Purification and characterization of iron superoxide dismutase and copper-zinc superoxide dismutase from Acanthamoeba castellanii

Comprehensive characterization of extracellular vesicles produced by environmental (Neff) and clinical (T4) strains of Acanthamoeba castellanii

We conducted a comprehensive comparative analysis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) from two Acanthamoeba castellanii strains, Neff (environmental) and T4 (clinical). Morphological analysis via transmission electron microscopy revealed slightly larger Neff EVs (average = 194.5 nm) compared to more polydisperse T4 EVs (average = 168.4 nm). Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and dynamic light scattering validated these differences. Proteomic analysis of the EVs identified 1,352 proteins, with 1,107 common, 161 exclusive in Neff, and 84 exclusively in T4 EVs. Gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) mapping revealed distinct molecular functions and biological processes and notably, the T4 EVs enrichment in serine proteases, aligned with its pathogenicity. Lipidomic analysis revealed a prevalence of unsaturated lipid species in Neff EVs, particularly triacylglycerols, phosphatidylethanolamines (PEs), and phosphatidylserine, while T4 EVs were enriched in diacylglycerols and diacylglyceryl trimethylhomoserine, phosphatidylcholine and less unsaturated PEs, suggesting differences in lipid metabolism and membrane permeability. Metabolomic analysis indicated Neff EVs enrichment in glycerolipid metabolism, glycolysis, and nucleotide synthesis, while T4 EVs, methionine metabolism. Furthermore, RNA-seq of EVs revealed differential transcript between the strains, with Neff EVs enriched in transcripts related to gluconeogenesis and translation, suggesting gene regulation and metabolic shift, while in the T4 EVs transcripts were associated with signal transduction and protein kinase activity, indicating rapid responses to environmental changes. In this novel study, data integration highlighted the differences in enzyme profiles, metabolic processes, and potential origins of EVs in the two strains shedding light on the diversity and complexity of A. castellanii EVs and having implications for understanding host-pathogen interactions and developing targeted interventions for Acanthamoeba-related diseases.IMPORTANCEA comprehensive and fully comparative analysis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) from two Acanthamoeba castellanii strains of distinct virulence, a Neff (environmental) and T4 (clinical), revealed striking differences in their morphology and protein, lipid, metabolites, and transcripts levels. Data integration highlighted the differences in enzyme profiles, metabolic processes, and potential distinct origin of EVs from both strains, shedding light on the diversity and complexity of A. castellanii EVs, with direct implications for understanding host-pathogen interactions, disease mechanisms, and developing new therapies for the clinical intervention of Acanthamoeba-related diseases.

Identification and Molecular Characterization of Superoxide Dismutases Isolated From A Scuticociliate Parasite: Physiological Role in Oxidative Stress

Philasterides dicentrarchi is a free-living microaerophilic scuticociliate that can become a facultative parasite and cause a serious parasitic disease in farmed fish. Both the free-living and parasitic forms of this scuticociliate are exposed to oxidative stress associated with environmental factors and the host immune system. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the host are neutralized by the ciliate by means of antioxidant defences. In this study we aimed to identify metalloenzymes with superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity capable of inactivating the superoxide anion (•O2-) generated during induction of oxidative stress. P. dicentrarchi possesses the three characteristic types of SOD isoenzymes in eukaryotes: copper/zinc-SOD, manganese-SOD and iron-SOD. The Cu/Zn-SOD isoenzymes comprise three types of homodimeric proteins (CSD1-3) of molecular weight (MW) 34-44 kDa and with very different AA sequences. All Cu/Zn-SODs are sensitive to NaCN, located in the cytosol and in the alveolar sacs, and one of them (CSD2) is extracellular. Mn- and Fe-SOD transcripts encode homodimeric proteins (MSD and FSD, respectively) in their native state: a) MSD (MW 50 kDa) is insensitive to H2O2 and NaN3 and is located in the mitochondria; and b) FSD (MW 60 kDa) is sensitive to H2O2, NaN3 and the polyphenol trans-resveratrol and is located extracellularly. Expression of SOD isoenzymes increases when •O2- is induced by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, and the increase is proportional to the dose of energy applied, indicating that these enzymes are actively involved in cellular protection against oxidative stress.

Host Invasion by Pathogenic Amoebae: Epithelial Disruption by Parasite Proteins

The epithelium represents the first and most extensive line of defence against pathogens, toxins and pollutant agents in humans. In general, pathogens have developed strategies to overcome this barrier and use it as an entrance to the organism. Entamoeba histolytica, Naegleriafowleri and Acanthamoeba spp. are amoebae mainly responsible for intestinal dysentery, meningoencephalitis and keratitis, respectively. These amoebae cause significant morbidity and mortality rates. Thus, the identification, characterization and validation of molecules participating in host-parasite interactions can provide attractive targets to timely intervene disease progress. In this work, we present a compendium of the parasite adhesins, lectins, proteases, hydrolases, kinases, and others, that participate in key pathogenic events. Special focus is made for the analysis of assorted molecules and mechanisms involved in the interaction of the parasites with epithelial surface receptors, changes in epithelial junctional markers, implications on the barrier function, among others. This review allows the assessment of initial host-pathogen interaction, to correlate it to the potential of parasite invasion.

Extracellular vesicles and vesicle-free secretome of the protozoa Acanthamoeba castellanii under homeostasis and nutritional stress and their damaging potential to host cells

Acanthamoeba castellanii (Ac) are ubiquitously distributed in nature, and by contaminating medical devices such as heart valves and contact lenses, they cause a broad range of clinical presentations to humans. Although several molecules have been described to play a role in Ac pathogenesis, including parasite host-tissue invasion and escaping of host-defense, little information is available on their mechanisms of secretion. Herein, we describe the molecular components secreted by Ac, under different protein availability conditions to simulate host niches. Ac extracellular vesicles (EVs) were morphologically and biochemically characterized. Dynamic light scattering analysis of Ac EVs identified polydisperse populations, which correlated to electron microscopy measurements. High-performance thin liquid chromatography of Ac EVs identified phospholipids, steryl-esters, sterol and free-fatty acid, the last two also characterized by GC-MS. Secretome composition (EVs and EVs-free supernatants) was also determined and proteins biological functions classified. In peptone-yeast-glucose (PYG) medium, a total of 179 proteins were identified (21 common proteins, 89 exclusive of EVs and 69 in EVs-free supernatant). In glucose alone, 205 proteins were identified (134 in EVs, 14 common and 57 proteins in EVs-free supernatant). From those, stress response, oxidative and protein and amino acid metabolism proteins prevailed. Qualitative differences were observed on carbohydrate metabolism enzymes from Krebs cycle and pentose phosphate shunt. Serine proteases and metalloproteinases predominated. Analysis of the cytotoxicity of Ac EVs (upon uptake) and EVs-free supernatant to epithelial and glioblastoma cells revealed a dose-dependent effect. Therefore, the Ac secretome differs depending on nutrient conditions, and is also likely to vary during infection.

Functional expression and characterization of an iron-containing superoxide dismutase of Acanthamoeba castellanii

Acanthamoeba spp. are free-living amoebae, but opportunistic infections of some strains of the organisms cause severe diseases such as acanthamoebic keratitis, pneumonitis, and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis in human. In this study, we identified a gene encoding iron superoxide dismutase of Acanthamoeba castellanii (AcFe-SOD) and characterized biochemical and functional properties of the recombinant enzyme. Multiple sequence alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of AcFe-SOD with those of previously reported iron-containing SODs (Fe-SODs) from other protozoan parasites showed that AcFe-SOD shared common metal-binding residues and motifs that are conserved in Fe-SODs. The genomic length of the AcFe-SOD gene was 926 bp consisting of five exons interrupted by four introns. The recombinant AcFe-SOD showed similar biochemical characteristics with its native enzyme and shared typical biochemical properties with other characterized Fe-SODs, including molecular structure, broad pH optimum, and sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide. Immunolocalization analysis revealed that the enzyme localized in the cytosol of the trophozoites. Activity and expression level of the enzyme were significantly increased under oxidative stressed conditions. These results collectively suggest that AcFe-SOD may play essential roles in the survival of the parasite not only by protecting itself from endogenous oxidative stress but also by detoxifying oxidative killing of the parasite by host immune effector cells.

Identification and characterization of a mitochondrial iron-superoxide dismutase of Cryptosporidium parvum

Cryptosporidium parvum is an intracellular protozoan parasite that causes cryptosporidiosis in mammals. In this study, we identified a gene encoding mitochondrial iron-superoxide dismutase of C. parvum (Cp-mtSOD) and characterized biochemical properties of the recombinant protein. Multiple sequence alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of Cp-mtSOD with those of previously reported iron-containing SODs (Fe-SODs) from other protozoan parasites showed that Cp-mtSOD shares common metal-binding residues and motifs that were conserved in Fe-SODs. However, the N-terminal 26-amino acid residues of Cp-mtSOD did not show sequence identities to any other Fe-SOD sequences. Further analysis of the N-terminal presequence of Cp-mtSOD suggested that it shares common physiochemical characteristics found in mitochondria targeting sequences and predicted localization of Cp-mtSOD in the mitochondria. The recombinant Cp-mtSOD showed typical biochemical properties with other characterized Fe-SODs, including molecular structure, broad pH optimum, and sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide.

Iron superoxide dismutases targeted to the glycosomes of Leishmania chagasi are important for survival

Kinetoplastid glycosomes contain a variety of metabolic activities, such as glycolysis, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, lipid biosynthesis, and purine salvage. One advantage of sequestering metabolic activities is the avoidance of cellular oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species produced as a by-product of metabolism. Little is known about how glycosomes themselves withstand these toxic metabolites. We previously isolated an iron superoxide dismutase from Leishmania chagasi that is expressed at low levels in the early logarithmic promastigote stage and increases toward the stationary promastigote and amastigote stages. We have since identified a second highly homologous Lcfesodb gene that is expressed at high levels in the early logarithmic promastigote stage and decreases toward the stationary promastigote and amastigote stages. Localization studies using green fluorescent protein fusions have revealed that LcFeSODB1 and LcFeSODB2 are localized within the glycosomes by the last three amino acids of their carboxyl termini. To better understand the specific role that FeSODB plays in parasite growth and survival, a single-allele knockout of the Lcfesodb1 gene was generated. The parasites with these genes exhibited a significant reduction in growth when endogenous superoxide levels were increased with paraquat in culture. Furthermore, the FeSODB1-deficient parasites exhibited a significant reduction in survival within human macrophages. Our results suggest that LcFeSODB plays an important role in parasite growth and survival by protecting glycosomes from superoxide toxicity.

Identification of a developmentally regulated iron superoxide dismutase of Trypanosoma brucei

An iron superoxide dismutase (FeSOD) gene of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei has been cloned and its gene product functionally characterized. The gene encodes a protein of 198 residues which shows 80% identity with FeSODs from other trypanosomatids. Inhibitor studies with purified recombinant FeSOD expressed in Escherichia coli confirmed that the enzyme is an iron-containing SOD. The FeSOD is developmentally regulated in the parasite, expression being lowest in the cell-cycle-arrested, short stumpy bloodstream forms. Differential expression of the FeSOD protein contrasts with only minor quantitative changes in the FeSOD mRNA, indicating post-transcriptional regulation of the enzyme. As the level of FeSOD increases during differentiation of cell-cycle-arrested short stumpy into dividing procyclic forms, it is suggested that the enzyme is only required in proliferating stages of the parasite for the elimination of superoxide radicals which are released during the generation of the iron-tyrosyl free-radical centre in the small subunit of ribonucleotide reductase.