, Issue 8), MEDLINE (1951 to August 2011), CINAHL (1982 to August 2011) and conference proceedings and previous reviews.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-randomised trials that compared enteral iron supplementation with no iron supplementation, or different regimens of enteral iron supplementation in preterm or low birth weight infants or both.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted data using the standard methods of the Cochrane Neonatal Review Group. Both review authors separately evaluated trial quality and data extraction. We synthesised data using risk ratios (RRs), risk differences (RDs) and weighted mean differences (WMDs). Where data about the methodology and results or both were lacking, we made an attempt to contact the study authors for further information.

MAIN RESULTS

We included twenty-six studies (2726 infants) in the analysis. The heterogeneity of participants, methods and results precluded an extensive quantitative synthesis. Of the 21 studies comparing iron supplementation with controls, none evaluated neurodevelopmental status as an outcome. Of thirteen studies reporting at least one growth parameter as an outcome, only one study of poor quality found a significant benefit of iron supplementation. Regarding haematological outcomes, no benefit for iron supplementation was demonstrated within the first 8.5 weeks of postnatal life (16 trials), except by two poor quality studies. After this age, most studies reported a higher mean haemoglobin in iron-supplemented infants. We were only able to include a limited number of studies in a quantitative meta-analysis, which suggested the haemoglobin concentration in iron-supplemented infants was higher by about 6 g/L at six to nine months. One study comparing high dose and low dose iron supplementation monitored neurodevelopmental outcome for one year, without finding any significant difference between the groups. One study comparing early versus late commencement of iron supplementation found no difference in cognitive outcome, but an increased rate of abnormal neurological examination in the late iron group at five years of age. The studies comparing high and low doses of iron indicated that there was no discernible haematological benefit in exceeding 'standard' doses of iron (i.e. 2 mg/kg/day to 3 mg/kg/day).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The available data suggest that infants who receive iron supplementation have a slightly higher haemoglobin level, improved iron stores and a lower risk of developing iron deficiency anaemia when compared with those who are unsupplemented. However, it is unclear whether iron supplementation in preterm and low birth weight infants has long term benefits in terms of neurodevelopmental outcome and growth. The optimum timing and duration of iron supplementation remains unclear.

Accounting for multiple births in neonatal and perinatal trials: systematic review and case study

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence in the neonatal literature of statistical approaches accounting for the unique clustering patterns of multiple births and to explore the sensitivity of an actual trial to several analytic approaches to multiples.

STUDY DESIGN

A systematic review of recent perinatal trials assessed the prevalence of studies accounting for clustering of multiples. The Nitric Oxide to Prevent Chronic Lung Disease (NO CLD) trial served as a case study of the sensitivity of the outcome to several statistical strategies. We calculated odds ratios using nonclustered (logistic regression) and clustered (generalized estimating equations, multiple outputation) analyses.

RESULTS

In the systematic review, most studies did not describe the random assignment of twins and did not account for clustering. Of those studies that did, exclusion of multiples and generalized estimating equations were the most common strategies. The NO CLD study included 84 infants with a sibling enrolled in the study. Multiples were more likely than singletons to be white and were born to older mothers (P < .01). Analyses that accounted for clustering were statistically significant; analyses assuming independence were not.

CONCLUSIONS

The statistical approach to multiples can influence the odds ratio and width of confidence intervals, thereby affecting the interpretation of a study outcome. A minority of perinatal studies address this issue.

Human milk fortifiers in very low birth weight infants

The use of HMF remains an important option and has become common practice in all neonatal intensive care units. However, optimal composition of fortifiers is still undefined and more data are needed on safety and long-term benefits. Further research should be directed toward comparisons between different proprietary preparations, evaluating both short-term and long-term outcomes and adverse effects, in search of the best method of fortification.

Iron therapy for preterm infants

Preterm infants are at risk for both iron deficiency and iron overload. The role of iron in multiple organ functions suggests that iron supplementation is essential for the preterm infant. Conversely, the potential for iron overload and the poorly developed antioxidant measures in the preterm infant argue against indiscriminate iron supplementation in this population. This article reviews the predisposing factors and consequences of iron deficiency and iron overload in the preterm infant, discusses the current recommendation for iron supplementation and its appropriateness, and describes potential management strategies that strike a balance between iron deficiency and iron toxicity.

Human milk fortification and gastric emptying in the preterm neonate

Fortification of expressed breast milk (EBM) is widely recommended for preterm feeding. Fortification of EBM results in increased caloric density and osmolarity, both of which may retard gastric emptying. As gastric emptying is a major determinant of feed tolerance, we investigated the effect of fortification (with Lactodex HMF) of EBM on gastric emptying in preterm neonates. The half gastric emptying time was measured using real time ultrasonography in 25 consecutive preterm neonates first on EBM alone, then on EBM + Lactodex HMF. Each baby served as its own control. The students t-test was used for statistical analysis. The mean gestation age was 34.48 +/- 0.77 weeks. The mean birth weight was 1.92 +/- 0.14 kg. The mean half gastric emptying time at an age of 5.4 +/- 0.86 days on EBM was 24.00 +/- 5.00 min and 24.40 +/- 5.06 min on EBM + human milk fortifier (HMF). The same at 2nd assessment (15.2 +/- 1.79 days), with EBM was 22.80 +/- 4.58 min vs. 23.60 +/- 4.89 min when given EBM + HMF. These differences were not statistically significant. Fortification of EBM with Lactodex HMF does not affect the gastric emptying in preterm neonates and therefore is unlikely to affect feed tolerance in them.

[Osmolality of oral liquid dosage forms to be administered to newborns in a hospital]

OBJECTIVE

Oral administration of hypertonic solutions can contribute to intestinal damage in the initial stages of neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. The purpose of this study is to determine the osmolality of oral liquid dosage forms used in a division of neonatology and to establish some recommendations for their dilution.

METHOD

The osmolality of 26 oral liquid dosage forms has been measured using the freezing-point depression method.

RESULTS

Oral liquid dosage forms used in the division of neonatology present an osmolality greater than 350 mOsm/kg H2O. 19.2% of all the analysed forms presented an osmolality lower than 1500 mOsm/kg H2O, 80.7% were over that figure, while 23% presented an extremely high osmolality (> 5,000 mOsm/kg H2O).

CONCLUSIONS

Knowledge of osmolality of oral liquid dosage forms in the division of neonatology enables the risk of intestinal aggression caused by enteral administration of the medication to be assessed.

Enteral intake for very low birth weight infants: what should the composition be?

Providing optimal nutrition to satisfy the growth needs of very low birth weight infants is critical. The available preterm formulas and fortified human milk diets provide protein intakes of approximately 3.5 to 3.6 g/kg/d when volumes sufficient to provide 120 kcal/kg/d are fed to these infants. These intakes support growth and protein accretion at about or slightly greater than intrauterine rate and lead to relatively increased fat deposition. However, most very low birth infants fed these diets remain below the 10th percentile of the intrauterine growth standards at discharge. There is clear evidence that, with respect to growth, very low birth infants are likely to benefit from a higher protein intake; however, there is no clear evidence that energy intakes greater than 120 kcal/kg/d are needed. Although the upper limit of protein intake and the ideal protein:energy ratio remain controversial, there is enough evidence to support the beneficial and safe use of formulas providing protein:energy ratio of 3.2 to 3.3 g/100 kcal.

Enteral nutrition for premature infants: the role of human milk

Nutrition support of the premature infant must be designed to compensate for metabolic and gastrointestinal immaturity, immunologic insufficiency, and the demands of associated medical conditions. The beneficial effects of human milk extend to the feeding of premature infants. Although human milk enhances immunity, nutritional concerns arise because the milk might not meet the expanded nutrient requirements of very low birth weight premature infants. Human milk fortifiers are available to provide optimum nutrition. This chapter summarizes the benefits and limitations of human milk for the premature infant.

Effects of high versus standard early protein intake on growth of extremely low birth weight infants

OBJECTIVES

Early provision of protein has been shown to limit catabolism and could improve growth. Our objective was to determine whether early aggressive protein intake improved growth outcomes of extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

ELBW infants were included in the study if they had no major congenital anomalies or renal failure and were still hospitalized at 36 weeks postmenstrual age. In 25 infants (HP) the early protein intake was planned to be 20% greater than in 31 historical controls (SP).

RESULTS

The 2 groups were similar in the baseline characteristics. The mean protein intake during the first 14 days of life was significantly greater in the HP group (3.1 +/- 0.2 vs 2.5 +/- 0.2 g/kg/d; P<0.0001). HP group showed lower postnatal weight loss (-3.1%; 95% confidence interval [CI] -5.9, -0.2) and earlier regain of birth weight (-4.1 days; 95% CI -6.6, -1.7). Mean blood urea nitrogen and bicarbonate levels were similar; mean serum glucose level was lower in the HP group (-21,7 mg/dL; 95% CI -41.9,-1.5). HP infants had a reduced fall in weight z score (-0.57; 95% CI -1.01, -0.12) and in length z score (-0.51; 95% CI -0.97, -0.05) from birth to discharge.

CONCLUSION

Early high protein intake was associated with improved weight and length growth outcomes at discharge. These findings highlight the benefits of aggressive protein intake immediately after birth.

Benefits of maternal and donor human milk for premature infants

Nutrition support of the premature infant must be designed to compensate for metabolic and gastrointestinal immaturity, immunologic insufficiency, and the demands of associated medical conditions. The beneficial effects of human milk extend to the feeding of premature infants. While human milk enhances immunity, nutritional concerns arise because the milk may not meet the expanded nutrient requirements of the very low birth weight (VLBW, less than 1500 g) premature infant. Human milk fortifiers are available to provide optimum nutrition. This review summarizes the benefits and limitations of human milk for the premature infant.