The Role of Ultra-Rapid-Acting Insulin Analogs in Diabetes: An Expert Consensus

Ultra-rapid-acting insulin analogs (URAA) are a further development and refinement of rapid-acting insulin analogs. Because of their adapted formulation, URAA provide an even faster pharmacokinetics and thus an accelerated onset of insulin action than conventional rapid-acting insulin analogs, allowing for a more physiologic delivery of exogenously applied insulin. Clinical trials have confirmed the superiority of URAA in controlling postprandial glucose excursions, with a safety profile that is comparable to the rapid-acting insulins. Consequently, many individuals with diabetes mellitus may benefit from URAA in terms of prandial glycemic control. Unfortunately, there are only few available recommendations from authoritative sources for use of URAA in clinical practice. Therefore, this expert consensus report aims to define populations of people with diabetes mellitus for whom URAA may be beneficial and to provide health care professionals with concrete, practical recommendations on how best to use URAA in this context.

Insulin pumps in children - a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Insulin pump therapy is a real breakthrough in managing diabetes Mellitus, particularly in children. It can deliver a tiny amount of insulin and decreases the need for frequent needle injections. It also helps to maintain adequate and optimal glycemic control to reduce the risk of metabolic derangements in different tissues. Children are suitable candidates for pump therapy as they need a more freestyle and proper metabolic control to ensure adequate growth and development. Therefore, children and their caregivers should have proper education and training and understand the proper use of insulin pumps to achieve successful pump therapy. The pump therapy continuously improves to enhance its performance and increase its simulation of the human pancreas. Nonetheless, there is yet a long way to reach the desired goal.

AIM

To review discusses the history of pump development, its indications, types, proper use, special conditions that may enface the children and their families while using the pump, its general care, and its advantages and disadvantages.

METHODS

We conducted comprehensive literature searches of electronic databases until June 30, 2022, related to pump therapy in children and published in the English language.

RESULTS

We included 118 articles concerned with insulin pumps, 61 were reviews, systemic reviews, and meta-analyses, 47 were primary research studies with strong design, and ten were guidelines.

CONCLUSION

The insulin pump provides fewer needles and can provide very tiny insulin doses, a convenient and more flexible way to modify the needed insulin physiologically, like the human pancreas, and can offer adequate and optimal glycemic control to reduce the risk of metabolic derangements in different tissues.

Faster Insulin Aspart for Continuous Subcutaneous Insulin Infusion: Is It Worth It?

Introduction

Faster insulin aspart (fASP) is the new formulation of insulin aspart (ASP) with a left-shifted pharmacokinetic profile, allowing better control of early postprandial hyperglycemia and a reduction in the risk of late post-meal hypoglycemia. However, it can be associated with more frequent infusion set changes. The purpose of this study is to evaluate efficacy and safety one, three, and six months after starting fASP in continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) systems.

Methods

This is a retrospective study that included adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus, users of CSII ≥3 months, who started fASP. Exclusion criteria included less than one month of follow-up after the intervention, concomitant initiation of pharmacological therapy, pre-conception period, and non-use of continuous glucose monitoring.

Results

A total of 77 individuals were included, of which 52 (67.5%) were female, aged 39.87 ± 13.10 years, with a mean time under CSII of 7.30 ± 3.58 years and a median follow-up time after transition to fASP of six months. There was a trend to a global glycemic control improvement at six months after starting fASP: numeric increase in time in range (56.40 ± 12.62% vs 60.15 ± 13.53%, p=0.148), reduction in time above range (37.76 ± 13.05% vs 34.67 ± 14.94%, p=0.557), time below range (6.00 (5.00)% vs 4.50 (5.25)%, p=0.122), and mean glucose (174.29 ± 25.14 mg/dL vs 167.00 ± 25.30 mg/dL, p=0.207). There was a reduction in body mass index (BMI) at six months after switching to fASP (25.08 (4.59) kg/m² vs 24.45 (3.05) kg/m², p=0.010), despite the absence of a significant variation in total daily insulin. Adverse event and discontinuation rates were 7.8% and 6.5%, respectively, with no documented episodes of diabetic ketoacidosis or severe hypoglycemia.

Conclusions

fASP proved to be a safe and effective therapeutic option in CSII systems associated with a significant BMI reduction, aspects that might justify its preference.

Rapid-acting insulin analogues: Theory and best clinical practice in type 1 and type 2 diabetes

Since the discovery of insulin 100 years ago, insulin preparations have improved significantly. Starting from purified animal insulins, evolving to human insulins produced by genetically modified organisms, and ultimately to insulin analogues, all in an attempt to mimic physiological insulin action profiles seen in individuals without diabetes. Achieving strict glucose control without hypoglycaemia and preventing chronic complications of diabetes while preserving quality of life remains a challenging goal, but the advent of newer ultra-rapid-acting insulin analogues may enable intensive insulin therapy without being too disruptive to daily life. Ultra-rapid-acting insulin analogues can be administered shortly before meals and give better coverage of mealtime-induced glucose excursions than conventional insulin preparations. They also increase convenience with timing of bolus dosing. In this review, we focus on the progress that has been made in rapid-acting insulins. We summarize pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data, clinical trial data supporting the use of these new formulations as part of a basal-bolus regimen and continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, and provide a clinical perspective to help guide healthcare professionals when and for whom to use ultra-fast-acting insulins.

Dual-hormone artificial pancreas for management of type 1 diabetes: Recent progress and future directions

Over the last few years, technological advances have led to tremendous improvement in the management of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Artificial pancreas systems have been shown to improve glucose control compared with conventional insulin pump therapy. However, clinically significant hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic episodes still occur with the artificial pancreas. Postprandial glucose excursions and exercise-induced hypoglycemia represent major hurdles in improving glucose control and glucose variability in many patients with T1D. In this regard, dual-hormone artificial pancreas systems delivering other hormones in addition to insulin (glucagon or amylin) may better reproduce the physiology of the endocrine pancreas and have been suggested as an alternative tool to overcome these limitations in clinical practice. In addition, novel ultra-rapid-acting insulin analogs with a more physiological time-action profile are currently under investigation for use in artificial pancreas devices, aiming to address the unmet need for further improvements in postprandial glucose control. This review article aims to discuss the current progress and future outlook in the development of novel ultra-rapid insulin analogs and dual-hormone closed-loop systems, which offer the next steps to fully closing the loop in the artificial pancreas.

Impact of Accelerating Insulin on an Artificial Pancreas System Without Meal Announcement: An In Silico Examination

BACKGROUND

Controlling postprandial blood glucose without the benefit of an appropriately sized premeal insulin bolus has been challenging given the delays in absorption and action of subcutaneously injected insulin during conventional and artificial pancreas (AP) system diabetes treatment. We aim to understand the impact of accelerating insulin and increasing aggressiveness of the AP controller as potential solutions to address the postprandial hyperglycemia challenge posed by unannounced meals through a simulation study.

METHODS

Accelerated rapid-acting insulin analogue is modeled within the UVA/Padova simulation platform by uniformly reducing its pharmacokinetic time constants (α multiplier) and used with a model predictive control, where the controller's aggressiveness depends on α. Two sets of single-meal simulations were performed: (1) where we only tune the controller's aggressiveness and (2) where we also accelerate insulin absorption and action to assess postprandial glycemic control during each intervention.

RESULTS

Mean percent of time spent within the 70 to 180 mg/dL postprandial glycemic range is significantly higher in set (2) than in set (1): 79.9, 95% confidence interval [77.0, 82.7] vs 88.8 [86.8, 90.9] ([Note to typesetter: Set all unnecessary math in text format and insert appropriate spaces between operators.] P < .05) for α = 2, and 81.4 [78.6, 84.3] vs 94.1 [92.6, 95.6] (P < .05) for α = 3. A decrease in percent of time below 70 mg/dL is also detected: 0.9 [0.4, 2.2] vs 0.6 [0.2, 1.4] (P = .23) for α = 2 and 1.4 [0.7, 2.8] vs 0.4 [0.1, 1.4] (P < .05) for α = 3.

CONCLUSION

These proof-of-concept simulations suggest that an AP without prandial insulin boluses combined with significantly faster insulin analogues could match the glycemic performance obtained with an optimal hybrid AP.

Fast-Acting Insulin Aspart: A Review of its Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Properties and the Clinical Consequences

Fast-acting insulin aspart (faster aspart) is insulin aspart (IAsp) with two added excipients, l-arginine and niacinamide, to ensure formulation stability with accelerated initial absorption after subcutaneous administration compared with previously developed rapid-acting insulins. The pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic properties of faster aspart have been characterised in clinical pharmacology trials with comparable overall methodology. In subjects with type 1 (T1D) or type 2 (T2D) diabetes, the serum IAsp concentration–time and glucose-lowering effect profiles are left-shifted for faster aspart compared with IAsp. In addition, faster aspart provides earlier onset, doubling of initial exposure, and an up to 2.5-fold increase in initial glucose-lowering effect within 30 min of subcutaneous injection, as well as earlier offset of exposure and effect. Similar results have been shown using continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII). The improved pharmacological properties of faster aspart versus IAsp are consistent across populations, i.e. in the elderly, children, adolescents and the Japanese. Thus, the faster aspart pharmacological characteristics more closely resemble the mealtime insulin secretion in healthy individuals, giving faster aspart the potential to further improve postprandial glucose control in subjects with diabetes. Indeed, change from baseline in 1-h postprandial glucose increment is in favour of faster aspart versus IAsp when used as basal-bolus or CSII treatment in phase III trials in subjects with T1D or T2D. This review summarises the currently published results from clinical pharmacology trials with faster aspart and discusses the potential clinical benefits of faster aspart compared with previous rapid-acting insulin products.

Improving the treatment of patients with diabetes using insulin analogues: current findings and future directions

Introduction: The aim of insulin replacement in insulin-deficient people (type 1 diabetes, pancreatic causes of diabetes, long-standing type 2 diabetes) is to approximate the physiologic insulin action profile as closely as possible. However, short-acting human insulins start too slow and act too long, causing postprandial hyperglycemia and delayed hypoglycemia, while the insulin action profile of long-acting human insulins is too variable in duration and strength of action, leading to insufficient basal insulin covering and peak insulin levels after injection causing early nocturnal hypoglycemia. Insulin analogues were designed to overcome these shortcomings. In insulin-resistant people (type 2 diabetes), insulin analogues contribute to more efficient and safer insulin supplementation. Areas covered: In this review, we describe the unmet needs for insulin therapy, the currently available short- and long-acting insulin analogues and some considerations on cardiovascular outcomes, use in special populations, and cost-effectiveness. Finally, we discuss what is new in the field of insulin analogues. Expert opinion: The development of insulin analogues is an important step in diabetes treatment. Despite many patients meeting their glycemic targets with the newest analogues, hypoglycemic episodes remain a major problem. More physiologic insulin regimens, with glucose-sensitive or organ-targeting insulin analogues may be the answer to these issues.

Intelligent automated drug administration and therapy: future of healthcare

In the twenty-first century, the collaboration of control engineering and the healthcare sector has matured to some extent; however, the future will have promising opportunities, vast applications, and some challenges. Due to advancements in processing speed, the closed-loop administration of drugs has gained popularity for critically ill patients in intensive care units and routine life such as personalized drug delivery or implantable therapeutic devices. For developing a closed-loop drug delivery system, the control system works with a group of technologies like sensors, micromachining, wireless technologies, and pharmaceuticals. Recently, the integration of artificial intelligence techniques such as fuzzy logic, neural network, and reinforcement learning with the closed-loop drug delivery systems has brought their applications closer to fully intelligent automatic healthcare systems. This review's main objectives are to discuss the current developments, possibilities, and future visions in closed-loop drug delivery systems, for providing treatment to patients suffering from chronic diseases. It summarizes the present insight of closed-loop drug delivery/therapy for diabetes, gastrointestinal tract disease, cancer, anesthesia administration, cardiac ailments, and neurological disorders, from a perspective to show the research in the area of control theory.

Automated Insulin Delivery in Children with Type 1 Diabetes

The advent of insulin pump therapy marked an important milestone in diabetes treatment in the past few decades and has become the tipping point for the development of automated insulin delivery systems (AID). Standalone insulin pump systems have evolved over the course of years and have been replaced by modern high-technology insulin pumps with continuous glucose monitor interface allowing real-time insulin dose adjustment to optimize treatment. This review summarizes evidence from AID studies conducted in children with type 1 diabetes and discusses the outlook for future generation AID systems from a pediatric treatment perspective.

Drug Delivery Strategies for the Treatment of Metabolic Diseases

Metabolic diseases occur when normal metabolic processes are disrupted in the human body, which can be congenital or acquired. The incidence of metabolic diseases worldwide has reached epidemic proportions. So far, various methods including systemic drug therapy and surgery are exploited to prevent and treat metabolic diseases. However, current pharmacotherapeutic options for treatment of these metabolic disorders remain limited and ineffective, especially reducing patient compliance to treatment. Therefore, it is desirable to exploit effective drug delivery approaches to effectively treat metabolic diseases and reduce side effects. This brief review summarizes novel delivery strategies including local, targeted, and oral drug delivery strategies, as well as intelligent stimulus-responsive drug delivery strategy, for the treatment of metabolic disorders including diabetes, obesity, and atherosclerosis.

Investigation of Pump Compatibility of Fast-Acting Insulin Aspart in Subjects With Type 1 Diabetes

BACKGROUND

Ultra-fast-acting insulins, such as fast-acting insulin aspart (faster aspart), have pharmacokinetic properties that may be advantageous for patients using continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII), provided that they are compatible with and safe to use in CSII.

METHODS

Randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, actively controlled trial evaluating compatibility, efficacy, and safety of faster aspart in adults with type 1 diabetes using their own MiniMed Paradigm pump with Quick-Set or Silhouette infusion sets. Following run-in, subjects were randomized (2:1) to faster aspart (n = 25) or insulin aspart (n = 12) for 6 weeks. Primary endpoint was the number of microscopically confirmed episodes of infusion-set occlusions.

RESULTS

No microscopically confirmed episodes of infusion-set occlusions were observed in either arm. Seven possible infusion-set occlusions were reported by five subjects (all faster aspart); none were prompted by a plug observed by the subject (prompted by unexplained hyperglycemia [n = 6] or leakage [n = 1]) and none were confirmed. Macroscopic and microscopic evaluation showed no color change or particle/crystal formation in the infusion sets. Premature infusion-set changes were reported in 44% and 16.7% of subjects in the faster aspart and insulin aspart groups, respectively. A nonsignificant trend toward better efficacy was observed with faster aspart (estimated treatment difference [ETD] [95% CI] in HbA1c change: -0.14% [-0.40, 0.11]). No new safety issues were found in either treatment group.

CONCLUSIONS

Over 6 weeks of treatment, no microscopically confirmed infusion-set occlusions were observed for faster aspart or insulin aspart, indicating similar compatibility with CSII use.

Pharmacological Properties of Faster-Acting Insulin Aspart

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Faster aspart is a new formulation of insulin aspart (IAsp) produced by adding the excipients niacinamide and L-arginine. As this new, "ultra-rapid insulin" is available in the EU-market and Canada, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics data is summarized.

RECENT FINDINGS

Faster aspart shows an earlier onset of appearance of insulin in the bloodstream after subcutaneous administration and an earlier onset of glucose-lowering action and a higher glycemic effect within the first 30 min. Faster aspart administered by pump is indeed faster than conventional aspart with a faster on (- 11 min), faster off (- 24 min), and more than 100% greater insulin action within the first 30 min. Tolerability of faster aspart is similar to that of Iasp; the same holds true for compatibility in pump use. Faster aspart shows a faster occurrence of insulin in the blood compared with IAsp in subcutaneous injection. Improvements over current analogs may be more pronounced in pumps than with injections. Data from phase IIIa studies confirm the reduction of postprandial glucose excursions that can be achieved with faster aspart.

Keeping Up with the Diabetes Technology: 2016 Endocrine Society Guidelines of Insulin Pump Therapy and Continuous Glucose Monitor Management of Diabetes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Decades after the invention of insulin pump, diabetes management has encountered a technology revolution with the introduction of continuous glucose monitoring, sensor-augmented insulin pump therapy and closed-loop/artificial pancreas systems. In this review, we discuss the significance of the 2016 Endocrine Society Guidelines for insulin pump therapy and continuous glucose monitoring and summarize findings from relevant diabetes technology studies that were conducted after the publication of the 2016 Endocrine Society Guidelines.

RECENT FINDINGS

The 2016 Endocrine Society Guidelines have been a great resource for clinicians managing diabetes in this new era of diabetes technology. There is good body of evidence indicating that using diabetes technology systems safely tightens glycemic control while managing both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. The first-generation diabetes technology systems will evolve as we gain more experience and collaboratively work to improve them with an ultimate goal of keeping people with diabetes complication and burden-free until the cure for diabetes becomes a reality.

Finding the right route for insulin delivery - an overview of implantable pump therapy

INTRODUCTION

Implantable pump therapy adopting the intraperitoneal route of insulin delivery has been available for the past three decades. The key rationale for implantable pump therapy is the restoration of the portal-peripheral insulin gradient of the normal physiology. Uptake in clinical practice is limited to specialized centers and selected patient populations. Areas covered: Implantable pump therapy is discussed, including technical aspects, rationale for its use, and glycemic and non-glycemic effects. Target populations, summaries of clinical studies and issues related to implantable pump therapy are highlighted. Limitations of implantable pump therapy and its future outlook in clinical practice are presented. Expert opinion: Although intraperitoneal insulin delivery appears closer to the normal physiology, technical, pharmacological, and costs barriers prevent a wider adoption. Evidence from clinical studies remains scarce and inconclusive. As a consequence, the use of implantable pump therapy will be confined to a small population unless considerable technological progress is made and well-conducted studies can demonstrate glycemic and/or non-glycemic benefits justifying wider application.

Insulin analogues in type 1 diabetes mellitus: getting better all the time

The treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus consists of external replacement of the functions of β cells in an attempt to achieve blood levels of glucose as close to the normal range as possible. This approach means that glucose sensing needs to be replaced and levels of insulin need to mimic physiological insulin-action profiles, including basal coverage and changes around meals. Training and educating patients are crucial for the achievement of good glycaemic control, but having insulin preparations with action profiles that provide stable basal insulin coverage and appropriate mealtime insulin peaks helps people with type 1 diabetes mellitus to live active lives without sacrificing tight glycaemic control. Insulin analogues enable patients to achieve this goal, as some have fast action profiles, and some have very slow action profiles, which gives people with type 1 diabetes mellitus the tools to achieve dynamic insulin-action profiles that enable tight glycaemic control with a risk of hypoglycaemia that is lower than that with human short-acting and long-acting insulins. This Review discusses the established and novel insulin analogues that are used to treat patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and provides insights into the future development of insulin analogues.

Pharmacological properties of faster-acting insulin aspart vs insulin aspart in patients with type 1 diabetes receiving continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion: A randomized, double-blind, crossover trial

AIM

To evaluate the pharmacological characteristics of faster-acting insulin aspart (faster aspart) compared with insulin aspart (IAsp) during continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII).

METHODS

In this randomized, double-blind, crossover trial, 48 men and women aged 18 to 64 years with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) received faster aspart and IAsp as a 0.15 U/kg bolus dose via CSII, on top of a basal rate (0.02 U/kg/h), in a glucose clamp setting (target 5.5 mmol/L).

RESULTS

After a CSII bolus dose, the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profiles for faster aspart were left-shifted compared with those for IAsp. For faster aspart vs IAsp, the early glucose-lowering effect (area under the curve for glucose infusion rate [GIR]0-30min ) was approximately 2-fold higher (least squares means 24.9 vs 11.4 mg/kg; estimated ratio faster aspart/IAsp 2.18, 95% confidence interval [CI] [1.33; 5.04]; P = .002), onset of glucose-lowering effect (time to early 50% of maximum GIR) occurred 11.1 minutes earlier (41.1 vs 52.3 minutes; 95% CI faster aspart - IAsp [-15.4; -6.9]; P<.001), and offset of glucose-lowering effect (time to late 50% of maximum GIR) occurred 24.0 minutes earlier (214.7 vs 238.7 minutes; 95% CI [-38.9; -9.1]; P=.002). Likewise, significantly greater early exposure and significantly earlier onset and offset of exposure were observed for faster aspart vs IAsp. Faster aspart and IAsp were both well tolerated.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with T1DM using CSII, faster aspart better mimics the endogenous prandial insulin secretion and action than does IAsp. Faster aspart therefore has the potential to provide clinical benefits over current rapid-acting insulins in the insulin pump setting.