Dynamic and combinatorial control of gene expression by nuclear retinoic acid receptors (RARs)

Retinoid-impregnated nanoparticles enable control of bone growth by site-specific modulation of endochondral ossification in mice

Growth-plate (GP) injures in limbs and other sites can impair GP function and cause deceleration of bone growth, leading to progressive bone lengthening imbalance, deformities and/or physical discomfort, decreased motion and pain. At present, surgical interventions are the only means available to correct these conditions by suppressing the GP activity in the unaffected limb and/or other bones in the ipsilateral region. Here, we aimed to develop a pharmacologic treatment of GP growth imbalance that involves local application of nanoparticles-based controlled release of a selective retinoic acid nuclear receptor gamma (RARγ) agonist drug. When RARγ agonist-loaded nanoparticles were implanted near the medial and lateral sides of proximal tibial growth plate in juvenile C57BL/6j mice, the GP underwent involution and closure. Overall tibia length was shortened compared to the contralateral element implanted with drug-free control nanoparticles. Importantly, when the RARγ agonist nanoparticles were implanted on the lateral side only, the adjacent epiphysis tilted toward the lateral site, leading to apical angulation of the tibia. In contrast to the local selectivity of these responses, systemic administration of RARγ agonists led to GP closure at many sites, inhibiting skeletal growth over time. Agonists for RARα and RARβ elicited no obvious responses over parallel regimens. Our findings provide novel evidence that RARγ agonist-loaded nanoparticles can control activity, function and directionality of a targeted GP, offering a potential and clinically-relevant alternative or supplementation to surgical correction of limb length discrepancy and angular deformities.

Lay summary

Growth-plates (physes), which are cartilage tissues near the ends of bones, support normal bone growth in children. Growth plate injures in limbs and other sites can impair growth plate function, leading to inhibited or imbalanced bone growth, skeletal deformities, decreased motion, discomfort or pain. At present, surgical interventions are the only means available to correct these conditions. Here, we aimed to develop a pharmacologic treatment for bone growth imbalance. Nanoparticles loaded with a selective agonist for the retinoic acid nuclear receptor gamma were prepared and implanted near the tibial growth plate in juvenile mice. The growth plate underwent involution and closure, and overall tibia length was shortened compared to the contralateral element implanted with drug-free control nanoparticles. Importantly, when the same drug nanoparticles were implanted in only one side of the tibia, the tibia was tilted toward the injection site. Our findings provide novel evidence that retinoic acid receptor gamma agonist-loaded nanoparticles can control activity, function and directionality of a targeted growth plate, offering a potential and clinically-relevant alternative or supplementation to surgical correction of limb length imbalances and deformities.

Redefining retinoic acid receptor expression in zebrafish embryos using Hybridization Chain Reaction

Retinoic Acid (RA) is the key signaling molecule during embryonic development with the RA pathway playing multiple roles in throughout development. Previous work has shown RA signaling to be key in development of the craniofacial skeleton. RA signaling is driven by RA binding to the nuclear transcription factors, retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoic X receptor (RXR). RARs and RXR heterodimerize to bind specific DNA sequences known as retinoic acid response elements or RAREs. Though the genes that code for these receptors are known to be involved during craniofacial development, in which tissues they are expressed remains uncharacterized, varying temporally and spatially. To address this, we used Hybridization Chain Reaction (HCR) to fluorescently visualize rar and rxr mRNA expression in tissue-specific transgenic zebrafish embryos. Here, we show the overall and tissue-specific expression of each receptor in the pharyngeal endoderm and Cranial Neural Crest Cells (CNCC), two cell types that have been shown to be sensitive to RA perturbations. Here we show that the expression of many of the rar/rxr genes overlap with the endoderm-specific sox17:eGFP and/or the CNCC-specific sox10:eGFP transgenic lines between 12 and 32 h post fertilization; time points that capture CNCC and endoderm migration and morphogenesis.

The action of retinoic acid on spermatogonia in the testis

For mammalian spermatogenesis to proceed normally, it is essential that the population of testicular progenitor cells, A undifferentiated spermatogonia (Aundiff), undergoes differentiation during the A to A1 transition that occurs at the onset of spermatogenesis. The commitment of the Aundiff population to differentiation and leaving a quiescent, stem-like state gives rise to all the spermatozoa produced across the lifespan of an individual, and ultimately determines male fertility. The action of all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) on the Aundiff population is the determining factor that induces this change. Sertoli cells, omnipresent, nurse cells within the mammalian testis are responsible for synthesizing the atRA that prompts this change in the neonatal testicular environment. The mechanism of atRA synthesis and signaling has been robustly explored and, in this review, we have summarized what is currently known about the action of testicular atRA at the onset of spermatogenesis. We have combined this with evidence gained from prominent genetic studies that have further elucidated the function of genes critical to atRA synthesis. We have additionally described the effects of the first pulse of atRA delivered to the germ cells of the testis, which has been investigated using WIN 18,446 treatment which prevents atRA synthesis and induces spermatogenic synchrony. This method provides unparalleled resolution into cell and stage specific testicular changes, and combined with transgenic animal models, has allowed researchers to elucidate much regarding the onset of spermatogenesis.

The pathogenic role of retinoid nuclear receptor signaling in cancer and metabolic syndromes

The retinoid nuclear receptor pathway, activated by the vitamin A metabolite retinoic acid, has been extensively investigated for over a century. This study has resulted in conflicting hypotheses about how the pathway regulates health and how it should be pharmaceutically manipulated. These disagreements arise from a fundamental contradiction: retinoid agonists offer clear benefits to select patients with rare bone growth disorders, acute promyelocytic leukemia, and some dermatologic diseases, yet therapeutic retinoid pathway activation frequently causes more harm than good, both through acute metabolic dysregulation and a delayed cancer-promoting effect. In this review, we discuss controlled clinical, mechanistic, and genetic data to suggest several disease settings where inhibition of the retinoid pathway may be a compelling therapeutic strategy, such as solid cancers or metabolic syndromes, and also caution against continued testing of retinoid agonists in cancer patients. Considerable evidence suggests a central role for retinoid regulation of immunity and metabolism, with therapeutic opportunities to antagonize retinoid signaling proposed in cancer, diabetes, and obesity.

The Effect of a Ketogenic Diet versus Mediterranean Diet on Clinical and Biochemical Markers of Inflammation in Patients with Obesity and Psoriatic Arthritis: A Randomized Crossover Trial

The effect of different diet patterns on psoriasis (PSO) and psoriatic arthritis (PSA) is unknown. Τhe aim of our study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a Mediterranean diet (MD) and Ketogenic diet (KD), in patients with PSO and PSA. Twenty-six patients were randomly assigned to start either with MD or KD for a period of 8 weeks. After a 6-week washout interval, the two groups were crossed over to the other type of diet for 8 weeks. At the end of this study, MD and KD resulted in significant reduction in weight (p = 0.002, p < 0.001, respectively), in BMI (p = 0.006, p < 0.001, respectively), in waist circumference (WC) (p = 0.001, p < 0.001, respectively), in total fat mass (p = 0.007, p < 0.001, respectively), and in visceral fat (p = 0.01, p < 0.001, respectively), in comparison with baseline. After KD, patients displayed a significant reduction in the Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) (p = 0.04), Disease Activity Index of Psoriatic Arthritis (DAPSA) (p = 0.004), interleukin (IL)-6 (p = 0.047), IL-17 (p = 0.042), and IL-23 (p = 0.037), whereas no significant differences were observed in these markers after MD (p > 0.05), compared to baseline. The 22-week MD-KD diet program in patients with PSO and PSA led to beneficial results in markers of inflammation and disease activity, which were mainly attributed to KD.

Adipocyte retinoic acid receptor α prevents obesity and steatohepatitis by regulating energy expenditure and lipogenesis

OBJECTIVE

The adipose tissue-liver axis is a major regulator of the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Retinoic acid signaling plays an important role in development and metabolism. However, little is known about the role of adipose retinoic acid signaling in the development of obesity-associated NAFLD. In this work, the aim was to investigate whether and how retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARα) regulated the development of obesity and NAFLD.

METHODS

RARα expression in adipose tissue of db/db or ob/ob mice was determined. Rarαfl/fl mice and adipocyte-specific Rarα-/- (RarαAdi-/- ) mice were fed a chow diet for 1 year or high-fat diet (HFD) for 20 weeks. Primary adipocytes and primary hepatocytes were co-cultured. Metabolic regulation and inflammatory response were characterized.

RESULTS

RARα expression was reduced in adipose tissue of db/db or ob/ob mice. RarαAdi-/- mice had increased obesity and steatohepatitis (NASH) when fed a chow diet or HFD. Loss of adipocyte RARα induced lipogenesis and inflammation in adipose tissue and the liver and reduced thermogenesis. In the co-culture studies, loss of RARα in adipocytes induced inflammatory and lipogenic programs in hepatocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

The data demonstrate that RARα in adipocytes prevents obesity and NASH via inhibiting lipogenesis and inflammation and inducing energy expenditure.

The transcription factor HIF2α partakes in the differentiation block of acute myeloid leukemia

One of the defining features of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an arrest of myeloid differentiation whose molecular determinants are still poorly defined. Pharmacological removal of the differentiation block contributes to the cure of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) in the absence of cytotoxic chemotherapy, but this approach has not yet been translated to non-APL AMLs. Here, by investigating the function of hypoxia-inducible transcription factors HIF1α and HIF2α, we found that both genes exert oncogenic functions in AML and that HIF2α is a novel regulator of the AML differentiation block. Mechanistically, we found that HIF2α promotes the expression of transcriptional repressors that have been implicated in suppressing AML myeloid differentiation programs. Importantly, we positioned HIF2α under direct transcriptional control by the prodifferentiation agent all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) and demonstrated that HIF2α blockade cooperates with ATRA to trigger AML cell differentiation. In conclusion, we propose that HIF2α inhibition may open new therapeutic avenues for AML treatment by licensing blasts maturation and leukemia debulking.

Vitamin A injection at birth improves muscle growth in lambs

Vitamin A and its metabolite, retinoic acid (RA) play important roles in regulating skeletal muscle development. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of early intramuscular vitamin A injection on the muscle growth of lambs. A total of 16 newborn lambs were given weekly intramuscular injections of corn oil (control group, n = 8) or 7,500 IU vitamin A palmitate (vitamin A group, n = 8) from birth to 3 wk of age (4 shots in total). At 3 wk of age and weaning, biceps femoris muscle samples were taken to analyze the effects of vitamin A on the myogenic capacity of skeletal muscle cells. All lambs were slaughtered at 8 months of age. The results suggest that vitamin A treatment accelerated the growth rate of lambs and increased the loin eye area (P < 0.05). Consistently, vitamin A increased the diameter of myofibers in longissimus thoracis muscle (P < 0.01) and increased the final body weight of lambs (P < 0.05). Vitamin A injection did not change the protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin and myostatin signaling (P > 0.05). Moreover, vitamin A upregulated the expression of PAX7 (P < 0.05) and the myogenic marker genes including MYOD and MYOG (P < 0.01). The skeletal muscle-derived mononuclear cells from vitamin A-treated lambs showed higher expression of myogenic genes (P < 0.05) and formed more myotubes (P < 0.01) when myogenic differentiation was induced in vitro. In addition, in vitro analysis showed that RA promoted myogenic differentiation of the skeletal muscle-derived mononuclear cells in the first 3 d (P < 0.05) but not at the later stage (P > 0.05) as evidenced by myogenic gene expression and fusion index. Taken together, neonatal intramuscular vitamin A injection promotes lamb muscle growth by promoting the myogenic potential of satellite cells.

Retinoic Acid Signaling in Fatty Liver Disease

Retinoic acid (RA) is a metabolite of vitamin A and is essential for development and growth as well as cellular metabolism. Through genomic and nongenomic actions, RA regulates a variety of physiological functions. Dysregulation of RA signaling is associated with many diseases. Targeting RA signaling has been proven valuable to human health. All-trans retinoic acid (AtRA) and anthracycline-based chemotherapy are the standard treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). Both human and animal studies have shown a significant relationship between RA signaling and the development and progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). In this review article, we will first summarize vitamin A metabolism and then focus on the role of RA signaling in NAFLD. AtRA inhibits the development and progression of NAFLD via regulating lipid metabolism, inflammation, thermogenesis, etc.

Discovery of novel RARα agonists using pharmacophore-based virtual screening, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulation studies

Nuclear retinoic acid receptors (RARs) are ligand-dependent transcription factors involved in various biological processes, such as embryogenesis, cell proliferation, differentiation, reproduction, and apoptosis. These receptors are regulated by retinoids, i.e., retinoic acid (RA) and its analogs, as receptor agonists. RAR agonists are promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of serious dermatological disorders, including some malignant conditions. By inducing apoptosis, they are able to inhibit the proliferation of diverse cancer cell lines. Also, RAR agonists have recently been identified as therapeutic options for some neurodegenerative diseases. These features make retinoids very attractive molecules for medical purposes. Synthetic selective RAR agonists have several advantages over endogenous ones, but they suffer poor pharmacokinetic properties. These compounds are normally lipophilic acids with unfavorable drug-like features such as poor oral bioavailability. Recently, highly selective, potent, and less toxic RAR agonists with proper lipophilicity, thus, good oral bioavailability have been developed for some therapeutic applications. In the present study, ligand and structure-based virtual screening technique was exploited to introduce some novel RARα agonists. Pharmacokinetic assessment was also performed in silico to suggest those compounds which have optimized drug-like features. Finally, two compounds with the best in silico pharmacological features are proposed as lead molecules for future development of RARα agonists.

The Endogenous Retinoic Acid Receptor Pathway Is Exploited by Mycobacterium tuberculosis during Infection, Both In Vitro and In Vivo

Retinoic acid (RA) is a fundamental vitamin A metabolite involved in regulating immune responses through the nuclear RA receptor (RAR) and retinoid X receptor. While performing experiments using THP-1 cells as a model for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, we observed that serum-supplemented cultures displayed high levels of baseline RAR activation in the presence of live, but not heat-killed, bacteria, suggesting that M. tuberculosis robustly induces the endogenous RAR pathway. Using in vitro and in vivo models, we have further explored the role of endogenous RAR activity in M. tuberculosis infection through pharmacological inhibition of RARs. We found that M. tuberculosis induces classical RA response element genes such as CD38 and DHRS3 in both THP-1 cells and human primary CD14+ monocytes via a RAR-dependent pathway. M. tuberculosis-stimulated RAR activation was observed with conditioned media and required nonproteinaceous factor(s) present in FBS. Importantly, RAR blockade by (4-[(E)-2-[5,5-dimethyl-8-(2-phenylethynyl)-6H-naphthalen-2-yl]ethenyl]benzoic acid), a specific pan-RAR inverse agonist, in a low-dose murine model of tuberculosis significantly reduced SIGLEC-F+CD64+CD11c+high alveolar macrophages in the lungs, which correlated with 2× reduction in tissue mycobacterial burden. These results suggest that the endogenous RAR activation axis contributes to M. tuberculosis infection both in vitro and in vivo and reveal an opportunity for further investigation of new antituberculosis therapies.

Targeting HDAC3 to overcome the resistance to ATRA or arsenic in acute promyelocytic leukemia through ubiquitination and degradation of PML-RARα

Acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) is driven by the oncoprotein PML-RARα, which recruits corepressor complexes, including histone deacetylases (HDACs), to suppress cell differentiation and promote APL initiation. All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) combined with arsenic trioxide (ATO) or chemotherapy highly improves the prognosis of APL patients. However, refractoriness to ATRA and ATO may occur, which leads to relapsed disease in a group of patients. Here, we report that HDAC3 was highly expressed in the APL subtype of AML, and the protein level of HDAC3 was positively associated with PML-RARα. Mechanistically, we found that HDAC3 deacetylated PML-RARα at lysine 394, which reduced PIAS1-mediated PML-RARα SUMOylation and subsequent RNF4-induced ubiquitylation. HDAC3 inhibition promoted PML-RARα ubiquitylation and degradation and reduced the expression of PML-RARα in both wild-type and ATRA- or ATO-resistant APL cells. Furthermore, genetic or pharmacological inhibition of HDAC3 induced differentiation, apoptosis, and decreased cellular self-renewal of APL cells, including primary leukemia cells from patients with resistant APL. Using both cell line- and patient-derived xenograft models, we demonstrated that treatment with an HDAC3 inhibitor or combination of ATRA/ATO reduced APL progression. In conclusion, our study identifies the role of HDAC3 as a positive regulator of the PML-RARα oncoprotein by deacetylating PML-RARα and suggests that targeting HDAC3 could be a promising strategy to treat relapsed/refractory APL.

A transgenic reporter mouse model for in vivo assessment of retinoic acid receptor transcriptional activation

Background: Vitamin A is essential for a wide range of life processes throughout embryogenesis to adult life. With the aim of developing an in vivo model to monitor retinoic acid receptor (RAR) transactivation real-time in intact animals, we generated transgenic mice carrying a luciferase (luc) reporter gene under the control of retinoic acid response elements (RAREs) consisting of three copies of a direct repeat with five spacing nucleotides (DR5). Methods: Transgenic mice carrying a RARE dependent luciferase reporter flanked with insulator sequence were generated by pronuclear injection. RARE dependent luciferase activity was detected by in vivo imaging or in tissue extracts following manipulations with RAR/retinoid X receptor (RXR) agonists, RAR antagonists or in vitamin A deficient mice. Results: We found a strong induction of luciferase activity in a time and dose dependent manner by retinoic acid as well as RAR agonists, but not by the RXR agonist (using n=4-6 per group; 94 mice). In addition, luciferase activity was strongly reduced in vitamin A-deficient mice (n=6-9; 30 mice). These observations confirm that luciferase activity was controlled by RAR activation in the RARE-luc mouse. Luciferase activity was detectable in various organs, with high activity especially in brain and testis, indicating strong retinoid signalling in these tissues. Conclusion: The RARE-luc transgenic mice, which enabled real-time in vivo assessment of RAR activation, will be useful in understanding the normal physiology of vitamin A, the role of retinoid signalling in pathologies as well as to evaluate pharmacological ligands for RARs.

Retinoic Acid Receptor Alpha (RARα) in Macrophages Protects from Diet-Induced Atherosclerosis in Mice

Retinoic acid signaling plays an important role in regulating lipid metabolism and inflammation. However, the role of retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARα) in atherosclerosis remains to be determined. In the current study, we investigated the role of macrophage RARα in the development of atherosclerosis. Macrophages isolated from myeloid-specific Rarα-/- (RarαMac-/-) mice showed increased lipid accumulation and inflammation and reduced cholesterol efflux compared to Rarαfl/fl (control) mice. All-trans retinoic acid (AtRA) induced ATP-binding cassette subfamily A member 1 (Abca1) and Abcg1 expression and cholesterol efflux in both RarαMac-/- mice and Rarαfl/fl mice. In Ldlr-/- mice, myeloid ablation of RARα significantly reduced macrophage Abca1 and Abcg1 expression and cholesterol efflux, induced inflammatory genes, and aggravated Western diet-induced atherosclerosis. Our data demonstrate that macrophage RARα protects against atherosclerosis, likely via inducing cholesterol efflux and inhibiting inflammation.

Targeting Nuclear Receptors in Lung Cancer—Novel Therapeutic Prospects

Lung cancer, the second most commonly diagnosed cancer, is the major cause of fatalities worldwide for both men and women, with an estimated 2.2 million new incidences and 1.8 million deaths, according to GLOBOCAN 2020. Although various risk factors for lung cancer pathogenesis have been reported, controlling smoking alone has a significant value as a preventive measure. In spite of decades of extensive research, mechanistic cues and targets need to be profoundly explored to develop potential diagnostics, treatments, and reliable therapies for this disease. Nuclear receptors (NRs) function as transcription factors that control diverse biological processes such as cell growth, differentiation, development, and metabolism. The aberrant expression of NRs has been involved in a variety of disorders, including cancer. Deregulation of distinct NRs in lung cancer has been associated with numerous events, including mutations, epigenetic modifications, and different signaling cascades. Substantial efforts have been made to develop several small molecules as agonists or antagonists directed to target specific NRs for inhibiting tumor cell growth, migration, and invasion and inducing apoptosis in lung cancer, which makes NRs promising candidates for reliable lung cancer therapeutics. The current work focuses on the importance of various NRs in the development and progression of lung cancer and highlights the different small molecules (e.g., agonist or antagonist) that influence NR expression, with the goal of establishing them as viable therapeutics to combat lung cancer.

All trans retinoic acid as a host-directed immunotherapy for tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is the top bacterial infectious disease killer and one of the top ten causes of death worldwide. The emergence of strains of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) has pushed our available stock of anti-TB agents to the limit of effectiveness. This has increased the urgent need to develop novel treatment strategies using currently available resources. An adjunctive, host-directed therapy (HDT) designed to act on the host, instead of the bacteria, by boosting the host immune response through activation of intracellular pathways could be the answer. The integration of multidisciplinary approaches of repurposing currently FDA-approved drugs, with a targeted drug-delivery platform is a very promising option to reduce the long timeline associated with the approval of new drugs - time that cannot be afforded given the current levels of morbidity and mortality associated with TB infection. The deficiency of vitamin A has been reported to be highly associated with the increased susceptibility of TB. All trans retinoic acid (ATRA), the active metabolite of vitamin A, has proven to be very efficacious against TB both in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we discuss and summarise the importance of vitamin A metabolites in the fight against TB and what is known regarding the molecular mechanisms of ATRA as a host-directed therapy for TB including its effect on macrophages cytokine profile and cellular pathways. Furthermore, we focus on the issues behind why previous clinical trials with vitamin A supplementation have failed, and how these issues might be overcome.

RARG S427L attenuates the DNA repair response to doxorubicin in induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes

Doxorubicin is a commonly used chemotherapeutic drug, but its use is limited by doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC), which can lead to irreversible heart failure and death. A missense variant rs2229774 (p.S427L) in the retinoic acid receptor gamma (RARG) gene is associated with increased susceptibility to DIC, but the precise mechanism underlying this association is incompletely understood. We performed molecular dynamic simulations to determine the effect of this variant on RARG structure and then validated these predictions using CRISPR-Cas9-genome-edited, induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs). We found that this variant leads to reduced activation of its target genes in response to doxorubicin, including gene pathways involved in DNA repair and consequently an inability to mediate DNA repair after exposure to doxorubicin. Our findings establish a role of RARG p.S427L in attenuating DNA repair in DIC and provide insight into the pathogenesis of this cardiotoxic effect.

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RARG p.S427L is predicted to alter the stability of the C terminus of the protein

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The RARG p.S427L variant has impaired ability to activate its target genes

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This variant attenuates the DNA repair response to doxorubicin

E-liquids and vanillin flavoring disrupts retinoic acid signaling and causes craniofacial defects in Xenopus embryos

Environmental teratogens such as smoking are known risk factors for developmental disorders such as cleft palate. While smoking rates have declined, a new type of smoking, called vaping is on the rise. Vaping is the use of e-cigarettes to vaporize and inhale an e-liquid containing nicotine and food-like flavors. There is the potential that, like smoking, vaping could also pose a danger to the developing human. Rather than waiting for epidemiological and mammalian studies, we have turned to an aquatic developmental model, Xenopus laevis, to more quickly assess whether e-liquids contain teratogens that could lead to craniofacial malformations. Xenopus, like zebrafish, has the benefit of being a well-established developmental model and has also been effective in predicting whether a chemical could be a teratogen. We have determined that embryonic exposure to dessert flavored e-liquids can cause craniofacial abnormalities, including an orofacial cleft in Xenopus. To better understand the underlying mechanisms contributing to these defects, transcriptomic analysis of the facial tissues of embryos exposed to a representative dessert flavored e-liquid vapor extract was performed. Analysis of differentially expressed genes in these embryos revealed several genes associated with retinoic acid metabolism or the signaling pathway. Consistently, retinoic acid receptor inhibition phenocopied the craniofacial defects as those embryos exposed to the vapor extract of the e-liquid. Such malformations also correlated with a group of common differentially expressed genes, two of which are associated with midface birth defects in humans. Further, e-liquid exposure sensitized embryos to forming craniofacial malformations when they already had depressed retinoic acid signaling. Moreover, 13-cis-retinoic acid treatment could significantly reduce the e-liquid induced malformation in the midface. Such results suggest the possibility of an interaction between retinoic acid signaling and e-liquid exposure. One of the most popular and concentrated flavoring chemicals in dessert flavored e-liquids is vanillin. Xenopus embryos exposed to this chemical closely resembled embryos exposed to dessert-like e-liquids and a retinoic acid receptor antagonist. In summary, we determined that e-liquid chemicals, in particular vanillin, can cause craniofacial defects potentially by dysregulating retinoic acid signaling. This work warrants the evaluation of vanillin and other such flavoring additives in e-liquids on mammalian development.

Immunostimulant and Antidepressant Effect of Natural Compounds in the Management of Covid-19 Symptoms

In recent years, the use of natural compounds as adjuvant treatments and alternatives to traditional pharmacological therapies has become increasingly popular. These compounds have a wide range of biological effects, such as: antioxidant, anti-aging, hypocholesterolizing, hypoglycemic, antitumoral, antidepressant, anxiolytic activity, etc. Almost all of these compounds are easily available and are contained in different foods. At the end of 2019 the Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 appeared in China and quickly spread throughout the world, causing a pandemic. The most common symptoms of this infection are dry cough, fever, dyspnea, and in severe cases bilateral interstitial pneumonia, with consequences that can lead to death. The nations, in trying to prevent the spread of infection, have imposed social distancing and lockdown measures on their citizens. This had a strong psychological-social impact, leading to phobic, anxious and depressive states. Pharmacological therapy could be accompanied by treatment with several natural compounds, such as vitamins, baicalein, zinc and essential oils. These compounds possess marked immunostimulant activity, strengthening the immune response and mitigating interactions between the virus and the host cell. They also have an antidepressant effect, acting on certain neurotransmitters.

Ligands and DNA in the allosteric control of retinoid receptors function

Retinoids are a family of compounds that include both vitamin A (all-trans retinol) and its naturally occurring metabolites such as retinoic acids (e.g. all-trans retinoic acid) as well as synthetic analogs. They are critically involved in the regulation of a wide variety of essential biological processes, such as embryogenesis and organogenesis, apoptosis, reproduction, vision, and the growth and differentiation of normal and neoplastic cells in vertebrates. The ability of these small molecules to control the expression of several hundred genes through binding to nuclear ligand-dependent transcription factors accounts for most of their functions. Three retinoic acid receptor (RARα,β,γ) and three retinoid X receptor (RXRα,β,γ) subtypes form a variety of RXR-RAR heterodimers that have been shown to mediate the pleiotropic effects of retinoids through the recruitment of high-molecular weight co-regulatory complexes to response-element DNA sequences found in the promoter region of their target genes. Hence, heterodimeric retinoid receptors are multidomain entities that respond to various incoming signals, such as ligand and DNA binding, by allosteric structural alterations which are the basis of further signal propagation. Here, we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge with regard to the structural mechanisms by which retinoids and DNA response elements act as allosteric effectors that may combine to finely tune RXR-RAR heterodimers activity.

The impact of isotretinoin on the pituitary-ovarian axis: An interpretative review of the literature

Isotretinoin (13-cis-retinoic acid), a derivative of vitamin A, is used in the treatment of severe acne resulting in sebum suppression induced by sebocyte apoptosis. Isotretinoin treatment is associated with several adverse effects including teratogenicity, hepatotoxicity, and dyslipidemia. Isotretinoin's effects on endocrine systems and its potential role as an endocrine disruptor are not yet adequately investigated. This review presents clinical, endocrine, and molecular evidence showing that isotretinoin treatment adversely affects the pituitary-ovarian axis and enhances the risk of granulosa cell apoptosis reducing follicular reserve. Isotretinoin is associated with pro-apoptotic signaling in sebaceous glands through upregulated expression of p53, forkhead box O transcription factors (FOXO1, FOXO3), and tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL). Two literature searches including clinical and experimental studies respectively support the hypothesis that isotretinoin's toxicological mode of action on the pituitary-ovarian axis might be caused by over-expressed p53/FOXO1 signaling resulting in gonadotropin suppression and granulosa cell apoptosis. The reduction of follicular reserve by isotretinoin treatment should be especially considered when this drug will be administered for the treatment of acne in post-adolescent women, in whom fertility may be adversely affected. In contrast, isotretinoin treatment may exert beneficial effects in states of hyperandrogenism, especially in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Effects of vitamin A and retinoic acid on mouse embryonic stem cells and their differentiating progeny

Embryonic development is controlled by retinoids, and one approach that has been used to investigate the mechanisms for retinoid actions in developmental processes has been to study the effects of adding retinoids to cultures of pluripotent embryonic stem cells (ESC). To date, most in vitro retinoid research has been directed at deciphering the actions of all-trans retinoic acid (atRA). atRA is a derivative of all-trans retinol (a.k.a. vitamin A, VA), which mammals can generate via an enzyme-catalyzed pathway. atRA's effects on development result from its (1) activation of receptor complexes (RARs and RXRs) in the nucleus which then bind to and activate RA response elements (RAREs) in genes and (2) its interactions with processes that are initiated in the cytoplasm. While much work has focused on the impact of atRA on cell differentiation, VA, itself, has been shown to exert effects on the maintenance of ESC identity that are not dependent upon classic RA-signaling pathways. In this chapter, we present results from our laboratory and others using well-documented approaches for investigating the effects of retinoids on the differentiation of ESC in vitro and introduce a novel method that uses chemically-defined growth conditions. The merits of each approach are discussed.

Impact of RARα and miR-138 on retinoblastoma etoposide resistance

BACKGROUND

Retinoblastoma (RB) is the most common childhood eye cancer. Chemotherapeutic drugs such as etoposide used in RB treatment often cause massive side effects and acquired drug resistances. Dysregulated genes and miRNAs have a large impact on cancer progression and development of chemotherapy resistances.

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to investigate the involvement of retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARα) in RB progression and chemoresistance as well as the impact of miR-138, a potential RARα regulating miRNA.

METHODS

RARα and miR-138 expression in etoposide resistant RB cell lines and chemotherapy treated patient tumors compared to non-treated tumors was revealed by Real-Time PCR. Overexpression approaches were performed to analyze the effects of RARα on RB cell viability, apoptosis, proliferation and tumorigenesis. Besides, we addressed the effect of miR-138 overexpression on RB cell chemotherapy resistance.

RESULTS

A binding between miR-138 and RARα was shown by dual luciferase reporter gene assay. The study presented revealed that RARα is downregulated in etoposide resistant RB cells, while miR-138 is endogenously upregulated. Opposing RARα and miR-138 expression levels were detectable in chemotherapy pre-treated compared to non-treated RB tumor specimen. Overexpression of RARα increases apoptosis levels and reduces tumor cell growth of aggressive etoposide resistant RB cells in vitro and in vivo. Overexpression of miR-138 in chemo-sensitive RB cell lines partly enhances cell viability after etoposide treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show that RARα acts as a tumor suppressor in retinoblastoma and is downregulated upon etoposide resistance in RB cells. Thus, RARα may contribute to the development and progression of RB chemo-resistance.

SOX Transcription Factors as Important Regulators of Neuronal and Glial Differentiation During Nervous System Development and Adult Neurogenesis

The SOX proteins belong to the superfamily of transcription factors (TFs) that display properties of both classical TFs and architectural components of chromatin. Since the cloning of the Sox/SOX genes, remarkable progress has been made in illuminating their roles as key players in the regulation of multiple developmental and physiological processes. SOX TFs govern diverse cellular processes during development, such as maintaining the pluripotency of stem cells, cell proliferation, cell fate decisions/germ layer formation as well as terminal cell differentiation into tissues and organs. However, their roles are not limited to development since SOX proteins influence survival, regeneration, cell death and control homeostasis in adult tissues. This review summarized current knowledge of the roles of SOX proteins in control of central nervous system development. Some SOX TFs suspend neural progenitors in proliferative, stem-like state and prevent their differentiation. SOX proteins function as pioneer factors that occupy silenced target genes and keep them in a poised state for activation at subsequent stages of differentiation. At appropriate stage of development, SOX members that maintain stemness are down-regulated in cells that are competent to differentiate, while other SOX members take over their functions and govern the process of differentiation. Distinct SOX members determine down-stream processes of neuronal and glial differentiation. Thus, sequentially acting SOX TFs orchestrate neural lineage development defining neuronal and glial phenotypes. In line with their crucial roles in the nervous system development, deregulation of specific SOX proteins activities is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). The overview of the current knowledge about the link between SOX gene variants and NDDs is presented. We outline the roles of SOX TFs in adult neurogenesis and brain homeostasis and discuss whether impaired adult neurogenesis, detected in neurodegenerative diseases, could be associated with deregulation of SOX proteins activities. We present the current data regarding the interaction between SOX proteins and signaling pathways and microRNAs that play roles in nervous system development. Finally, future research directions that will improve the knowledge about distinct and various roles of SOX TFs in health and diseases are presented and discussed.

Non-Coding RNAs in Retinoic Acid as Differentiation and Disease Drivers

All-trans retinoic acid (RA) is the most active metabolite of vitamin A. Several studies have described a pivotal role for RA signalling in different biological processes such as cell growth and differentiation, embryonic development and organogenesis. Since RA signalling is highly dose-dependent, a fine-tuning regulatory mechanism is required. Thus, RA signalling deregulation has a major impact, both in development and disease, related in many cases to oncogenic processes. In this review, we focus on the impact of ncRNA post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms, especially those of microRNAs and lncRNAs, in RA signalling pathways during differentiation and disease.

The Effect of Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Capacity of Diet on Psoriasis and Psoriatic Arthritis Phenotype: Nutrition as Therapeutic Tool?

Chronic inflammation and increased oxidative stress are contributing factors to many non-communicable diseases. A growing body of evidence indicates that dietary nutrients can activate the immune system and may lead to the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Fatty acids as macronutrients are key players for immunomodulation, with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids having the most beneficial effect, while polyphenols and carotenoids seem to be the most promising antioxidants. Psoriasis is a chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory disease with multifactorial etiology. Obesity is a major risk factor for psoriasis, which leads to worse clinical outcomes. Weight loss interventions and, generally, dietary regimens such as gluten-free and Mediterranean diet or supplement use may potentially improve psoriasis’ natural course and response to therapy. However, data about more sophisticated nutritional patterns, such as ketogenic, very low-carb or specific macro- and micro-nutrient substitution, are scarce. This review aims to present the effect of strictly structured dietary nutrients, that are known to affect glucose/lipid metabolism and insulin responses, on chronic inflammation and immunity, and to discuss the utility of nutritional regimens as possible therapeutic tools for psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.

In Ovo Inoculation of Vitamin A Modulates Chicken Embryo Immune Functions

Vitamin A mediates many important biological functions in humans and animals. Presence of vitamin A receptors on immune system cells emphasizes their role in immune functions. To assess the effects of in ovo inoculation of vitamin A on the immune system of chicken embryos, 18 days old embryonated eggs were inoculated with 3 different concentrations of retinoic acid (the active form of vitamin A) at 30, 90, and 270 μmol/egg via the amniotic sac. After 6, 18, and 24 h, the spleen and bursa of the embryos were collected for RNA extraction and real-time polymerase chain reaction. The results were dose dependant. After 24 h, inoculation with 270 μmol/egg downregulated relative expression of interferon IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, CXCLi2, IL-12, and IL-13 compared to control in the spleen, indicating an anti-inflammatory effect at this concentration. In comparison, 90 μmol/egg induced greater expressions of the above genes at the same timepoint compared to the 270 μmol. The results of this study indicate that in ovo inoculation of vitamin A can modulate immune functions of the chicken embryo, which might be beneficial for induction of immune responses by in ovo vaccines.

Repurposing of FDA approved ring systems through bi-directional target-ring system dual screening

In drug repurposing approaches, the chemically diverse and potentially safe molecules can be explored as therapeutic potential beyond those originally targeted indications. However, accessible information on a limited number of drug pipelines can lead to competitive over-heating issues, and intellectual property rights also restrict the free investigation in chemical space. As a complementary approach to the drawbacks, ring systems of approved drugs (instead of clinical drugs) can be optimized and used for repurposing purposes. In this study, bi-directional target (T) and ring system (R) dual screening (TR screening) was developed for the repurposing of their rarely used ring systems from FDA approved drugs. The TR screening suggested RAR β and cyproheptadine as the best pair of target and ring system to escape a saddle point. The selected ring system was virtually grown and elaborated with the defined criteria: synthesizability, drug-likeness, and docking pose showing the top scores. The achieved compounds were synthesized and biologically tested with an acceptable ADME/T profile.

Intranasal Delivery: Effects on the Neuroimmune Axes and Treatment of Neuroinflammation

This review highlights the pre-clinical and clinical work performed to use intranasal delivery of various compounds from growth factors to stem cells to reduce neuroimmune interactions. We introduce the concept of intranasal (IN) delivery and the variations of this delivery method based on the model used (i.e., rodents, non-human primates, and humans). We summarize the literature available on IN delivery of growth factors, vitamins and metabolites, cytokines, immunosuppressants, exosomes, and lastly stem cells. We focus on the improvement of neuroimmune interactions, such as the activation of resident central nervous system (CNS) immune cells, expression or release of cytokines, and detrimental effects of signaling processes. We highlight common diseases that are linked to dysregulations in neuroimmune interactions, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, multiple sclerosis, and traumatic brain injury.

Collecting duct cells show differential retinoic acid responses to acute versus chronic kidney injury stimuli

Retinoic acid (RA) activates RA receptors (RAR), resulting in RA response element (RARE)-dependent gene expression in renal collecting duct (CD). Emerging evidence supports a protective role for this activity in acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Herein, we examined this activity in RARE-LacZ transgenic mice and by RARE-Luciferase reporter assays in CD cells, and investigated how this activity responds to neurotransmitters and mediators of kidney injury. In RARE-LacZ mice, Adriamycin-induced heavy albuminuria was associated with reduced RA/RAR activity in CD cells. In cultured CD cells, RA/RAR activity was repressed by acetylcholine, albumin, aldosterone, angiotensin II, high glucose, cisplatin and lipopolysaccharide, but was induced by aristolochic acid I, calcitonin gene-related peptide, endothelin-1, gentamicin, norepinephrine and vasopressin. Compared with age-matched normal human CD cells, CD-derived renal cystic epithelial cells from patients with autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) had significantly lower RA/RAR activity. Synthetic RAR agonist RA-568 was more potent than RA in rescuing RA/RAR activity repressed by albumin, high glucose, angiotensin II, aldosterone, cisplatin and lipopolysaccharide. Hence, RA/RAR  in CD cells is a convergence point of regulation by neurotransmitters and mediators of kidney injury, and may be a novel therapeutic target.

All-trans retinoic acid in non-promyelocytic acute myeloid leukemia: driver lesion dependent effects on leukemic stem cells

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is an aggressive, often fatal hematopoietic malignancy. All-trans retinoic acid (atRA), one of the first molecularly targeted drugs in oncology, has greatly improved the outcome of a subtype of AML, acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). In contrast, atRA has so far provided little therapeutic benefit in the much larger group of patients with non-APL AML. Attempts to identify genetically or molecularly defined subgroups of patients that may respond to atRA have not yielded consistent results. Since AML is a stem cell-driven disease, understanding the effectiveness of atRA may require an appreciation of its impact on AML stem cells. Recent studies reported that atRA decreased stemness of AML with an FLT3-ITD mutation, yet increased it in AML1-ETO driven or EVI1-overexpressing AML. This review summarizes the role of atRA in normal hematopoiesis and in AML, focusing on its impact on AML stem cells.

Dissecting the novel partners of nuclear c-Raf and its role in all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA)-induced myeloblastic leukemia cells differentiation

All-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) is an anti-cancer differentiation therapy agent effective for acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) but not acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in general. Using the HL-60 human non-APL AML model where ATRA causes nuclear enrichment of c-Raf that drives differentiation and G1/G0 cell cycle arrest, we now observe that c-Raf in the nucleus showed novel interactions with several prominent regulators of the cell cycle and cell differentiation. One is cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2). ATRA treatment caused c-Raf to dissociate from Cdk2. This was associated with enhanced binding of Cdk2 with retinoic acid receptor α (RARα). Consistent with this novel Raf/CDK2/RARα axis contributing to differentiation, CD38 expression per cell, which is transcriptionally regulated by a retinoic acid response element (RARE), is enhanced. The RB tumor suppressor, a fundamental regulator of G1 cell cycle progression or arrest, was also targeted by c-Raf in the nucleus. RB and specifically the S608 phosphorylated form (pS608RB) complexed with c-Raf. ATRA treatment induced S608RB-hypophosphorylation associated with G1/G0 cell cycle arrest and release of c-Raf from RB. We also found that nuclear c-Raf interacted with SMARCD1, a pioneering component of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex. ATRA treatment diminished the amount of this protein bound to c-Raf. The data suggest that ATRA treatment to HL-60 human cells re-directed c-Raf from its historically pro-proliferation functions in the cytoplasm to pro-differentiation functions in the nucleus.

Strengthening the Immune System and Reducing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress through Diet and Nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 Crisis

The coronavirus-disease 2019 (COVID-19) was announced as a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. Challenges arise concerning how to optimally support the immune system in the general population, especially under self-confinement. An optimal immune response depends on an adequate diet and nutrition in order to keep infection at bay. For example, sufficient protein intake is crucial for optimal antibody production. Low micronutrient status, such as of vitamin A or zinc, has been associated with increased infection risk. Frequently, poor nutrient status is associated with inflammation and oxidative stress, which in turn can impact the immune system. Dietary constituents with especially high anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capacity include vitamin C, vitamin E, and phytochemicals such as carotenoids and polyphenols. Several of these can interact with transcription factors such as NF-kB and Nrf-2, related to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, respectively. Vitamin D in particular may perturb viral cellular infection via interacting with cell entry receptors (angiotensin converting enzyme 2), ACE2. Dietary fiber, fermented by the gut microbiota into short-chain fatty acids, has also been shown to produce anti-inflammatory effects. In this review, we highlight the importance of an optimal status of relevant nutrients to effectively reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, thereby strengthening the immune system during the COVID-19 crisis.

Retinoic acid receptor-beta prevents cisplatin-induced proximal tubular cell death

Cisplatin's toxicity in renal tubular epithelial cells limits the therapeutic efficacy of this antineoplastic drug. In cultured human proximal tubular HK-2 cells (PTC) a prostaglandin uptake transporter (PGT)-dependent increase in intracellular prostaglandin E₂ (iPGE₂) mediates cisplatin's toxicity (i.e. increased cell death and loss of cell proliferation) so that it is prevented by PGT inhibitors. Here we found in cisplatin-treated PTC that 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS), a PGT inhibitor, prevented cisplatin's toxicity but not the increase in iPGE₂. Because expression of retinoic acid receptor-β (RAR-β) is dependent on iPGE₂ and because RAR-β is a regulator of cell survival and proliferation, we hypothesized that RAR-β might mediate the protective effect of DIDS against cisplatin's toxicity in PTC. Our results confirmed this hypothesis because: i) protection of PTC by DIDS was abolished by RAR-β antagonist LE-135; ii) DIDS increased the expression of RAR-β in PTC and prevented its decrease in cisplatin-treated PTC but not in cisplatin-treated human cervical adenocarcinoma HeLa cells in which DIDS failed to prevent cisplatin's toxicity; iii) while RAR-β expression decreased in cisplatin-treated PTC, RAR-β over-expression prevented cisplatin's toxicity. RAR-β agonist CH55 or RAR pan-agonist all-trans retinoic acid did not prevent cisplatin's toxicity, which suggests that RAR-β does not protect PTC through activation of gene transcription. In conclusion, RAR-β might be a new player in cisplatin-induced proximal tubular injury and the preservation of its expression in proximal tubules through treatment with DIDS might represent a novel strategy in the prevention of cisplatin's nephrotoxicity without compromising cisplatin's chemotherapeutic effect on cancer cells.

A common polymorphism in the retinoic acid pathway modifies adrenocortical carcinoma age-dependent incidence

BACKGROUND

Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have enriched the fields of genomics and drug development. Adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC) is a rare cancer with a bimodal age distribution and inadequate treatment options. Paediatric ACC is frequently associated with TP53 mutations, with particularly high incidence in Southern Brazil due to the TP53 p.R337H (R337H) germline mutation. The heterogeneous risk among carriers suggests other genetic modifiers could exist.

METHODS

We analysed clinical, genotype and gene expression data derived from paediatric ACC, R337H carriers, and adult ACC patients. We restricted our analyses to single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) previously identified in GWASs to associate with disease or human traits.

RESULTS

A SNP, rs971074, in the alcohol dehydrogenase 7 gene significantly and reproducibly associated with allelic differences in ACC age-of-onset in both cohorts. Patients homozygous for the minor allele were diagnosed up to 16 years earlier. This SNP resides in a gene involved in the retinoic acid (RA) pathway and patients with differing levels of RA pathway gene expression in their tumours associate with differential ACC progression.

CONCLUSIONS

These results identify a novel genetic component to ACC development that resides in the retinoic acid pathway, thereby informing strategies to develop management, preventive and therapeutic treatments for ACC.

Retinoic Acid-Regulated Target Genes During Development: Integrative Genomics Analysis

Retinoic acid (RA), a major natural active metabolite of vitamin A (VA) is well known to play critical roles in embryonic development. The effects of RA are mediated by nuclear receptors (RARs), which regulate the expression of gene batteries involved in cell growth and differentiation. Since the early 1990s several laboratories have focused on understanding how RA-regulated genes and RAR binding sites operate by studying the differentiation of embryonal carcinoma cells and embryonic stem cells. The development of hybridization-based microarray technology and high performance software analysis programs has allowed the characterization of thousands of RA-regulated genes. During the two last decades, publication of the genome sequence of various organisms has allowed advances in massive parallel sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of genome-wide data sets. These new generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have revolutionized the field by providing a global integrated picture of RA-regulated gene networks and the regulatory programs involved in cell fate decisions during embryonal carcinoma and embryonic stem cells differentiation. Now the challenge is to reconstruct the RA-regulated gene networks at the single cell level during the development of specialized embryonic tissues.

New Insights into the Control of Cell Fate Choices and Differentiation by Retinoic Acid in Cranial, Axial and Caudal Structures

Retinoic acid (RA) signaling is an important regulator of chordate development. RA binds to nuclear RA receptors that control the transcriptional activity of target genes. Controlled local degradation of RA by enzymes of the Cyp26a gene family contributes to the establishment of transient RA signaling gradients that control patterning, cell fate decisions and differentiation. Several steps in the lineage leading to the induction and differentiation of neuromesodermal progenitors and bone-producing osteogenic cells are controlled by RA. Changes to RA signaling activity have effects on the formation of the bones of the skull, the vertebrae and the development of teeth and regeneration of fin rays in fish. This review focuses on recent advances in these areas, with predominant emphasis on zebrafish, and highlights previously unknown roles for RA signaling in developmental processes.

Genetics and functions of the retinoic acid pathway, with special emphasis on the eye

Retinoic acid (RA) is a potent morphogen required for embryonic development. RA is formed in a multistep process from vitamin A (retinol); RA acts in a paracrine fashion to shape the developing eye and is essential for normal optic vesicle and anterior segment formation. Perturbation in RA-signaling can result in severe ocular developmental diseases—including microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and coloboma. RA-signaling is also essential for embryonic development and life, as indicated by the significant consequences of mutations in genes involved in RA-signaling. The requirement of RA-signaling for normal development is further supported by the manifestation of severe pathologies in animal models of RA deficiency—such as ventral lens rotation, failure of optic cup formation, and embryonic and postnatal lethality. In this review, we summarize RA-signaling, recent advances in our understanding of this pathway in eye development, and the requirement of RA-signaling for embryonic development (e.g., organogenesis and limb bud development) and life.

An Orthologue of the Retinoic Acid Receptor (RAR) Is Present in the Ecdysozoa Phylum Priapulida

Signalling molecules and their cognate receptors are central components of the Metazoa endocrine system. Defining their presence or absence in extant animal lineages is critical to accurately devise evolutionary patterns, physiological shifts and the impact of endocrine disrupting chemicals. Here, we address the evolution of retinoic acid (RA) signalling in the Priapulida worm, Priapulus caudatus Lamarck, 1816, an Ecdysozoa. RA signalling has been shown to be central to chordate endocrine homeostasis, participating in multiple developmental and physiological processes. Priapulids, with their slow rate of molecular evolution and phylogenetic position, represent a key taxon to investigate the early phases of Ecdysozoa evolution. By exploring a draft genome assembly, we show, by means of phylogenetics and functional assays, that an orthologue of the nuclear receptor retinoic acid receptor (RAR) subfamily, a central mediator of RA signalling, is present in Ecdysozoa, contrary to previous perception. We further demonstrate that the Priapulida RAR displays low-affinity for retinoids (similar to annelids), and is not responsive to common endocrine disruptors acting via RAR. Our findings provide a timeline for RA signalling evolution in the Bilateria and give support to the hypothesis that the increase in RA affinity towards RAR is a late acquisition in the evolution of the Metazoa.

Retinoid receptor turnover mediated by sumoylation, ubiquitination and the valosin-containing protein is disrupted in glioblastoma

Resistance to therapeutic use of retinoids in glioma has been observed for over 20 years; however, the exact mechanism of resistance remains unknown. To understand retinoic acid resistance in glioma, we studied the turnover mechanism of retinoid receptor proteins in neural stem cells and glioma stem-like cells. Here, we show that in normal neural stem cells, proteasomal degradation of retinoid receptors involves sumoylation, ubiquitination and recognition by the valosin-containing protein (VCP/p97/Cdc48). We find that Sumo1 modification has a dual role to stabilize the retinoid receptor from unwanted degradation and signal additional modification via ubiquitination. Subsequently, the modified receptor binds to the VCP chaperone and both proteins are degraded by the proteasome. Additionally, we reveal that all trans retinoic acid (ATRA) induces VCP expression, creating a positive feedback loop that enhances degradation. In contrast, the pathway is impaired in the glioma stem-like cells resulting in the accumulation of sumoylated and high molecular weight forms of retinoid receptors that lack transcriptional activity and fail to be recognized by the proteasome. Moreover, modified receptor accumulation occurs before ATRA treatment; therefore, the transcritptional defect in glioma is due to a block in the proteasomal degradation pathway that occurs after the sumo modification step.

Regulation of RXR-RAR Heterodimers by RXR- and RAR-Specific Ligands and Their Combinations

The three subtypes (α, β, and γ) of the retinoic acid receptor (RAR) are ligand-dependent transcription factors that mediate retinoic acid signaling by forming heterodimers with the retinoid X receptor (RXR). Heterodimers are functional units that bind ligands (retinoids), transcriptional co-regulators and DNA, to regulate gene networks controlling cell growth, differentiation, and death. Using biochemical, crystallographic, and cellular approaches, we have set out to explore the spectrum of possibilities to regulate RXR-RAR heterodimer-dependent transcription through various pharmacological classes of RAR- and RXR- specific ligands, alone or in combination. We reveal the molecular details by which these compounds direct specificity and functionality of RXR-RAR heterodimers. Among these ligands, we have reevaluated and improved the molecular and structural definition of compounds CD2665, Ro41-5253, LE135, or LG100754, highlighting novel functional features of these molecules. Our analysis reveals a model of RXR-RAR heterodimer action in which each subunit retains its intrinsic properties in terms of ligand and co-regulator binding. However, their interplay upon the combined action of RAR- and RXR-ligands allows for the fine tuning of heterodimer activity. It also stresses the importance of accurate ligand characterization to use synthetic selective retinoids appropriately and avoid data misinterpretations.

F-box protein FBXO30 mediates retinoic acid receptor γ ubiquitination and regulates BMP signaling in neural tube defects

Retinoic acid (RA), an active derivative of vitamin A, is critical for the neural system development. During the neural development, the RA/RA receptor (RAR) pathway suppresses BMP signaling-mediated proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitor cells. However, how the stability of RAR is regulated during neural system development and how BMP pathway genes expression in neural tissue from human fetuses affected with neural tube defects (NTDs) remain elusive. Here, we report that FBXO30 acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase and targets RARγ for ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. In this way, FBXO30 positively regulates BMP signaling in mammalian cells. Moreover, RA treatment leads to suppression of BMP signaling by reducing the level of FBXO30 in mammalian cells and in mouse embryos with NTDs. In samples from human NTDs with high levels of retinol, downregulation of BMP target genes was observed, along with aberrant FBXO30 levels. Collectively, our results demonstrate that RARγ levels are controlled by FBXO30-mediated ubiquitination and that FBXO30 is a key regulator of BMP signaling. Furthermore, we suggest a novel mechanism by which high-retinol levels affect the level of FBXO30, which antagonizes BMP signaling during early stage development.

Influences of Vitamin A on Vaccine Immunogenicity and Efficacy

Vitamin A deficiencies and insufficiencies are widespread in developing countries, and may be gaining prevalence in industrialized nations. To combat vitamin A deficiency (VAD), the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends high-dose vitamin A supplementation (VAS) in children 6-59 months of age in locations where VAD is endemic. This practice has significantly reduced all-cause death and diarrhea-related mortalities in children, and may have in some cases improved immune responses toward pediatric vaccines. However, VAS studies have yielded conflicting results, perhaps due to influences of baseline vitamin A levels on VAS efficacy, and due to cross-regulation between vitamin A and related nuclear hormones. Here we provide a brief review of previous pre-clinical and clinical data, showing how VAD and VAS affect immune responses, vaccines, and infectious diseases. We additionally present new results from a VAD mouse model. We found that when VAS was administered to VAD mice at the time of vaccination with a pneumococcal vaccine (Prevnar-13), pneumococcus (T4)-specific antibodies were significantly improved. Preliminary data further showed that after challenge with Streptococcus pneumoniae, all mice that had received VAS at the time of vaccination survived. This was a significant improvement compared to vaccination without VAS. Data encourage renewed attention to vitamin A levels, both in developed and developing countries, to assist interpretation of data from vaccine research and to improve the success of vaccine programs.

Gene profiling of head mesoderm in early zebrafish development: insights into the evolution of cranial mesoderm

Background

The evolution of the head was one of the key events that marked the transition from invertebrates to vertebrates. With the emergence of structures such as eyes and jaws, vertebrates evolved an active and predatory life style and radiated into diversity of large-bodied animals. These organs are moved by cranial muscles that derive embryologically from head mesoderm. Compared with other embryonic components of the head, such as placodes and cranial neural crest cells, our understanding of cranial mesoderm is limited and is restricted to few species.

Results

Here, we report the expression patterns of key genes in zebrafish head mesoderm at very early developmental stages. Apart from a basic anterior–posterior axis marked by a combination of pitx2 and tbx1 expression, we find that most gene expression patterns are poorly conserved between zebrafish and chick, suggesting fewer developmental constraints imposed than in trunk mesoderm. Interestingly, the gene expression patterns clearly show the early establishment of medial–lateral compartmentalisation in zebrafish head mesoderm, comprising a wide medial zone flanked by two narrower strips.

Conclusions

In zebrafish head mesoderm, there is no clear molecular regionalisation along the anteroposterior axis as previously reported in chick embryos. In contrast, the medial–lateral regionalisation is formed at early developmental stages. These patterns correspond to the distinction between paraxial mesoderm and lateral plate mesoderm in the trunk, suggesting a common groundplan for patterning head and trunk mesoderm. By comparison of these expression patterns to that of amphioxus homologues, we argue for an evolutionary link between zebrafish head mesoderm and amphioxus anteriormost somites.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13227-019-0128-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Pleiotropic Role of Retinoic Acid/Retinoic Acid Receptors Signaling: From Vitamin A Metabolism to Gene Rearrangements in Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia

The family of retinoic acid receptors (RARs: RARα, -β, and -γ) has remarkable pleiotropy characteristics, since the retinoic acid/RARs pathway is involved in numerous biological processes not only during embryonic development, but also in the postnatal phase and during adulthood. In this review, we trace the roles of RA/RARs signaling in the immune system (where this pathway has both an immunosuppressive role or is involved in the inflammatory response), in hematopoiesis (enhancing hematopoietic stem cell self-renewal, progenitor cells differentiation or maintaining the bone marrow microenvironment homeostasis), and in bone remodeling (where this pathway seems to have controversial effects on bone formation or osteoclast activation). Moreover, in this review is shown the involvement of RAR genes in multiple chromosomal rearrangements generating different fusion genes in hematological neoplasms, with a particular focus on acute promyelocytic leukemia and its variant subtypes. The effect of different RARs fusion proteins on leukemic transformation, on patients’ outcome, and on therapy response is also discussed.

Targeting chromatin complexes in fusion protein-driven malignancies

Recurrent chromosomal rearrangements leading to the generation of oncogenic fusion proteins are a common feature of many cancers. These aberrations are particularly prevalent in sarcomas and haematopoietic malignancies and frequently involve genes required for chromatin regulation and transcriptional control. In many cases, these fusion proteins are thought to be the primary driver of cancer development, altering chromatin dynamics to initiate oncogenic gene expression programmes. In recent years, mechanistic insights into the underlying molecular functions of a number of these oncogenic fusion proteins have been discovered. These insights have allowed the design of mechanistically anchored therapeutic approaches promising substantial treatment advances. In this Review, we discuss how our understanding of fusion protein function is informing therapeutic innovations and illuminating mechanisms of chromatin and transcriptional regulation in cancer and normal cells.

The retinoic acid receptor (RAR) in molluscs: Function, evolution and endocrine disruption insights

Retinoid acid receptor (RAR)-dependent signalling pathways are essential for the regulation and maintenance of essential biological functions and are recognized targets of disruptive anthropogenic compounds. Recent studies put forward the inability of mollusc RARs to bind and respond to the canonical vertebrate ligand, retinoic acid: a feature that seems to have been lost during evolution. Yet, these studies were carried out in a limited number of molluscs. Therefore, using an in vitro transactivation assay, the present work aimed to characterize phylogenetically relevant mollusc RARs, as monomers or as functional units with RXR, not only in the presence of vertebrate bone fine ligands but also known endocrine disruptors, described to modulate retinoid-dependent pathways. In general, none of the tested mollusc RARs were able to activate reporter gene transcription when exposed to retinoic acid isomers, suggesting that the ability to respond to retinoic acid was lost across molluscs. Similarly, the analysed mollusc RAR were unresponsive towards organochloride pesticides. In contrast, transcriptional repressions were observed with the RAR/RXR unit upon exposure to retinoids or RXR-specific ligands. Loss-of-function and gain-of-function mutations further corroborate the obtained results and suggest that the repressive behaviour, observed with mollusc and human RAR/RXR heterodimers, is possibly mediated by ligand biding to RXR.

In Silico and In Vitro Considerations of Keratinocyte Nuclear Receptor Protein Structural Order for Improving Experimental Analysis

Nuclear receptors (NR) regulate gene expression critical in keratinocyte replication and differentiation. In addition to a ligand-binding domain, NR like other transcription factor families have a DNA-binding domain that must attain a particular conformation for effective interaction with the three-dimensional structure in promoters of target genes for control of their expression. Such protein-DNA assemblies extend the classic "lock and key" idea typified by protein-protein interactions. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that multi-subdomain transcription factors like NR frequently range along the length of the protein from structured, ordered regions expected for interaction with a preset partner to more flexible, intrinsically disordered regions which are more available for diverse posttranslational modifications and/or interaction with differing partners. The extended amino terminus of NR (the A/B subdomain) is one such intrinsically disordered region. Here we provide a primer on in silico-based recognition of amino acid composition and order associated with such conformational flexibility along with adaptations of readily accessible laboratory techniques (e.g., considerations for recombinant expression, sensitivity to protease and proteasome digestion) to facilitate initial prediction and testing for intrinsic disorder in various proteins of interest to keratinocyte biologists, like NR and other transcription factors.