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Androgens and NGF Mediate the Neurite-Outgrowth through Inactivation of RhoA. Cells 2023; 12:cells12030373. [PMID: 36766714 PMCID: PMC9913450 DOI: 10.3390/cells12030373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Steroid hormones and growth factors control neuritogenesis through their cognate receptors under physiological and pathological conditions. We have already shown that nerve growth factor and androgens induce neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells through a reciprocal crosstalk between the NGF receptor, TrkA and the androgen receptor. Here, we report that androgens or NGF induce neuritogenesis in PC12 cells through inactivation of RhoA. Ectopic expression of the dominant negative RhoA N19 promotes, indeed, the neurite-elongation of unchallenged and androgen- or NGF-challenged PC12 cells and the increase in the expression levels of βIII tubulin, a specific neuronal marker. Pharmacological inhibition of the Ser/Thr kinase ROCK, an RhoA effector, induces neuritogenesis in unchallenged PC12 cells, and potentiates the effect of androgens and NGF, confirming the role of RhoA/ROCK axis in the neuritogenesis induced by androgen and NGF, through the phosphorylation of Akt. These findings suggest that therapies based on new selective androgen receptor modulators and/or RhoA/ROCK inhibitors might exert beneficial effects in the treatment of neuro-disorders, neurological diseases and ageing-related processes.
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Neural fate commitment of rat full-term amniotic fluid stem cells via three-dimensional embryoid bodies and neurospheres formation. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2023.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
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Clarkson BDS, Patel MS, LaFrance-Corey RG, Howe CL. Retrograde interferon-gamma signaling induces major histocompatibility class I expression in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons. Ann Clin Transl Neurol 2017; 5:172-185. [PMID: 29468178 PMCID: PMC5817842 DOI: 10.1002/acn3.516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Injury-associated axon-intrinsic signals are thought to underlie pathogenesis and progression in many neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS). Retrograde interferon gamma (IFN γ) signals are known to induce expression of major histocompatibility class I (MHC I) genes in murine axons, thereby increasing the susceptibility of these axons to attack by antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. We sought to determine whether the same is true in human neurons. Methods A novel microisolation chamber design was used to physically isolate and manipulate axons from human skin fibroblast-derived induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neuron-enriched neural aggregates. Fluorescent retrobeads were used to assess the fraction of neurons with projections to the distal chamber. Axons were treated with IFN γ for 72 h and expression of MHC class I and antigen presentation genes were evaluated by RT-PCR and immunofluorescence. Results Human iPSC-derived neural stem cells maintained as 3D aggregate cultures in the cell body chamber of polymer microisolation chambers extended dense axonal projections into the fluidically isolated distal chamber. Treatment of these axons with IFN γ resulted in upregulation of MHC class I and antigen processing genes in the neuron cell bodies. IFN γ-induced MHC class I molecules were also anterogradely transported into the distal axon. Interpretation These results provide conclusive evidence that human axons are competent to express MHC class I molecules, suggesting that inflammatory factors enriched in demyelinated lesions may render axons vulnerable to attack by autoreactive CD8+ T cells in patients with MS. Future work will be aimed at identifying pathogenic anti-axonal T cells in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Misha S Patel
- Department of Neurology Mayo Clinic Rochester Minnesota
| | | | - Charles L Howe
- Department of Neurology Mayo Clinic Rochester Minnesota.,Department of Neuroscience Mayo Clinic Rochester Minnesota.,Department of Immunology Mayo Clinic Rochester Minnesota.,Center for Multiple Sclerosis and Autoimmune Neurology Mayo Clinic Rochester Minnesota
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4
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Parviainen L, Dihanich S, Anderson GW, Wong AM, Brooks HR, Abeti R, Rezaie P, Lalli G, Pope S, Heales SJ, Mitchison HM, Williams BP, Cooper JD. Glial cells are functionally impaired in juvenile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis and detrimental to neurons. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2017; 5:74. [PMID: 29041969 PMCID: PMC5645909 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-017-0476-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs or Batten disease) are a group of inherited, fatal neurodegenerative disorders of childhood. In these disorders, glial (microglial and astrocyte) activation typically occurs early in disease progression and predicts where neuron loss subsequently occurs. We have found that in the most common juvenile form of NCL (CLN3 disease or JNCL) this glial response is less pronounced in both mouse models and human autopsy material, with the morphological transformation of both astrocytes and microglia severely attenuated or delayed. To investigate their properties, we isolated glia and neurons from Cln3-deficient mice and studied their basic biology in culture. Upon stimulation, both Cln3-deficient astrocytes and microglia also showed an attenuated ability to transform morphologically, and an altered protein secretion profile. These defects were more pronounced in astrocytes, including the reduced secretion of a range of neuroprotective factors, mitogens, chemokines and cytokines, in addition to impaired calcium signalling and glutamate clearance. Cln3-deficient neurons also displayed an abnormal organization of their neurites. Most importantly, using a co-culture system, Cln3-deficient astrocytes and microglia had a negative impact on the survival and morphology of both Cln3-deficient and wildtype neurons, but these effects were largely reversed by growing mutant neurons with healthy glia. These data provide evidence that CLN3 disease astrocytes are functionally compromised. Together with microglia, they may play an active role in neuron loss in this disorder and can be considered as potential targets for therapeutic interventions.
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5
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Capetian P, Azmitia L, Pauly MG, Krajka V, Stengel F, Bernhardi EM, Klett M, Meier B, Seibler P, Stanslowsky N, Moser A, Knopp A, Gillessen-Kaesbach G, Nikkhah G, Wegner F, Döbrössy M, Klein C. Plasmid-Based Generation of Induced Neural Stem Cells from Adult Human Fibroblasts. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:245. [PMID: 27822179 PMCID: PMC5075569 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Direct reprogramming from somatic to neural cell types has become an alternative to induced pluripotent stem cells. Most protocols employ viral expression systems, posing the risk of random genomic integration. Recent developments led to plasmid-based protocols, lowering this risk. However, these protocols either relied on continuous presence of a variety of small molecules or were only able to reprogram murine cells. We therefore established a reprogramming protocol based on vectors containing the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-derived oriP/EBNA1 as well as the defined expression factors Oct3/4, Sox2, Klf4, L-myc, Lin28, and a small hairpin directed against p53. We employed a defined neural medium in combination with the neurotrophins bFGF, EGF and FGF4 for cultivation without the addition of small molecules. After reprogramming, cells demonstrated a temporary increase in the expression of endogenous Oct3/4. We obtained induced neural stem cells (iNSC) 30 days after transfection. In contrast to previous results, plasmid vectors as well as a residual expression of reprogramming factors remained detectable in all cell lines. Cells showed a robust differentiation into neuronal (72%) and glial cells (9% astrocytes, 6% oligodendrocytes). Despite the temporary increase of pluripotency-associated Oct3/4 expression during reprogramming, we did not detect pluripotent stem cells or non-neural cells in culture (except occasional residual fibroblasts). Neurons showed electrical activity and functional glutamatergic synapses. Our results demonstrate that reprogramming adult human fibroblasts to iNSC by plasmid vectors and basic neural medium without small molecules is possible and feasible. However, a full set of pluripotency-associated transcription factors may indeed result in the acquisition of a transient (at least partial) pluripotent intermediate during reprogramming. In contrast to previous reports, the EBV-based plasmid system remained present and active inside the cells at all time points.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Capetian
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of LübeckLübeck, Germany; Department of Neurology, University of LübeckLübeck, Germany
| | - Luis Azmitia
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Kiel Kiel, Germany
| | - Martje G Pauly
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck Lübeck, Germany
| | - Victor Krajka
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck Lübeck, Germany
| | - Felix Stengel
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck Lübeck, Germany
| | | | - Mariana Klett
- Laboratory of Stereotaxy and Interventional Neuroscience, Department of Stereotactic and Functional Neuroscience, University Medical Center Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Britta Meier
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck Lübeck, Germany
| | - Philip Seibler
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck Lübeck, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Moser
- Department of Neurology, University of Lübeck Lübeck, Germany
| | - Andreas Knopp
- Institute of Physiology, University of Kiel Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Guido Nikkhah
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Erlangen, Germany
| | - Florian Wegner
- Department of Neurology, Hannover Medical School Hanover, Germany
| | - Máté Döbrössy
- Laboratory of Stereotaxy and Interventional Neuroscience, Department of Stereotactic and Functional Neuroscience, University Medical Center Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Christine Klein
- Institute of Neurogenetics, University of Lübeck Lübeck, Germany
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Hu Y, Zhang Y, Tian K, Xun C, Wang S, Lv D. Effects of nerve growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor dual gene modification on rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell differentiation into neuron-like cells in vitro. Mol Med Rep 2015; 13:49-58. [PMID: 26572749 PMCID: PMC4686117 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2015.4553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies regarding regenerative medicine have focused on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), which have the potential to undergo neural differentiation, and may be transfected with specific genes. BMSCs can differentiate into neuron-like cells in certain neurotropic circumstances in vitro. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and nerve growth factor (NGF) are often used to induce neural differentiation in BMSCs in vitro. However, previous studies regarding their combined actions are insufficient. The present study is the first, to the best of our knowledge, to thoroughly assess the enhancement of neural differentiation of BMSCs following transfection with bFGF and NGF. Sprague-Dawley (SD) rat BMSCs were separated through whole bone marrow adherence, and were then passaged to the third generation. The cells were subsequently divided into five groups: The control group, which consisted of untransfected BMSCs; the plv-blank-transfected BMSCs group; the plv-bFGF-trans-fected BMSCs group; the plv-NGF-transfected BMSCs group; and the plv-NGF-bFGF co-transfected BMSCs group. Cell neural differentiation was characterized in terms of stem cell molecular expression, and the neuronal morphology and expression of neural-like molecules was detected in each of the groups. A total of 72 h post-transfection, the expression levels of neuron-specific enolase, glial fibrillary acidic protein, and nestin protein, were higher in the co-transfected group, as compared with the other groups, the expression levels of β-tubulin III were also increased in the co-transfected cells, thus suggesting the maturation of differentiated neuron-like cells. Furthermore, higher neuronal proliferation was observed in the co-transfected group, as compared with the other groups at passages 2, 4, 6 and 8. Western blotting demonstrated that the transfected groups exhibited a simultaneous increase in phosphorylation of the AKT and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) signaling pathway. These results suggested that manipulation of the ERK and AKT signaling pathway may be associated with the differentiation of transfected BMSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Hu
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Hospital Affiliated to Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116011, P.R. China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cells, Cancer Center, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, P.R. China
| | - Kang Tian
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Hospital Affiliated to Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116011, P.R. China
| | - Chong Xun
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Hospital Affiliated to Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116011, P.R. China
| | - Shouyu Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Hospital Affiliated to Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116011, P.R. China
| | - Decheng Lv
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Hospital Affiliated to Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116011, P.R. China
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Prenatal deletion of the RNA-binding protein HuD disrupts postnatal cortical circuit maturation and behavior. J Neurosci 2014; 34:3674-86. [PMID: 24599466 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3703-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The proper functions of cortical circuits are dependent upon both appropriate neuronal subtype specification and their maturation to receive appropriate signaling. These events establish a balanced circuit that is important for learning, memory, emotion, and complex motor behaviors. Recent research points to mRNA metabolism as a key regulator of this development and maturation process. Hu antigen D (HuD), an RNA-binding protein, has been implicated in the establishment of neuronal identity and neurite outgrowth in vitro. Therefore, we investigated the role of HuD loss of function on neuron specification and dendritogenesis in vivo using a mouse model. We found that loss of HuD early in development results in a defective early dendritic overgrowth phase and pervasive deficits in neuron specification in the lower neocortical layers and defects in dendritogenesis in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. Subsequent behavioral analysis revealed a deficit in performance of a hippocampus-dependent task: the Morris water maze. Further, HuD knock-out (KO) mice exhibited lower levels of anxiety than their wild-type counterparts and were overall less active. Last, we found that HuD KO mice are more susceptible to auditory-induced seizures, often resulting in death. Our findings suggest that HuD is necessary for the establishment of neocortical and hippocampal circuitry and is critical for their function.
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Bilican B, Livesey MR, Haghi G, Qiu J, Burr K, Siller R, Hardingham GE, Wyllie DJA, Chandran S. Physiological normoxia and absence of EGF is required for the long-term propagation of anterior neural precursors from human pluripotent cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85932. [PMID: 24465796 PMCID: PMC3895023 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Accepted: 12/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Widespread use of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) to study neuronal physiology and function is hindered by the ongoing need for specialist expertise in converting hPSCs to neural precursor cells (NPCs). Here, we describe a new methodology to generate cryo-preservable hPSC-derived NPCs that retain an anterior identity and are propagatable long-term prior to terminal differentiation, thus abrogating regular de novo neuralization. Key to achieving passagable NPCs without loss of identity is the combination of both absence of EGF and propagation in physiological levels (3%) of O2. NPCs generated in this way display a stable long-term anterior forebrain identity and importantly retain developmental competence to patterning signals. Moreover, compared to NPCs maintained at ambient O2 (21%), they exhibit enhanced uniformity and speed of functional maturation, yielding both deep and upper layer cortical excitatory neurons. These neurons display multiple attributes including the capability to form functional synapses and undergo activity-dependent gene regulation. The platform described achieves long-term maintenance of anterior neural precursors that can give rise to forebrain neurones in abundance, enabling standardised functional studies of neural stem cell maintenance, lineage choice and neuronal functional maturation for neurodevelopmental research and disease-modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilada Bilican
- Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew R. Livesey
- Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ghazal Haghi
- Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jing Qiu
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Karen Burr
- Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Rick Siller
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Giles E. Hardingham
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David J. A. Wyllie
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (DJAW); (SC)
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (DJAW); (SC)
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9
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Hauser KF, Knapp PE. Interactions of HIV and drugs of abuse: the importance of glia, neural progenitors, and host genetic factors. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 118:231-313. [PMID: 25175867 PMCID: PMC4304845 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801284-0.00009-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Considerable insight has been gained into the comorbid, interactive effects of HIV and drug abuse in the brain using experimental models. This review, which considers opiates, methamphetamine, and cocaine, emphasizes the importance of host genetics and glial plasticity in driving the pathogenic neuron remodeling underlying neuro-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and drug abuse comorbidity. Clinical findings are less concordant than experimental work, and the response of individuals to HIV and to drug abuse can vary tremendously. Host-genetic variability is important in determining viral tropism, neuropathogenesis, drug responses, and addictive behavior. However, genetic differences alone cannot account for individual variability in the brain "connectome." Environment and experience are critical determinants in the evolution of synaptic circuitry throughout life. Neurons and glia both exercise control over determinants of synaptic plasticity that are disrupted by HIV and drug abuse. Perivascular macrophages, microglia, and to a lesser extent astroglia can harbor the infection. Uninfected bystanders, especially astroglia, propagate and amplify inflammatory signals. Drug abuse by itself derails neuronal and glial function, and the outcome of chronic exposure is maladaptive plasticity. The negative consequences of coexposure to HIV and drug abuse are determined by numerous factors including genetics, sex, age, and multidrug exposure. Glia and some neurons are generated throughout life, and their progenitors appear to be targets of HIV and opiates/psychostimulants. The chronic nature of HIV and drug abuse appears to result in sustained alterations in the maturation and fate of neural progenitors, which may affect the balance of glial populations within multiple brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt F Hauser
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA.
| | - Pamela E Knapp
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA; Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
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Haas C, Fischer I. Human astrocytes derived from glial restricted progenitors support regeneration of the injured spinal cord. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30:1035-52. [PMID: 23635322 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.2915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular transplantation using neural stem cells and progenitors is a promising therapeutic strategy that has the potential to replace lost cells, modulate the injury environment, and create a permissive environment for the regeneration of injured host axons. Our research has focused on the use of human glial restricted progenitors (hGRP) and derived astrocytes. In the current study, we examined the morphological and phenotypic properties of hGRP prepared from the fetal central nervous system by clinically-approved protocols, compared with astrocytes derived from hGRP prepared by treatment with ciliary neurotrophic factor or bone morphogenetic protein 4. These differentiation protocols generated astrocytes that showed morphological differences and could be classified along an immature to mature spectrum, respectively. Despite these differences, the cells retained morphological and phenotypic plasticity upon a challenge with an alternate differentiation protocol. Importantly, when hGRP and derived astrocytes were transplanted acutely into a cervical dorsal column lesion, they survived and promoted regeneration of long ascending host sensory axons into the graft/lesion site, with no differences among the groups. Further, hGRP taken directly from frozen stocks behaved similarly and also supported regeneration of host axons into the lesion. Our results underscore the dynamic and permissive properties of human fetal astrocytes to promote axonal regeneration. They also suggest that a time-consuming process of pre-differentiation may not be necessary for therapeutic efficacy, and that the banking of large quantities of readily available hGRP can be an appropriate source of permissive cells for transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Haas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
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11
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Biochemical membrane lipidomics during Drosophila development. Dev Cell 2012; 24:98-111. [PMID: 23260625 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2012.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 09/18/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Lipids play critical roles in energy homeostasis, membrane structure, and signaling. Using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, we provide a comprehensive semiquantification of lipids during the life cycle of Drosophila melanogaster (230 glycerophospholipids, 210 sphingolipids, 6 sterols and sterol esters, and 60 glycerolipids) and obtain biological insights through this biochemical resource. First, we find a high and constant triacylglycerol-to-membrane lipid ratio during pupal stage, which is nonobvious in the absence of nutrient uptake and tissue remodeling. Second, sphingolipids undergo specific changes in headgroup (glycosylation) and tail configurations (unsaturation and hydroxylation on sphingoid base and fatty acyls, respectively), which correlate with gene expression of known (GlcT/CG6437; FA2H/ CG30502) and putative (Cyt-b5-r/CG13279) enzymes. Third, we identify a gender bias in phosphoethanolamine-ceramides as a lead for future investigation into sexual maturation. Finally, we partially characterize ghiberti, required for male meiotic cytokinesis, as a homolog of mammalian serine palmitoyltransferase.
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12
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Restriction of neural precursor ability to respond to Nurr1 by early regional specification. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51798. [PMID: 23240065 PMCID: PMC3519900 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
During neural development, spatially regulated expression of specific transcription factors is crucial for central nervous system (CNS) regionalization, generation of neural precursors (NPs) and subsequent differentiation of specific cell types within defined regions. A critical role in dopaminergic differentiation in the midbrain (MB) has been assigned to the transcription factor Nurr1. Nurr1 controls the expression of key genes involved in dopamine (DA) neurotransmission, e.g. tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and the DA transporter (DAT), and promotes the dopaminergic phenotype in embryonic stem cells. We investigated whether cells derived from different areas of the mouse CNS could be directed to differentiate into dopaminergic neurons in vitro by forced expression of the transcription factor Nurr1. We show that Nurr1 overexpression can promote dopaminergic cell fate specification only in NPs obtained from E13.5 ganglionic eminence (GE) and MB, but not in NPs isolated from E13.5 cortex (CTX) and spinal cord (SC) or from the adult subventricular zone (SVZ). Confirming previous studies, we also show that Nurr1 overexpression can increase the generation of TH-positive neurons in mouse embryonic stem cells. These data show that Nurr1 ability to induce a dopaminergic phenotype becomes restricted during CNS development and is critically dependent on the region of NPs derivation. Our results suggest that the plasticity of NPs and their ability to activate a dopaminergic differentiation program in response to Nurr1 is regulated during early stages of neurogenesis, possibly through mechanisms controlling CNS regionalization.
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13
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Haas C, Neuhuber B, Yamagami T, Rao M, Fischer I. Phenotypic analysis of astrocytes derived from glial restricted precursors and their impact on axon regeneration. Exp Neurol 2012; 233:717-32. [PMID: 22101004 PMCID: PMC3272137 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Although astrocytes are involved in the production of an inhibitory glial scar following injury, they are also capable of providing neuroprotection and supporting axonal growth. There is growing appreciation for a diverse and dynamic population of astrocytes, specified by a variety of glial precursors, whose function is regulated regionally and temporally. Consequently, the therapeutic application of glial precursors and astrocytes by effective transplantation protocols requires a better understanding of their phenotypic and functional properties and effective protocols for their preparation. We present a systematic analysis of astrocyte differentiation using multiple preparations of glial-restricted precursors (GRP), evaluating their morphological and phenotypic properties following treatment with fetal bovine serum (FBS), bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP-4), or ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) in comparison to controls treated with basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), which maintains undifferentiated GRP. We found that treatments with FBS or BMP-4 generated similar profiles of highly differentiated astrocytes that were A2B5-/GFAP+. Treatment with FBS generated the most mature astrocytes, with a distinct and near-homogeneous morphology of fibroblast-like flat cells, whereas BMP-4 derived astrocytes had a stellate, but heterogeneous morphology. Treatment with CNTF induced differentiation of GRP to an intermediate state of GFAP+cells that maintained immature markers and had relatively long processes. Furthermore, astrocytes generated by BMP-4 or CNTF showed considerable experimental plasticity, and their morphology and phenotypes could be reversed with complementary treatments along a wide range of mature-immature states. Importantly, when GRP or GRP treated with BMP-4 or CNTF were transplanted acutely into a dorsal column lesion of the spinal cord, cells from all 3 groups survived and generated permissive astrocytes that supported axon growth and regeneration of host sensory axons into, but not out of the lesion. Our study underscores the dynamic nature of astrocytes prepared from GRP and their permissive properties, and suggest that future therapeutic applications in restoring connectivity following CNS injury are likely to require a combination of treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Takaya Yamagami
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, Life Technologies, Frederick, MD
| | | | - Itzhak Fischer
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA, Life Technologies, Frederick, MD
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Galvez-Contreras AY, Gonzalez-Castaneda RE, Luquin S, Gonzalez-Perez O. Role of fibroblast growth factor receptors in astrocytic stem cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 7:81-86. [PMID: 22347841 DOI: 10.2174/157436212799278205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
There are two well-defined neurogenic regions in the adult brain, the subventricular zone (SVZ) lining the lateral wall of the lateral ventricles and, the subgranular zone (SGZ) in the dentate gyrus at the hippocampus. Within these neurogenic regions, there are neural stem cells with astrocytic characteristics, which actively respond to the basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF, FGF2 or FGF-β) by increasing their proliferation, survival and differentiation, both in vivo and in vitro. FGF2 binds to fibroblast growth factor receptors 1 to 4 (FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3, FGFR4). Interestingly, these receptors are differentially expressed in neurogenic progenitors. During development, FGFR-1 and FGFR-2 drive oligodendrocytes and motor neuron specification. In particular, FGFR-1 determines oligodendroglial and neuronal cell fate, whereas FGFR-2 is related to oligodendrocyte specification. In the adult SVZ, FGF-2 promotes oligodendrogliogenesis and myelination. FGF-2 deficient mice show a reduction in the number of new neurons in the SGZ, which suggests that FGFR-1 is important for neuronal cell fate in the adult hippocampus. In human brain, FGF-2 appears to be an important component in the anti-depressive effect of drugs. In summary, FGF2 is an important modulator of the cell fate of neural precursor and, promotes oligodendrogenesis. In this review, we describe the expression pattern of FGFR2 and its role in neural precursors derived from the SVZ and the SGZ.
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Isolation of radial glia-like neural stem cells from fetal and adult mouse forebrain via selective adhesion to a novel adhesive peptide-conjugate. PLoS One 2011; 6:e28538. [PMID: 22163310 PMCID: PMC3233537 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2011] [Accepted: 11/10/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Preferential adhesion of neural stem cells to surfaces covered with a novel synthetic adhesive polypeptide (AK-cyclo[RGDfC]) provided a unique, rapid procedure for isolating radial glia-like cells from both fetal and adult rodent brain. Radial glia-like (RGl) neural stem/progenitor cells grew readily on the peptide-covered surfaces under serum-free culture conditions in the presence of EGF as the only growth factor supplement. Proliferating cells derived either from fetal (E 14.5) forebrain or from different regions of the adult brain maintained several radial glia-specific features including nestin, RC2 immunoreactivity and Pax6, Sox2, Blbp, Glast gene expression. Proliferating RGl cells were obtained also from non-neurogenic zones including the parenchyma of the adult cerebral cortex and dorsal midbrain. Continuous proliferation allowed isolating one-cell derived clones of radial glia-like cells. All clones generated neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes under appropriate inducing conditions. Electrophysiological characterization indicated that passive conductance with large delayed rectifying potassium current might be a uniform feature of non-induced radial glia-like cells. Upon induction, all clones gave rise to GABAergic neurons. Significant differences were found, however, among the clones in the generation of glutamatergic and cathecolamine-synthesizing neurons and in the production of oligodendrocytes.
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16
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Hansen DV, Rubenstein JLR, Kriegstein AR. Deriving excitatory neurons of the neocortex from pluripotent stem cells. Neuron 2011; 70:645-60. [PMID: 21609822 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The human cerebral cortex is an immensely complex structure that subserves critical functions that can be disrupted in developmental and degenerative disorders. Recent innovations in cellular reprogramming and differentiation techniques have provided new ways to study the cellular components of the cerebral cortex. Here, we discuss approaches to generate specific subtypes of excitatory cortical neurons from pluripotent stem cells. We review spatial and temporal aspects of cortical neuron specification that can guide efforts to produce excitatory neuron subtypes with increased resolution. Finally, we discuss distinguishing features of human cortical development and their translational ramifications for cortical stem cell technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David V Hansen
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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17
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Deleidi M, Cooper O, Hargus G, Levy A, Isacson O. Oct4-induced reprogramming is required for adult brain neural stem cell differentiation into midbrain dopaminergic neurons. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19926. [PMID: 21655272 PMCID: PMC3104995 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) lose their competency to generate region-specific neuronal populations at an early stage during embryonic brain development. Here we investigated whether epigenetic modifications can reverse the regional restriction of mouse adult brain subventricular zone (SVZ) NSCs. Using a variety of chemicals that interfere with DNA methylation and histone acetylation, we showed that such epigenetic modifications increased neuronal differentiation but did not enable specific regional patterning, such as midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neuron generation. Only after Oct-4 overexpression did adult NSCs acquire a pluripotent state that allowed differentiation into midbrain DA neurons. DA neurons derived from Oct4-reprogrammed NSCs improved behavioural motor deficits in a rat model of Parkinson's disease (PD) upon intrastriatal transplantation. Here we report for the first time the successful differentiation of SVZ adult NSCs into functional region-specific midbrain DA neurons, by means of Oct-4 induced pluripotency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Deleidi
- Center for Neuroregeneration Research, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Udall Parkinson's Disease Research Center of Excellence, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Oliver Cooper
- Center for Neuroregeneration Research, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Udall Parkinson's Disease Research Center of Excellence, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Gunnar Hargus
- Center for Neuroregeneration Research, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Udall Parkinson's Disease Research Center of Excellence, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Adam Levy
- Center for Neuroregeneration Research, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Udall Parkinson's Disease Research Center of Excellence, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ole Isacson
- Center for Neuroregeneration Research, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Udall Parkinson's Disease Research Center of Excellence, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Onorati M, Binetti M, Conti L, Camnasio S, Calabrese G, Albieri I, Di Febo F, Toselli M, Biella G, Martynoga B, Guillemot F, Consalez GG, Cattaneo E. Preservation of positional identity in fetus-derived neural stem (NS) cells from different mouse central nervous system compartments. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:1769-83. [PMID: 20981563 PMCID: PMC11114801 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0548-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Revised: 08/18/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem (NS) cells are a self-renewing population of symmetrically dividing multipotent radial glia-like stem cells, characterized by homogeneous expansion in monolayer. Here we report that fetal NS cells isolated from different regions of the developing mouse nervous system behave in a similar manner with respect to self-renewal and neuropotency, but exhibit distinct positional identities. For example, NS cells from the neocortex maintain the expression of anterior transcription factors, including Otx2 and Foxg1, while Hoxb4 and Hoxb9 are uniquely found in spinal cord-derived NS cells. This molecular signature was stable for over 20 passages and was strictly linked to the developmental stage of the donor, because only NS cells derived from E14.5 cortex, and not those derived from E12.5 cortex, carried a consistent transcription factor profile. We also showed that traits of this positional code are maintained during neuronal differentiation, leading to the generation of electrophysiologically active neurons, even if they do not acquire a complete neurochemical identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Onorati
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences and Center for Stem Cell Research, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Maurizio Binetti
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences and Center for Stem Cell Research, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Luciano Conti
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences and Center for Stem Cell Research, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Camnasio
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences and Center for Stem Cell Research, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanna Calabrese
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Albieri
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Di Febo
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiological and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Mauro Toselli
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiological and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Gerardo Biella
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiological and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | | | | | - G. Giacomo Consalez
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Cattaneo
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences and Center for Stem Cell Research, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
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Harfouche G, Vaigot P, Rachidi W, Rigaud O, Moratille S, Marie M, Lemaitre G, Fortunel NO, Martin MT. Fibroblast growth factor type 2 signaling is critical for DNA repair in human keratinocyte stem cells. Stem Cells 2010; 28:1639-48. [PMID: 20681019 PMCID: PMC2996082 DOI: 10.1002/stem.485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Tissue stem cells must be endowed with superior maintenance and repair systems to ensure genomic stability over multiple generations, which would be less necessary in more differentiated cells. We previously reported that human keratinocyte stem cells were more resistant to ionizing radiation toxicity than their direct progeny, the keratinocyte progenitor cells. In the present study we addressed the mechanisms underlying this difference. Investigations of DNA repair showed that both single and double DNA strand breaks were repaired more rapidly and more efficiently in stem cells than in progenitors. As cell signaling is a key regulatory step in the management of DNA damage, a gene profiling study was performed. Data revealed that several genes of the fibroblast growth factor type 2 (FGF2) signaling pathway were induced by DNA damage in stem cells and not in progenitors. Furthermore, an increased content of the FGF2 protein was found in irradiated stem cells, both for the secreted and the cellular forms of the protein. To examine the role of endogenous FGF2 in DNA repair, stem cells were exposed to FGF2 pathway inhibitors. Blocking the FGF2 receptor (FGF receptor 1) or the kinase (Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase 1) resulted in a inhibition of single and double DNA strand-break repair in the keratinocyte stem cells. Moreover, supplementing the progenitor cells with exogenous FGF2 activated their DNA repair. We propose that, apart from its well-known role as a strong mitogen and prosurvival factor, FGF2 helps to maintain genomic integrity in stem cells by activating stress-induced DNA repair. Stem Cells 2010; 28:1639–1648.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghida Harfouche
- CEA, iRCM, Laboratory of Genomics and Radiobiology of Keratinopoiesis, Evry, France
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Delcroix GJR, Curtis KM, Schiller PC, Montero-Menei CN. EGF and bFGF pre-treatment enhances neural specification and the response to neuronal commitment of MIAMI cells. Differentiation 2010; 80:213-27. [PMID: 20813449 DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2010.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Revised: 06/28/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells raise great interest for regenerative medicine studies. Some MSC subpopulations have the potential to undergo neural differentiation, including marrow isolated adult multilineage inducible (MIAMI) cells, which differentiate into neuron-like cells in a multi-step neurotrophin 3-dependent manner. Epidermal and basic fibroblast growth factors are often used in neuronal differentiation protocols for MSCs, but with a limited understanding of their role. In this study, we thoroughly assessed for the first time the capacity of these factors to enhance the neuronal differentiation of MSCs. MATERIALS AND METHODS We have characterized MIAMI cell neuronal differentiation program in terms of stem cell molecule expression, cell cycle modifications, acquisition of a neuronal morphology and expression of neural and neuronal molecules in the absence and presence of an EGF-bFGF pre-treatment. RESULTS EGF-bFGF pre-treatment down-regulated the expression of stemness markers Oct4A, Notch1 and Hes5, whereas neural/neuronal molecules Nestin, Pax6, Ngn2 and the neurotrophin receptor tyrosine kinase 1 and 3 were up-regulated. During differentiation, a sustained Erk phosphorylation in response to NT3 was observed, cells began to exit from the cell cycle and exhibit increased neurite-like extensions. In addition, neuronal β3-tubulin and neurofilament expression was increased; an effect mediated via the Erk pathway. A slight pre-oligodendrocyte engagement was noted, and no default neurotransmitter phenotype was observed. Overall, mesodermal markers were unaffected or decreased, while neurogenic/adipogenic PPARγ2 was increased. CONCLUSION EGF and bFGF pre-treatment enhances neural specification and the response to neuronal commitment of MIAMI cells, further increasing their potential use in adult cell therapy of the nervous system.
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Neural stem cell systems: physiological players or in vitro entities? Nat Rev Neurosci 2010; 11:176-87. [PMID: 20107441 DOI: 10.1038/nrn2761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) can be experimentally derived or induced from different sources, and the NSC systems generated so far are promising tools for basic research and biomedical applications. However, no direct and thorough comparison of their biological and molecular properties or of their physiological relevance and possible relationship to endogenous NSCs has yet been carried out. Here we review the available information on different NSC systems and compare their properties. A better understanding of these systems will be crucial to control NSC fate and functional integration following transplantation and to make NSCs suitable for regenerative efforts following injury or disease.
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Vergaño-Vera E, Méndez-Gómez HR, Hurtado-Chong A, Cigudosa JC, Vicario-Abejón C. Fibroblast growth factor-2 increases the expression of neurogenic genes and promotes the migration and differentiation of neurons derived from transplanted neural stem/progenitor cells. Neuroscience 2009; 162:39-54. [PMID: 19318120 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2009] [Revised: 03/09/2009] [Accepted: 03/11/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The capacity of neural stem cells (NSC) to generate different types of neurons and glia depends on the action of intrinsic determinants and extracellular signals. Here, we isolated adult olfactory bulb stem cells (aOBSC) that express nestin, RC2 and Sox2, and that have the capacity to generate neurons possessing mature features in culture and in vivo. The differentiation of aOBSC into neurons and glia, as well as their genetic profile, was compared to that of embryonic OBSC (eOBSC) and ganglionic eminence stem cells (GESC). While these eOBSC express neurogenin (Ngn) 1 and 2, two telencephalic dorsal markers, GESC only express Ngn2. Adult OBSC express either little or no detectable Ngn1 and 2, and they produced significantly fewer neurons in culture than eOBSC. By contrast, Dlx2 transcripts (a telencephalic ventral marker) were only clearly detected in GESC. When transplanted into the early postnatal P5-P7 OB, each of the three populations gave rise to cells with a distinct pattern of neuronal migration and/or dendritic arborization. Overall, these findings suggest that cultured NSC partially maintain their regional and temporal specification. Notably, significant neuronal migration and differentiation were only observed in vivo when the NSC were briefly exposed to fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) before grafting, a treatment that enhanced the neurogenin expression. Hence, the migration and maturation of neurons derived from transplanted NSC can be promoted by upregulating neurogenic gene expression with FGF-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Vergaño-Vera
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avda Dr. Arce 37, E-28002 Madrid, Spain
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