Identifying teens at risk: developmental pathways of online and offline sexual risk behavior

Patterns of Sexting by Youths: A Latent Class Analysis

Sexting (exchanging sexual correspondence in the online space) is considered a practice that expresses sexuality in the online space. Between adolescents, sexting can be part of a couple relationship or outside of it, and can be voluntary or coercive. Regardless of motives, sexting has been linked to various negative outcomes. Understanding the factors that influence sexting behavior is essential for developing effective prevention and intervention programs. The present study aimed to identify and compare different profiles of sexting behavior in adolescents using latent class analysis. Participants were 487 Israeli adolescents aged 14-19 (male N = 215, 44%, female N = 272, 56%) years who completed an online survey of demographic factors, online parental mediation, family and friend cohesion, and perception of sexting norms. Two distinct classes of individuals were identified: those who engage in sexting ("sexters") and those who do not ("non-sexters"). Sexters were more likely to be secular, and without a romantic partner. These findings may inform interventions aimed at preventing negative outcomes associated with adolescent sexting.

Forms of Face-to-Face Victimization as Significant Correlates of General Online Victimization and Sexual Online Victimization

Research has shown that face-to-face victimization is a risk factor for the online victimization of adolescents, but no prior study has examined and compared four forms of face-to-face victimization (physical victimization, verbal victimization, social manipulation, and attacks on property) as significant correlates of general online victimization and sexual online victimization among adolescents. This original study involved 794 adolescents (483 males and 311 females), aged 12 to 18 years (M = 14.49, SD = 1.90) from four middle schools in Hong Kong. The participants completed a self-report questionnaire consisting of three parts: the Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale, the Online Victimization Scale, and demographic items. Verbal victimization and social manipulation were found to be significant correlates of general online victimization; in contrast, physical victimization and attacks on property were significant correlates of sexual online victimization. These findings may help professionals and educators to develop effective prevention and intervention strategies for preventing the cycle of victimization between physical and online platforms as well as reducing the suicide risk and crises among at-risk victimized adolescents.

Estimating the Prevalence and Identifying the Correlates of Sexting Behaviors Among Cambodian Male Adolescents

Male youths are more likely to experience peer pressure that encourages them to engage in risky behaviors than female youths, and this pressure can lead to an increased risk of sexting among male youths. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of and factors associated with sexting among Cambodian male youths. The correlational cross-sectional study design was utilized. This study surveyed 647 Cambodian male youths aged 15 to 24 years. The measurement included sending or receiving messages (sexts) that contain sexually explicit messages, images, or videos, and affecting factors to sexting. Around 32.5% of participants sent sexts, and 38.9% received them. Open relationships, pornographic website use, perception of friends' sexual activity, frequent thoughts about sex, higher sexual sensation-seeking tendencies, positive attitudes toward sex, and sexual experience were associated with increased likelihood of sending and receiving sexts. Based on the findings of this study, by offering suitable education, guidance, and intervention programs, we can effectively mitigate the adverse repercussions of sexting while fostering healthy sexual behaviors among youths.

Sexting Among Australian Adolescents: Risk and Protective Factors

Although consensual sending of sexts between adolescents is considered developmentally appropriate, it may also entail a range of negative consequences. Current sexting research lacks a comprehensive theoretical framework identifying a range of risk and protective factors underpinning adolescent consensual sending of sexts across individual, interpersonal, and distal levels. Further, there is a lack of systematic evaluation of how the importance of these factors may vary across adolescent age. This study investigated the utility of the Social Development Model to predict a range of risk and protective factors across individual, family, peer, school, and community-level factors. The sample included 1302 teenagers from Victoria, Australia (M_age = 14.54, SD = 1.14, 50.8% girls). Results indicated that 146 (11.7%) participants sent a sext (76 boys and 70 girls). Logistic regression analyses revealed that the Social Development Model accounted for 45.8% of variance in sexting, with greater likelihood of sending sexts being associated with older age, prior sexual activity, school sector, physical activity, lifetime substance use, greater depressive symptoms, sensation seeking, and perceived substance availability in the community. Multigroup analyses revealed that lifetime substance use was associated with a greater likelihood of sending sexts among younger teens. Among older adolescents, adaptive coping was associated with reduced engagement in sexting, while higher parental overcontrol and family conflict increased the odds of sending sexts. Overall, sexting is associated with a range of modifiable factors potentially amenable to intervention.

Predictors of Online Child Sexual Abuse in a U.S. National Sample

As technology has become increasingly integrated into the everyday lives of young people and social interactions have moved online, so too have the opportunities for child sexual abuse. However, the risk factors for online sexual abuse, and their similarities or differences with those of offline sexual abuse have not been clarified, making it difficult to design prevention strategies. Using a nationally representative online survey panel of young adults ages 18 to 28, the current study sought to identify risk factors for online childhood sexual abuse and compare their relevance and strength in predicting offline sexual abuse. The 2,639 participants, ages 18 to 28, were sampled from the Ipsos KnowledgePanel and were asked questions about 11 different kinds of technology-facilitated online sexual abuse that occurred in childhood, follow-up questions about their dynamics and offenders, and a variety of potential risk factors. Results indicated that: (1) being cisgender female, nonheterosexual, and having parents with less than a high school education emerged as important demographic predictors of online child sexual abuse (OCSA); and (2) early offline sexual abuse was the strongest predictor of OCSA, when considering both its direct and indirect effects through online risky behavior. Findings suggest that prevention programs directed at reducing risk of sexual abuse, in general, are likely to be effective against online sexual abuse, provided they also incorporate efforts to educate youth on the need to avoid risky online behaviors.

Informal sexual relationship-associated factors among young adult smartphone users in South of Iran: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

With the unprecedented pace of modernization, risky sexual behaviors have become more frequent in developing countries, such as Iran. We aimed to assess the prevalence of informal sexual relationship (ISR) and factors associated with having ISR in young adult in Iran.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 414 young adult smartphone users in Iran, in 2019. Data was collected through an online questionnaire (including: ISR, socio-demographic variables, their use of social network, religious beliefs, personality, and loneliness). Logistic regression model was used to determine factors related to ISR.

RESULTS

A total of 152 (36.7%; 95% CI 32.1-45.6) participants reported having ISR. Finding an opposite-sex friend through a mobile app (OR = 2.59, 95% CI 1.34, 5.01), being currently sexually active (OR = 2.39, 95% CI 1.26, 4.56), higher scores of extroverted personality (OR = 1.13, 95% CI 1.01, 1.27), and closer relationship with parents (OR = 3.17, 95% CI 2.25, 8.02) were found to be associated with having ISR. Additionally, living in small cities rather than the provincial capital (OR = 0.23, 95% CI 0.10, 0.49) had a reverse association with having ISR.

CONCLUSIONS

This study illustrated the high prevalence of ISR and its association with increased duration of internet and mobile app use. Innovative and multidisciplinary approaches could be recommended in this regard.

A Cross-Cultural Examination of the Sexting Motives and Attitudes: Bosnia and Herzegovina vs. Croatia

Many sexting studies conducted in the Western cultures have shown that the percentage is higher in less traditional cultures. However, the generalizability of this phenomenon to non-Western cultures has not been extensively researched. The purpose of this study is to examine and explain cross-cultural differences in sexting behavior among subjects from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. A mixed methods approach was used. The first, qualitative phase included focus groups with two groups of high school students from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia ( $N=57$ ), aged 15 to 19. In the second, quantitative phase, questionnaires were sent to 440 young adults with an average age of 21 years ( $\text{SD}=3.8$ ). From the interviews with the young people, nonconsensual sexting was perceived as less beneficial. Sexting was viewed as a double standard. The quantitative study revealed gender and country differences in attitudes toward sexting and motives for sexting. Positive attitudes toward sexting were found to predict different forms of sexting motives in both samples. In the sample from Bosnia and Herzegovina, age was found to predict sexting with instrumental motives and body image reinforcement motives. Gender, on the other hand, was found to be predictive of instrumental sexting motives in the Croatian sample and body image reinforcement sexting motives in the Bosnia and Herzegovina sample. This study illustrates the value of cross-cultural approaches combined with mixed methods as a design to study sexting behavior.

Adolescents' Use of Sexually Explicit Internet Material Over the Course of 2019-2020 in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Three-wave Panel Study

Recently, sexual health scholars have expressed concerns regarding adolescents' use of sexually explicit internet materials (SEIM) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, using latent growth curve modeling, the current study explored adolescents' changes in the frequency of SEIM use before, during, and after a strict lockdown period was established in Belgium. Attention was given to individual differences (i.e., gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, pubertal timing, and sensation seeking). A three-wave panel study over a 15-month period among 522 adolescents was used (M_age = 15.36, SD = 1.51, 67.1% girls). In general, SEIM use did not significantly increase over a 15-month period in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Only gender predicted a change in SEIM use frequencies with girls showing a greater, increasing change of SEIM use than boys. When addressing why adolescents used SEIM during a strict lockdown period, sexual arousal, stress, and boredom regulation motivations emerged as the most prevalent motivations. Loneliness regulation was the least prominent motivation. Individual differences were found regarding the gratifications sought according to adolescents' gender, pubertal timing, and sensation seeking. The findings offer a response to sexual scholars' worries in terms of adolescents' SEIM use during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Youth Internet Safety Education: Aligning Programs With the Evidence Base

BACKGROUND

This review critically examines the messages of youth internet safety education programs in the light of research about both the dynamics of internet dangers and the efficacy of youth prevention education.

METHODS

Using terms "internet safety education" and "digital citizenship," a Google search identified 12 multi-topic safety programs. Review articles were identified via Google Scholar for six forms of online harm to youth that have been targeted by many of these programs: cyberbullying (19 articles); online sexual exploitation (23 articles); sexting (19 articles); online fraud, hacking, and identity theft (6 articles); online suicide and self-harm promotion (18 articles); and internet overuse or addiction (15 articles).

FINDINGS

There appear to be mismatches between dynamics revealed in the research about internet harms and the messages emphasized in educational programs, particularly on the issues of sexual exploitation and sexting. Overall, the review literature also suggests major advantages to integrating internet safety into already well-established and evidence-based programs currently addressing related off-line harms, for example, programs focusing on general bullying, dating abuse, or sexual abuse prevention. The advantages stem from four factors: (1) the considerable overlap between online harms and similar off-line harms, (2) the apparent greater prevalence of off-line harms, (3) the evidence that the same risk factors lie behind both online and off-line harms, and most importantly, (4) the substantially superior evidence base for the longer standing programs developed originally around the off-line harms.

An examination of the prospective associations between objectively assessed exposure to alcohol-related Instagram content, alcohol-specific cognitions, and first-year college drinking

Previous research suggests that exposure to alcohol-related content on social media sites (SMSs) may inflate perceptions of drinking norms, thereby increasing drinking among college students and potentially undermining popular social norms-based alcohol interventions. However, prior research on exposure has used subjective measures of alcohol exposure and has focused mostly on Facebook. The current study focused on Instagram, a popular SMS among college students, and utilized objective time tracking and newsfeed sampling methods to rigorously examine the prospective relationship between exposure to alcohol-related Instagram content (ARIC), alcohol cognitions, and drinking. Participants were 309 matriculating college students (Mage = 18.1, SD = 0.26; 62.1% female; 46.9% White/Caucasian; 17.5% Hispanic) who had their Instagram use tracked and newsfeeds sampled via a macro several times during the transition into college (August & September), and completed a baseline survey and two follow-up surveys. A sequential mediation model examined theoretically derived pathways between objective ARIC exposure and alcohol use. Results revealed that objective ARIC exposure during the transition to college was positively associated with drinking at the end of the first year of college, and subjective frequency of ARIC exposure mediated this relationship between objective ARIC exposure and later drinking. Subjective frequency of ARIC exposure also mediated the association between objective ARIC exposure and perceptions of descriptive norms, which, in turn, predicted later drinking. These findings illustrate that greater objective ARIC exposure during the transition into college may increase risky drinking over the first year via increased subjective frequency of ARIC and elevated perceptions of drinking norms. Priority directions for future research are discussed and several novel ways in which social norms-based interventions for first-year students may be enhanced to better combat ARIC-related influences are introduced.

Adolescents' Exposure to Online Risks: Gender Disparities and Vulnerabilities Related to Online Behaviors

In the last decade, readily available electronic devices have created unprecedented opportunities for teens to access a wide variety of information and media-both positive and negative-on the internet. Despite the increasing number of initiatives taking place worldwide intended to assess and mitigate the online risks encountered by children and adolescents, there is still a need for a better understanding of how adolescents use the internet and their susceptibility to exposure to risks in the online space. We conducted a cross-sectional online survey of a convenience sample of 733 8th and 9th grade students in Utah. The survey contained eight questions regarding students' exposure to three types of online risk scenarios: content risk, contact risk, and criminal risk. Independent variables included students' online behaviors, use of social media and private messaging apps, and adult supervision of online activities. Logistic and negative binomial regression models indicated that gender, social media use, and chatting with strangers were associated with exposure to multiple risky online scenarios. Our results provide critical information to educators involved in the development of initiatives focusing on the reduction of youth online risk by identifying correlates of risky online events, allowing them to tailor their initiatives to meet the needs of potentially vulnerable populations.

Prevalence and Correlates of Sext-Sharing Among a Representative Sample of Youth in the Netherlands

Many adolescents use their electronic devices to send each other sexually explicit texts, photos, and videos of themselves-commonly known as sexting. This can be fun and is not usually problematic. However, if the intended recipient decides to share these sexts with a broader audience, the consequences for the depicted can be detrimental. The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence of (non-consensual) sext-sharing among Dutch adolescents and explore the characteristics of those who do, to gain a better understanding of factors involved in dissemination. We used data from "Sex under the age of 25," a representative national survey on sexual health among a sample of 20,834 Dutch 12-24-year-olds. The prevalence of sext-sharing was estimated using Complex Samples. Logistic regressions were used to assess associations between demographics, school-based sexting education, sexual- and online behavior, and mental health and sext-sharing. About 4% of the adolescents reported having shared someone else's sext in the last six months. Being male, aged 12-14 years, frequent social media usage, watching online porn, sexual experience, and being subjected to sext-sharing themselves associated most strongly with sext-sharing. Our findings show that the likelihood of sext-sharing is lower in older adolescents and that it associates with the extent of adolescents' sexual curiosity and online activity. The overlap between sharing sexts of others and having one's own sext shared suggests that dissemination of personal sexual content might be normalized or used as an act of retribution. Further research could be helpful to explain the mechanisms underlying this overlap. The results of this study illustrate the importance of exposing adolescents to evidence based preventive educational interventions on sexting from 12 years onwards and not just within the context of traditional school-based sex education, but also as a part of the (online) media-literacy curriculum.

What are you sexting? Parental practices, sexting attitudes and behaviors among Italian adolescents

BACKGROUND

Sexting has recently emerged as a public health and social issue. The present study had two aims: a) to preliminarily test adolescent gender differences on parental practices regarding adolescent online life, parental monitoring, adolescent attitude towards sexting and sexting behaviors; b) to separately test for male and female adolescents a conceptual model in which sexting behaviors are explained by the parental practices and monitoring, with the mediation of adolescent negative attitude towards sexting.

METHODS

Direct and indirect links between the variables in the model were investigated. The study was carried out with 541 participants. Participants were Italian adolescents (60% males; 40% females) aged 14 to 19 years (M_age = 16,19 years, SD_age = 1,31).

RESULTS

Results suggested that females sent more multimedia sexts, had a higher perception of risk associated with sexting and reported higher scores for both parental practices regarding adolescent online life and parental monitoring. Rules on Contents, Parental Knowledge, Adolescent Disclosure, and Parental Control resulted to be linked to both sexting attitudes and behaviors for male and female adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings emphasize the important role that parents play in shaping attitudes and behaviors of both daughters and sons during adolescence.

Online sexual abuse of adolescents by a perpetrator met online: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The current study aimed at exploring adolescents' experiences of online sexual contacts leading to online sexual abuse by a perpetrator whom the victim had first met online. Associations with socio demographic background, experience of abuse, relation to parents, health and risk behaviors were studied.

METHODS

The participants were a representative national sample of 5175 students in the third year of the Swedish high school Swedish (M age = 17.97). Analyses included bivariate statistics and stepwise multiple logistic regression models.

RESULTS

In total 330 (5.8%) adolescents had gotten to know someone during the preceding 12 months for the purpose of engaging in some kind of sexual activity online. Thirty-two (9.7%) of those, the index group, had felt that they had been persuaded, pressed or coerced on at least one occasion. Sexual interaction under pressure was seen as constituting sexual abuse. These adolescent victims of online sexual abuse, the index group, did not differ with respect to socio-demographic background from the adolescents without this experience, the reference group. The index group had significantly more prior experiences of different kind of abuse, indicating that they belong to a polyvictimized group. More frequent risk behavior, poorer psychological health, poorer relationships with parents and lower self-esteem also characterized the index group. Online sexual abuse, without experiences of offline abuse, was associated with a poorer psychological health, at least at the same level as offline sexual abuse only.

CONCLUSIONS

The study made clear the importance of viewing online sexual abuse as a serious form of sexual abuse. Professionals meeting these children need to focus not only on their psychological health such as symptoms of trauma and depression but also need to screen them for online behavior, online abuse and other forms of previous abuse.

A Latent Class Analysis of Online Sexual Experiences and Offline Sexual Behaviors Among Female Adolescents

This study used latent class analysis to identify patterns (i.e., classes) across a broad range of online sexual experiences among female adolescents (n = 312) and to explore offline sexual behavior and substance use correlates of as well as maltreatment differences in class membership. The following four classes were identified: Online Abstinent, Online Inclusive, Attractors, and Seekers. Maltreated female adolescents were more likely to be members of the Online Inclusive class and less likely to be members of the Online Abstinent class than nonmaltreated female adolescents. Offline sexual behaviors and substance use differentially predicted class membership. These results suggest online sexual experiences vary greatly and should not be aggregated together as a global risk factor for all female adolescents.

Offline and Online Sexual Risk Behavior among Youth in the Netherlands: Findings from "Sex under the Age of 25"

Sexually developing adolescents and emerging adults face sexual health risks as well as potentially negative outcomes of online sexual behaviors. The goal of this study was to describe three categories of sexual risk behavior: (1) behavior related to STI/HIV, (2) behavior related to unplanned pregnancy, and (3) online sexual risk behavior. In addition, we investigated whether these behaviors are actually related to negative (health) outcomes. For this purpose, we used data from a Dutch probability survey: "Sex under the age of 25." Adolescents and emerging adults aged 12 through 24 (8,053 boys and 12,447 girls) completed a digital questionnaire, including measures of the risk of STI/HIV and pregnancy, online sexual behavior and non-consensual sex. Chi-square tests and logistic regressions were used to test for gender and age differences and compute associations between risk behavior and negative outcomes. The results showed that the risk of unplanned pregnancy is low in the Netherlands. It seems that adolescents and emerging adults are less aware of the risk of STI/HIV than of the risk of pregnancy. About 11% of the participants had had more than one partner in the last 6 months and had not used condoms consistently with their last partner, and these participants had a 3.56 times higher likelihood of ever being diagnosed with an STI. Although many young people stop using condoms with their partner after a while, most of them did not get tested for STIs. More emerging adults (aged 18-24) engage in sexting (sending personal nude pictures and sex videos to others), but the chance that these images are shared with other people than the intended recipient is higher among adolescents (aged 12-17). The results of this study can guide professionals working in sex education and sexual health services to focus their efforts on the risk behaviors in the Netherlands that deserve most attention.

Las motivaciones hacia el Sexting de los y las adolescentes gallegos/as

El objetivo de esta investigación es evaluar las motivaciones de los/as adolescentes para llevar a cabo comportamientos de Sexting; así como, analizar su percepción sobre los motivos más frecuentes que la gente de su edad alude para sextear, analizando las diferencias según el género y la localización. Participaron un total de 1286 estudiantes de la Provincia de Ourense, con una media de edad de 15.63 (DT: 1.35). Los resultados apuntan motivos muy diversos y variados, identificando a los chicos como más sexters en relación al envío de textos erótico sexuales.

Association between sexting and sexual coercion among female adolescents

This study aims to investigate whether experiences of offline sexual coercion are associated with adolescent females' involvement in different types of sexting behaviors. It draws on data from 450 ethnically diverse female adolescents with an average age of 19.02 years (SD = 0.74) who were originally recruited in southeast Texas. The participants were asked about their experiences with sexual coercion, and their engagement in sexting behavior (i.e., sending, requesting, and being asked for a sext, and receiving a sext without giving permission). Logistic regressions were used to analyze these relationships, while controlling for age, ethnicity, education level, living situation, and sexting behaviors in the year prior of the study. Offline sexual coercion was significantly associated with sending and being asked for a naked image, as well as receiving a naked image without giving permission. The results suggest that sexting could function as an online extension of offline forms of sexual coercion.

Online communication predicts Belgian adolescents' initiation of romantic and sexual activity

Online communication is associated with offline romantic and sexual activity among college students. Yet, it is unknown whether online communication is associated with the initiation of romantic and sexual activity among adolescents. This two-wave panel study investigated whether chatting, visiting dating websites, and visiting erotic contact websites predicted adolescents' initiation of romantic and sexual activity. We analyzed two-wave panel data from 1163 Belgian adolescents who participated in the MORES Study. We investigated the longitudinal impact of online communication on the initiation of romantic relationships and sexual intercourse using logistic regression analyses. The odds ratios of initiating a romantic relationship among romantically inexperienced adolescents who frequently used chat rooms, dating websites, or erotic contact websites were two to three times larger than those of non-users. Among sexually inexperienced adolescents who frequently used chat rooms, dating websites, or erotic contact websites, the odds ratios of initiating sexual intercourse were two to five times larger than that among non-users, even after a number of other relevant factors were introduced.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to demonstrate that online communication predicts the initiation of offline sexual and romantic activity as early as adolescence. Practitioners and parents need to consider the role of online communication in adolescents' developing sexuality.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Adolescents increasingly communicate online with peers. • Online communication predicts romantic and sexual activity among college students. What is New: • Online communication predicts adolescents' offline romantic activity over time. • Online communication predicts adolescents' offline sexual activity over time.

Do Adolescent Sexual Behavior and Intention to Engage in Sexual Behavior Change in High School Years in Hong Kong?

STUDY OBJECTIVE

In this study we examined sexual behavior and intention to engage in sexual behavior among Chinese high school students in Hong Kong using 6 waves of data collected over 6 years. We also focused on the related sociodemographic and family correlates. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, INTERVENTIONS, AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A 6-year longitudinal study was conducted. At each wave, a questionnaire was used to collect data on sociodemographic characteristics, positive youth development, and family functioning in the respondents.

RESULTS

Individual growth curve models showed that adolescent sexual behavior and intention increased over time. Adolescents with higher levels of positive youth development reported lower levels of past sexual behavior. Youths from better-off and higher functioning families increased their sexual behavior at slower rates than did youths from families with economic disadvantage and poor family functioning. Regarding intention to have sex, older adolescents reported higher levels of intention. Youngsters with higher levels of perceived family functioning and positive youth development reported lower levels of initial intention. Adolescent boys increased their intention at a faster rate than did girls.

CONCLUSION

Findings from the study identified risk factors (ie, age, gender, and economic disadvantage) and protective factors (ie, healthy family functioning, positive youth development) that influence the levels and growth rates of adolescent sexual behavior and intention. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.

Online sexual behaviours among Swedish youth: associations to background factors, behaviours and abuse

Sexual activity online may result in positive experiences for young people, or lead them to engage in risky behaviours possibly resulting in sexual assault or abuse. The aim of our study was to investigate associations between online sexual behaviours among Swedish youth and background factors as well as aspects of well-being. The behaviours investigated were: having sex online with a contact met online, having sex with an online contact offline, posting sexual pictures online, and selling sex online. We used data from a representative sample of 3,432 Swedish youth who were asked about their lifetime experiences as well as their experiences within the previous year. We hypothesized that more advanced online sexual behaviours were associated with more problematic background factors, worse psychosocial well-being and riskier behaviours in general. Bivariate relationships were evaluated followed by a multiple logistic regression model. Our data suggested that most Swedish youth do not perform any of the assessed online sexual behaviours. Young people who reported online sexual behaviour showed a more problematic background, rated their health as poorer, had a more sexualized life and had experienced more sexual or physical abuse. Professionals who work with young people need to help them better evaluate potential risks online and offer support when needed. Youths who sell sex online are especially at risk and need extra attention, as they might be in greater need of protection and therapeutic support.

Cell phone internet access, online sexual solicitation, partner seeking, and sexual risk behavior among adolescents

Online partner seeking is associated with sexual risk behavior among young adults (specifically men who have sex with men), but this association has yet to be explored among a probability sample of adolescents. Moreover, cell phone internet access and sexual risk taking online and offline have not been explored. A probability sample (N = 1,831) of Los Angeles Unified School District high school students was collected in 2011. Logistic regression models assessed relationships between specific sexual risk behaviors (online sexual solicitation, seeking partners online, sex with internet-met partners, condom use) and frequency of internet use, internet access points, and demographics. Students with cell phone internet access were more likely to report being solicited online for sex, being sexually active, and having sex with an internet-met partner. Bisexual-identifying students reported higher rates of being approached online for sex, being sexually active, and not using condoms at last sex. Gay, lesbian, and questioning (GLQ) students were more likely to report online partner seeking and unprotected sex at last sex with an internet-met partner. Additionally, having sex with an internet-met partner was associated with being male, online sexual solicitation, and online partner seeking. Internet- and school-based sexual health programs should incorporate safety messages regarding online sexual solicitation, seeking sex partners online, and engaging in safer sex practices with all partners. Programs must target adolescents of all sexual identities, as adolescents may not yet be "out," and bisexual and GLQ adolescents are more likely to engage in risky sex behaviors.

Short-term longitudinal relationships between adolescents’ (cyber)bullying perpetration and bonding to school and teachers

The purpose of this study was to test bidirectional relationships between (cyber)bullying and a) bonding to school and b) bonding to teachers. These relationships were examined while controlling for traditional and cyberbullying victimization, as well as gender and age. The sample consisted of 2,128 Belgian early adolescents, who participated in a two-wave panel study with a 6-month time interval. The data were analysed using cross-lagged panel analyses. The results indicate the robust temporal stability of being bonded to school and teachers, bullying perpetration (traditional and cyber), and bullying victimization (traditional and cyber). For teacher bonding, a small negative bidirectional relationship was found with cyberbullying perpetration. Low levels of teacher bonding at Time 1 predicted subsequent cyberbullying at Time 2; cyberbullying at Time 1 led to later poor teacher bonding at Time 2. On the other hand, the expected longitudinal associations between school bonding and (cyber)bullying perpetration were not confirmed. The results of the current study implicate that a positive bonding to teachers in particular could be a protective factor against bullying via the Internet or mobile phone. Further implications of these results for prevention and intervention with regard to (cyber)bullying are discussed.

The Association Between Adolescent Sexting, Psychosocial Difficulties, and Risk Behavior

When a sexting message spreads to an unintended audience, it can adversely affect the victim’s reputation. Sexting incidents constitute a potential school safety risk. Just as with other types of adolescent risk behavior, school nurses might have to initiate the first response when a sexting episode arises, but a school nurse’s role goes beyond intervention. They can also play an important role in the prevention of sexting and its related risks. This article reviews the links between adolescent sexting, other types of risk behavior, and its emotional and psychosocial conditions. Seven databases were examined and nine studies remained for further review. The review of the literature shows that adolescent sexting is cross sectionally associated with a range of health-risk behaviors. Youth who engage in sexting are also found to experience peer pressure and a range of emotional difficulties. The results can guide school nurse education and practice.

Annual research review: Harms experienced by child users of online and mobile technologies: the nature, prevalence and management of sexual and aggressive risks in the digital age

AIMS AND SCOPE

The usage of mobile phones and the internet by young people has increased rapidly in the past decade, approaching saturation by middle childhood in developed countries. Besides many benefits, online content, contact or conduct can be associated with risk of harm; most research has examined whether aggressive or sexual harms result from this. We examine the nature and prevalence of such risks, and evaluate the evidence regarding the factors that increase or protect against harm resulting from such risks, so as to inform the academic and practitioner knowledge base. We also identify the conceptual and methodological challenges encountered in this relatively new body of research, and highlight the pressing research gaps.

METHODS

Given the pace of change in the market for communication technologies, we review research published since 2008. Following a thorough bibliographic search of literature from the key disciplines (psychology, sociology, education, media studies and computing sciences), the review concentrates on recent, high quality empirical studies, contextualizing these within an overview of the field.

FINDINGS

Risks of cyberbullying, contact with strangers, sexual messaging ('sexting') and pornography generally affect fewer than one in five adolescents. Prevalence estimates vary according to definition and measurement, but do not appear to be rising substantially with increasing access to mobile and online technologies, possibly because these technologies pose no additional risk to offline behaviour, or because any risks are offset by a commensurate growth in safety awareness and initiatives. While not all online risks result in self-reported harm, a range of adverse emotional and psychosocial consequences is revealed by longitudinal studies. Useful for identifying which children are more vulnerable than others, evidence reveals several risk factors: personality factors (sensation-seeking, low self-esteem, psychological difficulties), social factors (lack of parental support, peer norms) and digital factors (online practices, digital skills, specific online sites).

CONCLUSIONS

Mobile and online risks are increasingly intertwined with pre-existing (offline) risks in children's lives. Research gaps, as well as implications for practitioners, are identified. The challenge is now to examine the relations among different risks, and to build on the risk and protective factors identified to design effective interventions.