Local production of the chemokines CCL5 and CXCL10 attracts CD8+ T lymphocytes into esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Emerging Role of Fibroblasts in Vitiligo: A Formerly Underestimated Rising Star

Vitiligo is a disfiguring depigmentation disorder characterized by loss of melanocytes. Although numerous studies have been conducted on the pathogenesis of vitiligo, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Although most studies have focused on melanocytes and keratinocytes, growing evidence suggests the involvement of dermal fibroblasts, residing deeper in the skin. This review aims to elucidate the role of fibroblasts in both the physiological regulation of skin pigmentation and their pathological contribution to depigmentation, with the goal of shedding light on the involvement of fibroblasts in vitiligo. The topics covered in this review include alterations in the secretome, premature senescence, autophagy dysfunction, abnormal extracellular matrix, autoimmunity, and metabolic changes.

Chemokines and Their Receptors: Predictors of Therapeutic Potential in Tumor Microenvironment on Esophageal Cancer

Esophageal carcinoma (ESCA) is an aggressive solid tumor. The 5-year survival rate for patients with ESCA is estimated to be less than 20%, mainly due to tumor invasion and metastasis. Therefore, it is urgent to improve early diagnostic tools and effective treatments for ESCA patients. Tumor microenvironment (TME) enhances the ability of tumor cells to proliferate, migrate, and escape from the immune system, thus promoting the occurrence and development of tumor. TME contains chemokines. Chemokines consist of four major families, which are mainly composed of CC and CXC families. The main purpose of this review is to understand the CC and CXC chemokines and their receptors in ESCA, to improve the understanding of tumorigenesis of ESCA and determine new biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of ESCA. We reviewed the literature on CC and CXC chemokines and their receptors in ESCA identified by PubMed database. This article introduces the general structures and functions of CC, CXC chemokines and their receptors in TME, as well as their roles in the progress of ESCA. Chemokines are involved in the development of ESCA, such as cancer cell invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and radioresistance, and are key determinants of disease progression, which have a great impact on patient prognosis and treatment response. In addition, a full understanding of their mechanism of action is essential to further verify that these chemokines and their receptors may serve as biomarkers or therapeutic targets of ESCA.

Exercise accelerates recruitment of CD8+ T cell to promotes anti-tumor immunity in lung cancer via epinephrine

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

In recent years, there has been extensive research on the role of exercise as an adjunctive therapy for cancer. However, the potential mechanisms underlying the anti-tumor therapy of exercise in lung cancer remain to be fully elucidated. As such, our study aims to confirm whether exercise-induced elevation of epinephrine can accelerate CD8+ T cell recruitment through modulation of chemokines and thus ultimately inhibit tumor progression.

METHOD

C57BL/6 mice were subcutaneously inoculated with Lewis lung cancer cells (LLCs) to establish a subcutaneous tumor model. The tumor mice were randomly divided into different groups to performed a moderate-intensity exercise program on a treadmill for 5 consecutive days a week, 45 min a day. The blood samples and tumor tissues were collected after exercise for IHC, RT-qPCR, ELISA and Western blot. In addition, another group of mice received daily epinephrine treatment for two weeks (0.05 mg/mL, 200 µL i.p.) (EPI, n = 8) to replicate the effects of exercise on tumors in vivo. Lewis lung cancer cells were treated with different concentrations of epinephrine (0, 5, 10, 20 µM) to detect the effect of epinephrine on chemokine levels via ELISA and RT-qPCR.

RESULTS

This study reveals that both pre- and post-cancer exercise effectively impede the tumor progression. Exercise led to an increase in EPI levels and the infiltration of CD8+ T cell into the lung tumor. Exercise-induced elevation of EPI is involved in the regulation of Ccl5 and Cxcl10 levels further leading to enhanced CD8+ T cell infiltration and ultimately inhibiting tumor progression.

CONCLUSION

Exercise training enhance the anti-tumor immunity of lung cancer individuals. These findings will provide valuable insights for the future application of exercise therapy in clinical practice.

Involvement of CircRNAs in regulating The "New Generation of Cancer Hallmarks": A Special Depiction on Hepatocellular Carcinoma

The concept of 'Hallmarks of Cancer' is an approach of reducing the enormous complexity of cancer to a set of guiding principles. As the underlying mechanism of cancer are portrayed, we find that we gain insight and additional aspects of the disease arise. The understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TME) brought a new dimension and led to the discovery of novel hallmarks such as senescent cells, non-mutational epigenetic reprogramming, polymorphic microbiomes and unlocked phenotypic plasticity. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are single-stranded, covalently closed RNA molecules that are ubiquitous across all species. Recent studies on the circRNAs have highlighted their crucial function in regulating the formation of human malignancies through a range of biological processes. The primary goal of this review is to clarify the role of circRNAs in the most common form of liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This review also addressed the topic of how circRNAs affect HCC hallmarks, including the new generation hallmarks. Finally, the enormous applications that these rapidly expanding ncRNA molecules serve in the functional and molecular development of effective HCC diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Serpine1 mRNA confers mesenchymal characteristics to the cell and promotes CD8+ T cells exclusion from colon adenocarcinomas

Serine protease inhibitor clade E member 1 (SERPINE1) inhibits extracellular matrix proteolysis and cell detachment. However, SERPINE1 expression also promotes tumor progression and plays a crucial role in metastasis. Here, we solve this apparent paradox and report that Serpine1 mRNA per se, independent of its protein-coding function, confers mesenchymal properties to the cell, promoting migration, invasiveness, and resistance to anoikis and increasing glycolytic activity by sequestering miRNAs. Expression of Serpine1 mRNA upregulates the expression of the TRA2B splicing factor without affecting its mRNA levels. Through transcriptional profiling, we found that Serpine1 mRNA expression downregulates through TRA2B the expression of genes involved in the immune response. Analysis of human colon tumor samples showed an inverse correlation between SERPINE1 mRNA expression and CD8+ T cell infiltration, unveiling the potential value of SERPINE1 mRNA as a promising therapeutic target for colon tumors.

Microfluidic Organoid Cultures Derived from Pancreatic Cancer Biopsies for Personalized Testing of Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy

Patient-derived cancer organoids (PDOs) hold considerable promise for personalizing therapy selection and improving patient outcomes. However, it is challenging to generate PDOs in sufficient numbers to test therapies in standard culture platforms. This challenge is particularly acute for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) where most patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage with non-resectable tumors and where patient tissue is in the form of needle biopsies. Here the development and characterization of microfluidic devices for testing therapies using a limited amount of tissue or PDOs available from PDAC biopsies is described. It is demonstrated that microfluidic PDOs are phenotypically and genotypically similar to the gold-standard Matrigel organoids with the advantages of 1) spheroid uniformity, 2) minimal cell number requirement, and 3) not relying on Matrigel. The utility of microfluidic PDOs is proven by testing PDO responses to several chemotherapies, including an inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase (GSKI). In addition, microfluidic organoid cultures are used to test effectiveness of immunotherapy comprised of NK cells in combination with a novel biologic. In summary, our microfluidic device offers considerable benefits for personalizing oncology based on cancer biopsies and may, in the future, be developed into a companion diagnostic for chemotherapy or immunotherapy treatments.

Design, synthesis, and cell-based in vitro assay of deoxyinosine-mixed SATE-dCDN prodrugs that activate all common STING variants

Developing therapeutic strategies to modulate the activity of all prevalent variants (wild-type, HAQ, R232H, AQ, and R293Q) of the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is still of great interest to treating immune-related diseases. Herein, we synthesized six novel deoxyinosine-mixed deoxyribose cyclic dinucleotide prodrugs (SATE-dCDN) including a combination of hypoxanthine and other bases (A, U, C, T, and G) for a cell-based in vitro assay. The HPLC assay indicated that deoxyinosine-mixed SATE (S-acylthioalkyl ester)-dCDN prodrugs retained high serum stability. The IRF3-responsive luciferase assay in THP1-Lucia cells showed that the activity of the prodrugs with purine bases (SATE-3',3'-c-di-dIMP, SATE-3',3'-c-di-dIdAMP, and SATE-3',3'-c-di-dIdGMP) was higher than that of the prodrugs with pyrimidine bases (SATE-3',3'-c-di-dIdUMP, SATE-3',3'-c-di-dIdTMP, and SATE-3',3'-c-di-dIdCMP), among which prodrug 14a (SATE-3',3'-c-di-dIdAMP) with hypoxanthine and adenine bases exhibited the highest activity with an EC50 value of 0.046 μM. The IRF3 responsive dual-luciferase reporter assay in HEK293T cells transfected with plasmids expressing different STING variants further showed that prodrug 14a could activate all five most common hSTING variants, including the refractory hSTINGR232H and hSTINGQ variants. Furthermore, prodrug 14a also induced the production of the highest levels of mRNA of IFN-β, CXCL10, IL-6 and TNF-α through STING-dependent IRF and NF-κB signaling pathways in THP-1 cells. These results suggested that the combination of deoxyinosine with a SATE-dCDN prodrug could modulate the broad-spectrum activity of all common STING variants.

A novel role of TGFBI in macrophage polarization and macrophage-induced pancreatic cancer growth and therapeutic resistance

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), as a major and essential component of tumor microenvironment (TME), play a critical role in orchestrating pancreatic cancer (PaC) tumorigenesis from initiation to angiogenesis, growth, and systemic dissemination, as well as immunosuppression and resistance to chemotherapy and immunotherapy; however, the critical intrinsic factors responsible for TAMs reprograming and function remain to be identified. By performing single-cell RNA sequencing, transforming growth factor-beta-induced protein (TGFBI) was identified as TAM-producing factor in murine PaC tumors. TAMs express TGFBI in human PaC and TGFBI expression is positively related with human PaC growth. By inducing TGFBI loss-of-function in macrophage (MΦs) in vitro with siRNA and in vivo with Cre-Lox strategy in our developed TGFBI-floxed mice, we demonstrated disruption of TGFBI not only inhibited MΦ polarization to M2 phenotype and MΦ-mediated stimulation on PaC growth, but also significantly improved anti-tumor immunity, sensitizing PaC to chemotherapy in association with regulation of fibronectin 1, Cxcl10, and Ccl5. Our studies suggest that targeting TGFBI in MΦ can develop an effective therapeutic intervention for highly lethal PaC.

Systematic identification of gene combinations to target in innate immune cells to enhance T cell activation

Genetic engineering of immune cells has opened new avenues for improving their functionality but it remains a challenge to pinpoint which genes or combination of genes are the most beneficial to target. Here, we conduct High Multiplicity of Perturbations and Cellular Indexing of Transcriptomes and Epitopes (HMPCITE-seq) to find combinations of genes whose joint targeting improves antigen-presenting cell activity and enhances their ability to activate T cells. Specifically, we perform two genome-wide CRISPR screens in bone marrow dendritic cells and identify negative regulators of CD86, that participate in the co-stimulation programs, including Chd4, Stat5b, Egr2, Med12, and positive regulators of PD-L1, that participate in the co-inhibitory programs, including Sptlc2, Nckap1l, and Pi4kb. To identify the genetic interactions between top-ranked genes and find superior combinations to target, we perform high-order Perturb-Seq experiments and we show that targeting both Cebpb and Med12 results in a better phenotype compared to the single perturbations or other combinations of perturbations.

Correlation of the tumor escape phenotype with loss of PRELP expression in melanoma

BACKGROUND

Despite immunotherapies having revolutionized the treatment of advanced cutaneous melanoma, effective and durable responses were only reported in a few patients. A better understanding of the interaction of melanoma cells with the microenvironment, including extracellular matrix (ECM) components, might provide novel therapeutic options. Although the ECM has been linked to several hallmarks of cancer, little information is available regarding the expression and function of the ECM protein purine-arginine-rich and leucine-rich protein (PRELP) in cancer, including melanoma.

METHODS

The structural integrity, expression and function of PRELP, its correlation with the expression of immune modulatory molecules, immune cell infiltration and clinical parameters were determined using standard methods and/or bioinformatics.

RESULTS

Bioinformatics analysis revealed a heterogeneous, but statistically significant reduced PRELP expression in available datasets of skin cutaneous melanoma when compared to adjacent normal tissues, which was associated with reduced patients' survival, low expression levels of components of the MHC class I antigen processing machinery (APM) and interferon (IFN)-γ signal transduction pathway, but increased expression of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β isoform 1 (TFGB1) and TGF-β receptor 1 (TGFBR1). In addition, a high frequency of intra-tumoral T cells directly correlated with the expression of MHC class I and PRELP as well as the T cell attractant CCL5 in melanoma lesions. Marginal to low PRELP expression levels were found in the 47/49 human melanoma cell lines analysis. Transfection of PRELP into melanoma cell lines restored MHC class I surface expression due to transcriptional upregulation of major MHC class I APM and IFN-γ pathway components. In addition, PRELP overexpression is accompanied by high CCL5 secretion levels in cell supernatant, an impaired TGF-β signaling as well as a reduced cell proliferation, migration and invasion of melanoma cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that PRELP induces the expression of MHC class I and CCL5 in melanoma, which might be involved in an enhanced T cell recruitment and immunogenicity associated with an improved patients' outcome. Therefore, PRELP might serve as a marker for predicting disease progression and its recovery could revert the tumorigenic phenotype, which represents a novel therapeutic option for melanoma.

Noncoding RNAs as an emerging resistance mechanism to immunotherapies in cancer: basic evidence and therapeutic implications

The increasing knowledge in the field of oncoimmunology has led to extensive research into tumor immune landscape and a plethora of clinical immunotherapy trials in cancer patients. Immunotherapy has become a clinically beneficial alternative to traditional treatments by enhancing the power of the host immune system against cancer. However, it only works for a minority of cancers. Drug resistance continues to be a major obstacle to the success of immunotherapy in cancer. A fundamental understanding of the detailed mechanisms underlying immunotherapy resistance in cancer patients will provide new potential directions for further investigations of cancer treatment. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are tightly linked with cancer initiation and development due to their critical roles in gene expression and epigenetic modulation. The clear appreciation of the role of ncRNAs in tumor immunity has opened new frontiers in cancer research and therapy. Furthermore, ncRNAs are increasingly acknowledged as a key factor influencing immunotherapeutic treatment outcomes. Here, we review the available evidence on the roles of ncRNAs in immunotherapy resistance, with an emphasis on the associated mechanisms behind ncRNA-mediated immune resistance. The clinical implications of immune-related ncRNAs are also discussed, shedding light on the potential ncRNA-based therapies to overcome the resistance to immunotherapy.

Chemokine expression predicts T cell-inflammation and improved survival with checkpoint inhibition across solid cancers

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are highly effective in specific cancers where canonical markers of antitumor immunity are used for patient selection. Improved predictors of T cell-inflammation are needed to identify ICI-responsive tumor subsets in additional cancer types. We investigated associations of a 4-chemokine expression signature (c-Score: CCL4, CCL5, CXCL9, CXCL10) with metrics of antitumor immunity across tumor types. Across cancer entities from The Cancer Genome Atlas, subgroups of tumors displayed high expression of the c-Score (c-Scorehi) with increased expression of immune checkpoint (IC) genes and transcriptional hallmarks of the cancer-immunity cycle. There was an incomplete association of the c-Score with high tumor mutation burden (TMB), with only 15% of c-Scorehi tumors displaying ≥10 mutations per megabase. In a heterogeneous pan-cancer cohort of 82 patients, with advanced and previously treated solid cancers, c-Scorehi tumors had a longer median time to progression (103 versus 72 days, P = 0.012) and overall survival (382 versus 196 days, P = 0.038) following ICI therapy initiation, compared to patients with low c-Score expression. We also found c-Score stratification to outperform TMB assignment for overall survival prediction (HR = 0.42 [0.22-0.79], P = 0.008 versus HR = 0.60 [0.29-1.27], P = 0.18, respectively). Assessment of the c-Score using the TIDE and PredictIO databases, which include ICI treatment outcomes from 10 tumor types, provided further support for the c-Score as a predictive ICI therapeutic biomarker. In summary, the c-Score identifies patients with hallmarks of T cell-inflammation and potential response to ICI treatment across cancer types, which is missed by TMB assignment.

Multi-omic features of oesophageal adenocarcinoma in patients treated with preoperative neoadjuvant therapy

Oesophageal adenocarcinoma is a poor prognosis cancer and the molecular features underpinning response to treatment remain unclear. We investigate whole genome, transcriptomic and methylation data from 115 oesophageal adenocarcinoma patients mostly from the DOCTOR phase II clinical trial (Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry-ACTRN12609000665235), with exploratory analysis pre-specified in the study protocol of the trial. We report genomic features associated with poorer overall survival, such as the APOBEC mutational and RS3-like rearrangement signatures. We also show that positron emission tomography non-responders have more sub-clonal genomic copy number alterations. Transcriptomic analysis categorises patients into four immune clusters correlated with survival. The immune suppressed cluster is associated with worse survival, enriched with myeloid-derived cells, and an epithelial-mesenchymal transition signature. The immune hot cluster is associated with better survival, enriched with lymphocytes, myeloid-derived cells, and an immune signature including CCL5, CD8A, and NKG7. The immune clusters highlight patients who may respond to immunotherapy and thus may guide future clinical trials.

Effect of stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling on radiation-induced chemokine expression in human osteosarcoma cells

Cancer cell-intrinsic mechanisms affecting radiation immunomodulation could be exploited to optimize systemic effects of localized radiation. Radiation-induced DNA damage is sensed by cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS), which ultimately activates stimulator of interferon (IFN) genes (STING). Resultant expression of soluble mediators such as CCL5 and CXCL10 can facilitate recruitment of dendritic cells and immune effector cells into the tumor. The primary objectives of this study were to determine the baseline expression levels of cGAS and STING in OSA cells and evaluate the dependence of OSA cells on STING signaling for eliciting radiation-induced expression of CCL5 and CXCL10. cGAS and STING expression, and CCL5/CXCL10 expression in control cells, STING-agonist treated cells, and cells treated with 5 Gy ionizing radiation were assessed utilizing RTqPCR, Western blot, and ELISA. U2OS and SAOS-2 OSA cells were deficient in STING relative to human osteoblasts (hObs), while SAOS-2-LM6 and MG63 OSA cells expressed equivalent amounts of STING compared to hObs. A dependence on baseline or induced STING expression was observed for STING-agonist, and radiation-induced, expression of CCL5 and CXCL10. This finding was confirmed by performing siRNA knockdown of STING in MG63 cells. These results show that STING signaling is necessary for radiation-induced expression of CCL5 and CXCL10 in OSA cells. Additional studies are necessary to determine whether STING expression in OSA cells in vivo alters immune cell infiltrates after radiation exposure. These data may also have implications for other potentially STING-dependent characteristics such as resistance to oncolytic virus cytotoxicity.

The Relationship of CCL5 and CCR1 Variants with Response Rate and Survival Taking into Account Thalidomide/Bortezomib Treatment in Patients with Multiple Myeloma

(1) Background: Chemokines and chemokine receptors play an important role in tumor development. The aim of this study was to check the significance of CCL5 and CCR1 variants with response rate, survival, and the level of regulated on activation, normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES/CCL5) in multiple myeloma (MM) patients; (2) Methods: Genomic DNA from 101 newly diagnosed MM patients and 100 healthy blood donors were analyzed by Real-time PCR method (for CCL5 and CCR1 genotyping). In a subgroup of 70 MM patients, serum samples were collected to determine the level of RANTES; (3) Results: multivariate Cox regression showed increased risk of disease relapse or progression (HR = 4.77; p = 0.01) in MM patients with CG + CC genotypes of CCL5 rs2280788. In contrast, CT + TT genotypes of CCL5 rs2107538 were associated withdecreased risk of death (HR = 0.18; p = 0.028) and disease relapse or progression (HR = 0.26; p = 0.01). In MM patients with major genotypes of rs2280789, rs2280788, and rs2107538, higher survival rates were observed in response to treatment with thalidomide and bortezomib. Statistically significant lower RANTES levels were seen in minor genotypes and heterozygotes of CCL5 and CCR1 variants; (4) Conclusions: Major genotypes of CCL5 variants may be independent positive prognostic factors in MM.

Targeting Epigenetic Mechanisms: A Boon for Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is rapidly emerging as a promising approach against cancer. In the last decade, various immunological mechanisms have been targeted to induce an increase in the immune response against cancer cells. However, despite promising results, many patients show partial response, resistance, or serious toxicities. A promising way to overcome this is the use of immunotherapeutic approaches, in combination with other potential therapeutic approaches. Aberrant epigenetic modifications play an important role in carcinogenesis and its progression, as well as in the functioning of immune cells. Thus, therapeutic approaches targeting aberrant epigenetic mechanisms and the immune response might provide an effective antitumor effect. Further, the recent development of potent epigenetic drugs and immunomodulators gives hope to this combinatorial approach. In this review, we summarize the synergy mechanism between epigenetic therapies and immunotherapy for the treatment of cancer, and discuss recent advancements in the translation of this approach.

A novel prognostic scoring model based on copper homeostasis and cuproptosis which indicates changes in tumor microenvironment and affects treatment response

Background: Intracellular copper homeostasis requires a complex system. It has shown considerable prospects for intervening in the tumor microenvironment (TME) by regulating copper homeostasis and provoking cuproptosis. Their relationship with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains elusive. Methods: In TCGA and ICGC datasets, LASSO and multivariate Cox regression were applied to obtain the signature on the basis of genes associated with copper homeostasis and cuproptosis. Bioinformatic tools were utilized to reveal if the signature was correlated with HCC characteristics. Single-cell RNA sequencing data analysis identified differences in tumor and T cells' pathway activity and intercellular communication of immune-related cells. Real-time qPCR analysis was conducted to measure the genes' expression in HCC and adjacent normal tissue from 21 patients. CCK8 assay, scratch assay, transwell, and colony formation were conducted to reveal the effect of genes on in vitro cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and colony formation. Results: We constructed a five-gene scoring system in relation to copper homeostasis and cuproptosis. The high-risk score indicated poor clinical prognosis, enhanced tumor malignancy, and immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment. The T cell activity was markedly reduced in high-risk single-cell samples. The high-risk HCC patients had a better expectation of ICB response and reactivity to anti-PD-1 therapy. A total of 156 drugs were identified as potential signature-related drugs for HCC treatment, and most were sensitive to high-risk patients. Novel ligand-receptor pairs such as FASLG, CCL, CD40, IL2, and IFN-Ⅱ signaling pathways were revealed as cellular communication bridges, which may cause differences in TME and immune function. All crucial genes were differentially expressed between HCC and paired adjacent normal tissue. Model-constructed genes affected the phosphorylation of mTOR and AKT in both Huh7 and Hep3B cells. Knockdown of ZCRB1 impaired the proliferation, invasion, migration, and colony formation in HCC cell lines. Conclusion: We obtained a prognostic scoring system to forecast the TME changes and assist in choosing therapy strategies for HCC patients. In this study, we combined copper homeostasis and cuproptosis to show the overall potential risk of copper-related biological processes in HCC for the first time.

The duality of STAT2 mediated type I interferon signaling in the tumor microenvironment and chemoresistance

The tumor microenvironment consists of tumor cells, extracellular matrix, blood vessels, and non-tumor cells such as fibroblasts and immune cells. Crosstalk among components of this cellular ecosystem can transform non-malignant cells and promote tumor invasion and metastasis. Evidence is accumulating that the transcription factor STAT2, a downstream effector of type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling, can either inhibit or promote tumorigenesis depending on the unique environment presented by each type of cancer. STAT2 has long been associated with the canonical JAK/STAT pathway involved in various biological processes including reshaping of the tumor microenvironment and in antitumor immunity. This dichotomous tendency of STAT2 to both inhibit and worsen tumor formation makes the protein a curious, and yet relatively ill-defined player in many cancer pathways involving IFN-I. In this review, we discuss the role of STAT2 in contributing to either a tumorigenic or anti-tumorigenic microenvironment as well as chemoresistance.

Tumor Immunogenic Cell Death as a Mediator of Intratumor CD8 T-Cell Recruitment

The success of anticancer treatments relies on a long-term response which can be mediated by the immune system. Thus, the concept of immunogenic cell death (ICD) describes the capacity of dying cancer cells, under chemotherapy or physical stress, to express or release danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). These DAMPs are essential to activate dendritic cells (DCs) and to stimulate an antigen presentation to CD8 cytotoxic cells. Then, activated CD8 T cells exert their antitumor effects through cytotoxic molecules, an effect which is transitory due to the establishment of a feedback loop leading to T-cell exhaustion. This phenomenon can be reversed using immune checkpoint blockers (ICBs), such as anti-PD-1, PD-L1 or CTLA-4 Abs. However, the blockade of these checkpoints is efficient only if the CD8 T cells are recruited within the tumor. The CD8 T-cell chemoattraction is mediated by chemokines. Hence, an important question is whether the ICD can not only influence the DC activation and resulting CD8 T-cell activation but can also favor the chemokine production at the tumor site, thus triggering their recruitment. This is the aim of this review, in which we will decipher the role of some chemokines (and their specific receptors), shown to be released during ICD, on the CD8 T-cell recruitment and antitumor response. We will also analyze the clinical applications of these chemokines as predictive or prognostic markers or as new targets which should be used to improve patients' response.

Aberrant hyperexpression of the RNA binding protein FMRP in tumors mediates immune evasion

Many human cancers manifest the capability to circumvent attack by the adaptive immune system. In this work, we identified a component of immune evasion that involves frequent up-regulation of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) in solid tumors. FMRP represses immune attack, as revealed by cancer cells engineered to lack its expression. FMRP-deficient tumors were infiltrated by activated T cells that impaired tumor growth and enhanced survival in mice. Mechanistically, FMRP’s immunosuppression was multifactorial, involving repression of the chemoattractant C-C motif chemokine ligand 7 (CCL7) concomitant with up-regulation of three immunomodulators—interleukin-33 (IL-33), tumor-secreted protein S (PROS1), and extracellular vesicles. Gene signatures associate FMRP’s cancer network with poor prognosis and response to therapy in cancer patients. Collectively, FMRP is implicated as a regulator that orchestrates a multifaceted barrier to antitumor immune responses.

Understanding the functional inflammatory factors involved in therapeutic response to immune checkpoint inhibitors for pan-cancer

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) fight tumor progression by activating immune conditions. The inflammatory factors are playing a functional role in programmed death-1 (PD-1) or other immune checkpoints. They are involved in regulating the expression of programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1), the only predictor recognized by the guidelines in response to ICIs. In addition, abundant components of the tumor microenvironment (TME) all interact with various immune factors contributing to the response to ICIs, including infiltration of various immune cells, extracellular matrix, and fibroblasts. Notably, the occurrence of immune-related adverse events (irAEs) in patients receiving ICIs is increasingly observed in sundry organs. IrAEs are often regarded as an inflammatory factor-mediated positive feedback loop associated with better response to ICIs. It deserves attention because inflammatory factors were observed to be different when targeting different immune checkpoints or in the presence of different irAEs. In the present review, we address the research progresses on regulating inflammatory factors for an intentional controlling anti-cancer response with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

LINC00887 Fosters Development of Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma via Inhibiting CD8+ T Cell Immune Infiltration

Background

lncRNAs affect adaptive and innate immunity of cancer via mediating functional states of immune cells, genes, and pathways. Nonetheless, little is known about the molecular mechanism of lncRNA-mediated CD8+ T cell immune infiltration in progression of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). We designed this work to investigate the role of LINC00887 in regulating CD8+ T cell immune infiltration in ccRCC.

Methods

Correlation between LINC00887 and immune factors and the expression level of LINC00887 in ccRCC were analyzed by bioinformatics methods (TCGA-KIRC database, “edgeR” package, “clusterProfiler” package, and “CIBERSORT” package). LINC00887 expression in ccRCC was examined via RT-qPCR. The cytokilling capacity of CD8+ T cells was evaluated by the lactate dehydrogenase assay. The apoptotic ability of CD8+ T cells was measured by flow cytometry. The chemotactic ability of CD8+ T cells was revealed by chemotaxis assay. CXCR3, CXCL9, and CXCL10 levels were assessed by RT-qPCR.

Results

As suggested by bioinformatics analysis, LINC00887 was markedly upregulated in ccRCC patients and associated with expression of immune-suppression molecule, thereby abating the immune infiltration level of CD8+ cells in tumor tissue. As revealed by cellular assay, LINC00887 was upregulated in ccRCC cells, and knockdown of LINC00887 resulted in a decreased PD-L1 expression, increased CD8+ T cell toxicity, decreased apoptotic levels, and enhanced chemotaxis. Moreover, we found that LINC00887 exhibited inhibitory effect on immune infiltration of CD8+ cells in clinical tissues.

Conclusions

The results of this study suggested that LINC00887 promoted ccRCC progression by inhibiting immune infiltration of CD8+ T cells, providing new insights into pathogenesis of ccRCC and suggesting LINC00887 being a promising immunotherapy target for ccRCC.

Combinations of Toll-like receptor 8 agonist TL8-506 activate human tumor-derived dendritic cells

BACKGROUND

Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen presenting cells that initiate immune defense to pathogens and tumor cells. Human tumors contain only few DCs that mostly display a non-activated phenotype. Hence, activation of tumor-associated DCs may improve efficacy of cancer immunotherapies. Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists and interferons are known to promote DC maturation. However, it is unclear if DCs in human tumors respond to activation signals and which stimuli induce the optimal activation of human tumor DCs.

METHODS

We first screened combinations of TLR agonists, a STING agonist and interferons (IFNs) for their ability to activate human conventional DCs (cDCs). Two combinations: TL8-506 (a TLR8 agonist)+IFN-γ and TL8-506+Poly(I:C) (a TLR3 agonist) were studied in more detail. cDC1s and cDC2s derived from cord blood stem cells, blood or patient tumor samples were stimulated with either TL8-506+IFN-γ or TL8-506+Poly(I:C). Different activation markers were analyzed by ELISA, flow cytometry, NanoString nCounter Technology or single-cell RNA-sequencing. T cell activation and migration assays were performed to assess functional consequences of cDC activation.

RESULTS

We show that TL8-506 synergized with IFN-γ or Poly(I:C) to induce high expression of different chemokines and cytokines including interleukin (IL)-12p70 in human cord blood and blood cDC subsets in a combination-specific manner. Importantly, both combinations induced the activation of cDC subsets in patient tumor samples ex vivo. The expression of immunostimulatory genes important for anticancer responses including CD40, IFNB1, IFNL1, IL12A and IL12B were upregulated on stimulation. Furthermore, chemokines associated with CD8⁺ T cell recruitment were induced in tumor-derived cDCs in response to TL8-506 combinations. In vitro activation and migration assays confirmed that stimulated cDCs induce T cell activation and migration.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that cord blood-derived and blood-derived cDCs are a good surrogate to study treatment responses in human tumor cDCs. While most cDCs in human tumors display a non-activated phenotype, TL8-506 combinations drive human tumor cDCs towards an immunostimulatory phenotype associated with Th1 responses on stimulation. Hence, TL8-506-based combinations may be promising candidates to initiate or boost antitumor responses in patients with cancer.

IL-27 Induces CCL5 Production by T Lymphocytes, Which Contributes to Antitumor Activity

IL-27 is a pleiotropic cytokine that exhibits stimulatory/regulatory functions on multiple lineages of immune cells including T lymphocytes. In this study, we demonstrate that IL-27 directly induces CCL5 production by T lymphocytes, particularly CD8⁺ T cells in vitro and in vivo. IL-27-induced CCL5 production is IL-27R-dependent. In CD4⁺ T cells, IL-27-induced CCL5 production was primarily dependent on Stat1 activation, whereas in CD8⁺ T cells, Stat1 deficiency does not abrogate CCL5 induction. A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay revealed that in the CCL5 promoter region, both putative Stat3 binding sites exhibit significant binding to Stat3, whereas only one out of four Stat1 binding sites displays moderate binding to Stat1. In tumor-bearing mice, IL-27 induced dramatic production of CCL5 in tumor-infiltrating T cells. IL-27-induced CCL5 appears to contribute to an IL-27-mediated antitumor effect. This is signified by diminished tumor inhibition in anti-CCL5- and IL-27-treated mice. Additionally, intratumor delivery of CCL5 mRNA using lipid nanoparticles significantly inhibited tumor growth. Thus, IL-27 induces robust CCL5 production by T cells, which contributes to antitumor activity.

Altered T lymphocyte subtypes and cytokine profiles in follicular fluid associated with diminished ovary reserve

PROBLEM

Diminished ovarian reserve (DOR) is a daunting obstacle in in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), leading to poor reproductive outcomes. We aim to characterize the T cell and cytokine profiles in follicular fluid (FF) and elucidate its contribution to the development of DOR.

METHOD OF STUDY

A total of 92 infertile women were enrolled in the study. We assessed the ultrastructure, proliferation, and apoptosis of granulosa cells (GCs). The levels of CCL5 and cytokines in FF was measured. Additionally, we classified the T cells and analyzed cytokines production in T cell. We further verified whether CCL5 can recruit specific T cell subcytes to the follicles.

RESULTS

Cytoplasmic vacuolization, nucleolar dissociation, partial shortening, swelling, and fusion of mitochondrial cristae were obvious in GCs with DOR. The proliferation of GCs decreased and the proportion of apoptosis increased in DOR. The down-regulation of Bcl-2 and up-regulation of caspase3 were seen in GCs with DOR. The number of CD8⁺ T cells and proportion of CD8⁺ /CD4⁺ T cells in DOR exceeded the control. Higher positive percentage of CD69, CCR5, and IFN-γ in CD8⁺ T cells, lower positive percentage of IL-10 in CD4⁺ T cells and PD-1 in CD8⁺ T cells were detected in DOR. CCL5 accumulated promoting the recruitment of CD8⁺ T cells to the follicles on interaction with CCR5.

CONCLUSION

The abnormal proportion of CD8⁺ T cells and elevated CCL5 and IFN-γ may change the immune balance in FF and impair the growth of GCs, which in turn fuel the progression of DOR.

High Expression of Interferon Pathway Genes CXCL10 and STAT2 Is Associated with Activated T-Cell Signature and Better Outcome of Oral Cancer Patients

To improve the survival rate of cancer patients, biomarkers for both early diagnosis and patient stratification for appropriate therapeutics play crucial roles in precision oncology. Investigation of altered gene expression and the relevant molecular pathways in cancer cells are helpful for discovering such biomarkers. In this study, we explore the potential prognostic biomarkers for oral cancer patients through systematically analyzing five oral cancer transcriptomic data sets (TCGA, GSE23558, GSE30784, GSE37991, and GSE138206). Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was individually applied to each data set and the upregulated Hallmark molecular pathways of each data set were intersected to generate 13 common pathways including interferon-α/γ pathways. Among the 5 oral cancer data sets, 43 interferon pathway genes were commonly upregulated and 17 genes exhibited prognostic values in TCGA cohort. After validating in another oral cancer cohort (GSE65858), high expressions of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) and Signal transducer and activator of transcription 2 (STAT2) were confirmed to be good prognostic biomarkers. GSEA of oral cancers stratified by CXCL10/STAT2 expression showed that activation of T-cell pathways and increased tumor infiltration scores of Type 1 T helper (Th1) and CD8+ T cells were associated with high CXCL10/STAT2 expression. These results suggest that high CXCL10/STAT2 expression can predict a favorable outcome in oral cancer patients.

Live attenuated bacterium limits cancer resistance to CAR-T therapy by remodeling the tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is characterized by the activation of immune checkpoints, which limit the ability of immune cells to attack the growing cancer. To overcome immune suppression in the clinic, antigen-expressing viruses and bacteria have been developed to induce antitumor immunity. However, the safety and targeting specificity are the main concerns of using bacteria in clinical practice as antitumor agents. In our previous studies, we have developed an attenuated bacterial strain (Brucella melitensis 16M ∆vjbR, henceforth Bm∆vjbR) for clinical use, which is safe in all tested animal models and has been removed from the select agent list by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. In this study, we demonstrated that Bm∆vjbR homed to tumor tissue and improved the TME in a murine model of solid cancer. In addition, live Bm∆vjbR promoted proinflammatory M1 polarization of tumor macrophages and increased the number and activity of CD8+ T cells in the tumor. In a murine colon adenocarcinoma model, when combined with adoptive transfer of tumor-specific carcinoembryonic antigen chimeric antigen receptor CD8+ T cells, tumor cell growth and proliferation was almost completely abrogated, and host survival was 100%. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the live attenuated bacterial treatment can defeat cancer resistance to chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy by remodeling the TME to promote macrophage and T cell-mediated antitumor immunity.

Targeting Cbx3/HP1γ Induces LEF-1 and IL-21R to Promote Tumor-Infiltrating CD8 T-Cell Persistence

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) relieves CD8⁺ T-cell exhaustion in most mutated tumors, and TCF-1 is implicated in converting progenitor exhausted cells to functional effector cells. However, identifying mechanisms that can prevent functional senescence and potentiate CD8⁺ T-cell persistence for ICB non-responsive and resistant tumors remains elusive. We demonstrate that targeting Cbx3/HP1γ in CD8⁺ T cells augments transcription initiation and chromatin remodeling leading to increased transcriptional activity at Lef1 and Il21r. LEF-1 and IL-21R are necessary for Cbx3/HP1γ-deficient CD8⁺ effector T cells to persist and control ovarian cancer, melanoma, and neuroblastoma in preclinical models. The enhanced persistence of Cbx3/HP1γ-deficient CD8⁺ T cells facilitates remodeling of the tumor chemokine/receptor landscape ensuring their optimal invasion at the expense of CD4⁺ Tregs. Thus, CD8⁺ T cells heightened effector function consequent to Cbx3/HP1γ deficiency may be distinct from functional reactivation by ICB, implicating Cbx3/HP1γ as a viable cancer T-cell-based therapy target for ICB resistant, non-responsive solid tumors.

The role of CXCL10 in prognosis of patients with colon cancer and tumor microenvironment remodeling

BACKGROUNG

Tumor microenvironment (TME) has gradually emerged as an important research topic in the fight against cancer. The immune system is a major contributing factor in TME, and investigations have revealed that tumors are partially infiltrated with numerous immune cell subsets.

METHOD

We obtained transcriptome RNA-seq data from the the Cancer Genome Atlas databases for 521 patients with colon adenocarcinoma (COAD). ESTIMATE algorithms are then used to estimate the fraction of stromal and immune cells in COAD samples.

RESULT

A total of 1109 stromal-immune score-related differentially expressed genes were identified and used to generate a high-confidence protein-protein interaction network and univariate COX regression analysis. C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) was identified as the core gene by intersection analysis of data from protein-protein interaction network and univariate COX regression analysis. Then, for CXCL10, we performed gene set enrichment analysis, survival analysis and clinical analysis, and we used CIBERSORT algorithms to estimate the proportion of tumor-infiltrating immune cells in COAD samples.

CONCLUSION

We discovered that CXCL10 levels could be effective for predicting the prognosis of COAD patients as well as a clue that the status of TME is transitioning from immunological to metabolic activity, which provided additional information for COAD therapies.

Chemokine-targeted therapies: An opportunity to remodel immune profiles in gastro-oesophageal tumours

Immunotherapies are transforming outcomes for many cancer patients and are quickly becoming the fourth pillar of cancer therapy. However, their efficacy of only ∼25% in gastro-oesophageal cancer has been disappointing. This is attributed to factors such as insufficient patient stratification and the pro-tumourigenic immune landscape of gastro-oesophageal tumours. The chemokine profiles of solid tumours and the availability of effector immune cells greatly influence the immune infiltrate, producing 'cold' or 'immune-excluded' tumours in which immunotherapies are unable to reinvigorate the immune response. Other biological functions for chemokines have emerged, such as promoting cell survival, polarising T cell responses, and supporting several hallmarks of cancer. Therefore, chemokine networks may be exploited with therapeutic intent to mobilise and polarise anti-tumour immune cells, with further utility as combination treatments to augment the efficacy of current cancer immunotherapies. Few studies have demonstrated the clinical benefit of chemokine-targeted therapies as monotherapies, and this review proposes their consideration as combination treatments. Herein, we explore the anti-tumour and pro-tumour implications of chemokine signalling in gastro-oesophageal cancer and discuss their value as prognostic and predictive biomarkers in response to treatment.

CCL5-armed oncolytic virus augments CCR5-engineered NK cell infiltration and antitumor efficiency

BACKGROUND

Natural killer (NK) cells have potent antitumor activities. Nevertheless, adoptive transfer therapy of NK cells has gained very limited success in patients with solid tumors as most infused NK cells remain circulating in the peripheral blood instead of entering tumor sites. Chemokines and their receptors play important roles in NK cell distribution. Enhancing chemokine receptors on immune cells to match and be driven to tumor-specific chemokines may improve the therapeutic efficacy of NK cells.

METHODS

The CCR5-CCL5 axis is critical in NK cell homing to tumor sites. Thus, we analyzed CCR5 expression on NK cells from patients with cancer and healthy donors. We then upregulated CCR5 and CCL5 with lentiviruses and oncolytic viruses in NK and tumor cells, respectively. Animal experiments were also carried out to test the efficacy of the combination of oncolytic virus with NK cells.

RESULTS

In NK cells from patients with various solid tumors or healthy subjects, CCR5 was expressed at low levels before and after expansion in vitro. CCR5-engineered NK cells showed enhanced tumor infiltration and antitumor effects, but no complete regressions were noted in the in vivo tumor models. To further improve therapeutic efficacy, we constructed CCL5-expressing oncolytic vaccinia virus. In vitro data demonstrated that vaccinia virus can produce CCL5 in tumor cells while infectivity remained unaffected. Supernatants from tumor cells infected by CCL5-modified vaccinia virus enhanced the directional movement of CCR5-overexpressed NK cells but not green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing cells. More importantly, NK cells were resistant to the vaccinia virus and their functions were not affected after being in contact. In vivo assays demonstrated that CCL5-expressing vaccinia virus induced a greater accumulation of NK cells within tumor lesions compared with that of the prototype virus.

CONCLUSION

Enhancement of matched chemokines and chemokine receptors is a promising method of increasing NK cell homing and therapeutic effects. Oncolytic vaccinia viruses that express specific chemokines can synergistically augment the efficacies of NK cell-based therapy.

Development and Validation of a CD8+ T Cell Infiltration-Related Signature for Melanoma Patients

Aim

Immunotherapy shows efficacy in only a subset of melanoma patients. Here, we intended to construct a risk score model to predict melanoma patients’ sensitivity to immunotherapy.

Methods

Integration analyses were performed on melanoma patients from high-dimensional public datasets. The CD8+ T cell infiltration related genes (TIRGs) were selected via TIMER and CIBERSORT algorithm. LASSO Cox regression was performed to screen for the crucial TIRGs. Single sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) and ESTIMATE algorithm were used to evaluate the immune activity. The prognostic value of the risk score was determined by univariate and multivariate Cox regression analysis.

Results

184 candidate TIRGs were identified in melanoma patients. Based on the candidate TIRGs, melanoma patients were classified into three clusters which were characterized by different immune activity. Six signature genes were further screened out of 184 TIRGs and a representative risk score for patient survival was constructed based on these six signature genes. The risk score served as an indicator for the level of CD8+ T cell infiltration and acted as an independent prognostic factor for the survival of melanoma patients. By using the risk score, we achieved a good predicting result for the response of cancer patients to immunotherapy. Moreover, pan-cancer analysis revealed the risk score could be used in a wide range of non-hematologic tumors.

Conclusions

Our results showed the potential of using signature gene-based risk score as an indicator to predict melanoma patients’ sensitivity to immunotherapy.

IFN-γ Critically Enables the Intratumoural Infiltration of CXCR3+ CD8+ T Cells to Drive Squamous Cell Carcinoma Regression

Simple Summary

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is prevalent in aged individuals and individuals with compromised or weakened immune systems, indicating a close association between immune function and SCC control. The aim of our study was to uncover the identity of key immune subsets that mediate SCC control, and to elucidate the mechanistic role of the proinflammatory cytokine Interferon-gamma in this process. We established a SCC regressor model, which we used to determine that: (1) CD8⁺ T cells, not CD4⁺ T cells or NK cells, are essential for SCC regression; (2) the neutralisation of Interferon-gamma prevents CD8⁺ T cell infiltration and SCC regression; (3) CD8⁺ T cell migration into SCC critically depends upon Interferon-gamma-induced chemokine expression. Thus, our model can be used to understand the key immune mechanisms involved in SCC regression, which will support targeted investigations into the integrity of these mechanisms in patients with progressive disease.

Abstract

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced tumours carry a high mutational load, are highly immunogenic, and often fail to grow when transplanted into normal, syngeneic mice. The aim of this study was to investigate factors critical for the immune-mediated rejection of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). In our rejection model, transplanted SCC establish and grow in mice immunosuppressed with tacrolimus. When tacrolimus is withdrawn, established SCC tumours subsequently undergo immune-mediated tumour rejection. Through the depletion of individual immune subsets at the time of tacrolimus withdrawal, we established a critical role for CD8⁺ T cells, but not CD4⁺ T cells, γδ T cells, or NK cells, in driving the regression of SCC. Regression was critically dependent on IFN-γ, although IFN-γ was not directly cytotoxic to SCC cells. IFN-γ-neutralisation abrogated SCC regression, significantly reduced CD8⁺ T cell-infiltration into SCC, and significantly impaired the secretion of CXCL9, CXCL10 and CCL5 within the tumour microenvironment. A strong positive correlation was revealed between CXCL10 expression and CD8⁺ T cell abundance in tumours. Indeed, blockade of the CXCL10 receptor CXCR3 at the time of tacrolimus withdrawal prevented CD8⁺ T cell infiltration and the regression of SCC. Chimeric models revealed an important role for immune cells as producers of IFN-γ, but not as recipients of IFN-γ signals via the IFN-γ receptor. Together, these findings suggest a key role for IFN-γ in driving the expression of chemokines within the tumour environment essential for the destruction of established SCC by CD8⁺ T cells.

Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte infiltration and chemokine predict long-term patient survival independently of tumor mutational burden in triple-negative breast cancer

Background:

Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) infiltration into tumor is a positive prognostic factor in breast cancer. High tumor mutational burden (TMB) is also considered as a predictor of tumor immunogenicity and response to immunotherapy. However, it is unclear whether the infiltration of functional CTL simply reflects the TMB or represents an independent prognostic value.

Methods:

Utilizing The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) breast cancer cohort, we established the Functional Hotness Score (FHS). The associations of FHS and breast cancer patient prognosis as well as distinct immunity markers were analyzed in a total of 3011 breast cancer patients using TCGA, METABRIC and metastatic breast cancer (MBC) cohort GSE110590.

Results:

We established FHS, based on CD8A, GZMB and CXCL10 gene expression levels of bulk tumors, which delivered the best prognostic value among some gene combinations. Breast cancer patients with the high-FHS tumors showed significantly better survival. FHS was lower in the MBCs. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) showed the highest FHS among subtypes. FHS predicted patient survival in hormone receptor (HR)-negative, especially in TNBC, but not in HR-positive breast cancer. FHS predicted patient prognosis independently in TNBC. The high-FHS TNBCs showed not only higher CD8+ T cell infiltration, but also enhanced broader type-1 anti-cancer immunity. The patients with the high-FHS tumors showed better prognosis not only in high-TMB tumors but also in low-TMB TNBCs. The combination of high-TMB with high-FHS identified a unique subset of patients who do not recur over time in TNBC.

Conclusion:

TNBCs with high FHS based on the expression levels of CD8A, GZMB and CXCL10 showed improved prognosis with enhanced anti-cancer immunity regardless of TMB. FHS constitutes an independent prognostic marker of survival, particularly robustly when combined with TMB in TNBC.

Programmed cell death 1 as prognostic marker and therapeutic target in upper gastrointestinal cancers

Gastrointestinal (GIs) cancers are among the most common causes of cancer related death, and hence the importance for the identification of novel prognostic/predictive biomarkers for detection of patients at an early stage, and for using these to identify novel targeted therapies to improve the efficacy of existing chemotherapeutic regimens. Programmed cell death 1 has been reported as a potential target in several malignancies, and targeting agents are being developed, some already approved by FDA, such as: pembrolizumab, Atezolizumab, Nivolumab. Pembrolizumab that have been approved for the treatment of metastatic non-small cell lung cancer. Here we provide an overview of the mechanism of action PD-1/PD-L1, prognostic value and current progress in clinical trials using PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors, and the resistant mechanisms at underlie the inhibitory effect of these agents in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers.

Chemokine networks modulating natural killer cell trafficking to solid tumors

Natural killer (NK) cell-based cell therapy has been emerging as a powerful weapon in the treatment of multiple malignancies. However, the inadequate infiltration of the therapeutic NK cells into solid tumors remains a big challenge to their clinical utility. Chemokine networks, which play essential roles in the migration of lymphocytes, have been recognized as critical in driving the intratumoral infiltration of NK cells via interactions between soluble chemokines and their receptors. Often, such interactions are complex and disease-specific. In the context of NK cells, chemokine receptors of note have included CCR2, CCR5, CCR7, CXCR3, and CX3CR1. The immunobiology of chemokine-receptor interactions has fueled the development of approaches that hope to improve the infiltration of NK cells into the microenvironment of solid tumors. Stimulation of NK cells ex vivo in the presence of various cytokines (such as IL-2, IL-15, and IL-21) and genetic engineering of NK cells have been utilized to alter the chemokine receptor profile and generate NK cells with higher infiltrating capacity. Additionally, the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment has also been targeted, by introducing, either directly or indirectly, chemokine ligands which NK cells are able to respond to, ultimately creating a more hospitable niche for NK cell trafficking. Such strategies have promoted the infiltration and activity of infused NK cells into multiple solid tumors. In this review, we discuss how chemokine receptors and their ligands coordinate and how they can be manipulated to regulate the trafficking, distribution, and residence of NK cells in solid tumors.

Immune Escape in Prostate Cancer: Known and Predicted Mechanisms and Targets

Complex immune evasion mechanisms and lack of biomarkers predicting responsiveness to immune checkpoint blockade therapies compromise immunotherapy's therapeutic efficacy for patients with prostate cancer. The authors review established and nominated immune evasion mechanisms in prostate cancer and discuss how the precise treatment strategies can be developed to improve efficacy of immunotherapy.

Cytokine-chemokine network driven metastasis in esophageal cancer; promising avenue for targeted therapy

Esophageal cancer (EC) is a disease often marked by aggressive growth and poor prognosis. Lack of targeted therapies, resistance to chemoradiation therapy, and distant metastases among patients with advanced disease account for the high mortality rate. The tumor microenvironment (TME) contains several cell types, including fibroblasts, immune cells, adipocytes, stromal proteins, and growth factors, which play a significant role in supporting the growth and aggressive behavior of cancer cells. The complex and dynamic interactions of the secreted cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and their receptors mediate chronic inflammation and immunosuppressive TME favoring tumor progression, metastasis, and decreased response to therapy. The molecular changes in the TME are used as biological markers for diagnosis, prognosis, and response to treatment in patients. This review highlighted the novel insights into the understanding and functional impact of deregulated cytokines and chemokines in imparting aggressive EC, stressing the nature and therapeutic consequences of the cytokine-chemokine network. We also discuss cytokine-chemokine oncogenic potential by contributing to the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT), angiogenesis, immunosuppression, metastatic niche, and therapeutic resistance development. In addition, it discusses the wide range of changes and intracellular signaling pathways that occur in the TME. Overall, this is a relatively unexplored field that could provide crucial insights into tumor immunology and encourage the effective application of modulatory cytokine-chemokine therapy to EC.

Fine-Tuning the Tumour Microenvironment: Current Perspectives on the Mechanisms of Tumour Immunosuppression

Immunotherapy has revolutionised the treatment of cancers by harnessing the power of the immune system to eradicate malignant tissue. However, it is well recognised that some cancers are highly resistant to these therapies, which is in part attributed to the immunosuppressive landscape of the tumour microenvironment (TME). The contexture of the TME is highly heterogeneous and contains a complex architecture of immune, stromal, vascular and tumour cells in addition to acellular components such as the extracellular matrix. While understanding the dynamics of the TME has been instrumental in predicting durable responses to immunotherapy and developing new treatment strategies, recent evidence challenges the fundamental paradigms of how tumours can effectively subvert immunosurveillance. Here, we discuss the various immunosuppressive features of the TME and how fine-tuning these mechanisms, rather than ablating them completely, may result in a more comprehensive and balanced anti-tumour response.

Suppression of tumor immune microenvironment via microRNA-1 after epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance acquirement in lung adenocarcinoma

Immunotherapy is considered one of the most important therapeutic strategies for patients with lung adenocarcinoma after the development of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI) resistance. However, useful predictors of immunotherapy for these patients has not been examined well, although the status of the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), including programmed death-ligand 1 expression and lymphocyte infiltration, has been generally known to provide predictive markers for the efficacy of immunotherapy. This study aimed to clarify novel predictors of immunotherapy following EGFR-TKI resistance in lung adenocarcinoma, especially regarding micro RNA (miRNA). We evaluated the correlation between EGFR-TKI resistance and lymphocyte infiltration, before and after acquiring EGFR-TKI resistance, in 21 cases of lung adenocarcinoma, and further explored this by in vitro studies, using miRNA PCR arrays. Subsequently, we transfected miRNA-1 (miR-1), the most variable miRNA in this array, into three kinds of lung cancer cells, and examined the effects of miR-1 on EGFR-TKI sensitivity, cytokine expression and lymphocyte migration. Histopathological examination demonstrated that infiltration levels of CD8-positive T cells were significantly decreased after development of EGFR-TKI resistance. In vitro studies revealed that miR-1 significantly inhibited EGFR-TKI effect and induction of cytokines, such as C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10, causing inhibition of monocyte migration. These results indicate that the upregulated miR-1 might suppress the TIME, following development of EGFR-TKI resistance. Therefore, miR-1 could be a clinically useful marker to predict therapeutic efficacy of immunotherapy in lung adenocarcinoma patients with EGFR-TKI resistance.

Multidirectional Strategies for Targeted Delivery of Oncolytic Viruses by Tumor Infiltrating Immune Cells

Oncolytic virus (OV) immunotherapy has demonstrated to be a promising approach in cancer treatment due to tumor-specific oncolysis. However, their clinical use so far has been largely limited due to the lack of suitable delivery strategies with high efficacy. Direct 'intratumoral' injection is the way to cross the hurdles of systemic toxicity, while providing local effects. Progress in this field has enabled the development of alternative way using 'systemic' oncolytic virotherapy for producing better results. One major potential roadblock to systemic OV delivery is the low virus persistence in the face of hostile immune system. The delivery challenge is even greater when attempting to target the oncolytic viruses into the entire tumor mass, where not all tumor cells are equally exposed to exactly the same microenvironment. The microenvironment of many tumors is known to be massively infiltrated with various types of leucocytes in both primary and metastatic sites. Interestingly, this intratumoral immune cell heterogeneity exhibits a degree of organized distribution inside the tumor bed as evidenced, for example, by the hypoxic tumor microenviroment where predominantly recruits tumor-associated macrophages. Although in vivo OV delivery seems complicated and challenging, recent results are encouraging for decreasing the limitations of systemically administered oncolytic viruses and an improved efficiency of oncolytic viral therapy in targeting cancerous tissues in vitro. Here, we review the latest developments of carrier cell-based oncolytic virus delivery using tumor-infiltrating immune cells with a focus on the main features of each cellular vehicle.

Like a Rolling Stone: Sting-Cgas Pathway and Cell-Free DNA as Biomarkers for Combinatorial Immunotherapy

Combining immune checkpoint inhibitors with other treatments likely to harness tumor immunity is a rising strategy in oncology. The exact modalities of such a combinatorial regimen are yet to be defined, and most attempts have relied so far on concomitant dosing, rather than sequential or phased administration. Because immunomodulating features are likely to be time-, dose-, and-schedule dependent, the need for biomarkers providing real-time information is critical to better define the optimal time-window to combine immune checkpoint inhibitors with other drugs. In this review, we present the various putative markers that have been investigated as predictive tools with immune checkpoint inhibitors and could be used to help further combining treatments. Whereas none of the current biomarkers, such as the PDL1 expression of a tumor mutational burden, is suitable to identify the best way to combine treatments, monitoring circulating tumor DNA is a promising strategy, in particular to check whether the STING-cGAS pathway has been activated by cytotoxics. As such, circulating tumor DNA could help defining the best time-window to administrate immune checkpoint inhibitors after that cytotoxics have been given.

Clinical relevance of tumor microenvironment: immune cells, vessels, and mouse models

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a crucial role in tumor progression, therapeutic response, and patient outcomes. TME includes immune cells, blood and lymphatic vessels, and so on. There are anti-cancer and pro-cancer immune cells. In general, infiltration of anti-cancer immune cells, such as cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), is associated with a favorable patient prognosis. In contrast, infiltration of pro-cancer immune cells, such as regulatory T cells (Tregs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), is associated with a worse prognosis. However, some immune cells, which play an ambivalent role in cancer immunity, have demonstrated contradictory impacts on patient prognosis. Blood and lymphatic vessels play crucial roles in TME not only as delivery and draining systems of fluid and molecules, but also allowing cancer cells access to systematic circulation to metastasize. Angiogenesis promotes cancer aggressiveness and is associated with a worse prognosis. Its targeted therapy shows a benefit in some cancers, however, because the target can vary by caner type, a benefit of anti-angiogenesis therapy is limited in the current standard of care. Lymphangiogenesis plays a role in lymph node metastasis, thus, it is associated with a poor prognosis in some cancers. To study TME, the mouse model is one of the most commonly used tools. The choice of appropriate mouse model depends on the hypothesis being tested and the scientific question being asked. Here, we review recent studies that investigated the clinical relevance of TME components and introduce mouse models to study TME.

Emerging role of mTOR in tumor immune contexture: Impact on chemokine-related immune cells migration

During the last few decades, cell-based anti-tumor immunotherapy emerged and it has provided us with a large amount of knowledge. Upon chemokines recognition, immune cells undergo rapid trafficking and activation in disease milieu, with immune cells chemotaxis being accompanied by activation of diverse intercellular signal transduction pathways. The outcome of chemokines-mediated immune cells chemotaxis interacts with the cue of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Indeed, the mTOR cascade in immune cells involves migration and infiltration. In this review, we summarize the available mTOR-related chemokines, as well as the characterized upstream regulators and downstream targets in immune cells chemotaxis and assign potential underlying mechanisms in each evaluated chemokine. Specifically, we focus on the involvement of mTOR in chemokine-mediated immune related cells in the balance between tumor immunity and malignancy.

The early local and systemic Type I interferon responses to ultraviolet B light exposure are cGAS dependent

Most systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients are photosensitive and ultraviolet B light (UVB) exposure worsens cutaneous disease and precipitates systemic flares of disease. The pathogenic link between skin disease and systemic exacerbations in SLE remains elusive. In an acute model of UVB-triggered inflammation, we observed that a single UV exposure triggered a striking IFN-I signature not only in the skin, but also in the blood and kidneys. The early IFN-I signature was significantly higher in female compared to male mice. The early IFN-I response in the skin was almost entirely, and in the blood partly, dependent on the presence of cGAS, as was skin inflammatory cell infiltration. Inhibition of cGAMP hydrolysis augmented the UVB-triggered IFN-I response. UVB skin exposure leads to cGAS-activation and both local and systemic IFN-I signature and could contribute to acute flares of disease in susceptible subjects such as patients with SLE.

11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1: a new marker for predicting response to immune-checkpoint blockade therapy in non-small-cell lung carcinoma

Background

Understanding the status of intratumoural immune microenvironment is necessary to ensure the efficacy of immune-checkpoint (IC) blockade therapy. Cortisol plays pivotal roles in glucocorticoid interactions in the immune system. We examined the correlation between intratumourally synthesised cortisol through 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD) 1 and the immune microenvironment in non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC).

Methods

We correlated 11βHSD1 immunoreactivity in 125 cases of NSCLC with the amount of intratumoural immune cells present, and 11βHSD1 immunoreactivity with the efficacy of IC blockade therapy in 18 specimens of NSCLC patients. In vitro studies were performed to validate the immunohistochemical examination.

Results

11βHSD1 immunoreactivity showed a significant inverse correlation with the number of tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes and CD3- or CD8-positive T cells. 11βHSD1 immunoreactivity tended to be inversely correlated with the clinical efficacy of the IC blockade therapy. In vitro studies revealed that 11βHSD1 promoted the intratumoural synthesis of cortisol. This resulted in a decrease in cytokines and in the inhibition of monocyte migration.

Conclusions

Our study is the first report clarifying the inhibitory effects of intratumourally synthesised cortisol through 11βHSD1 on immune cell migration. We propose that the response to IC blockade therapy in NSCLC may be predicted by 11βHSD1.

Chemokines and their receptors as biomarkers in esophageal cancer

Esophageal cancer (EC) is one of the most lethal malignancies of the digestive tract and remains to be improved poor prognosis. Two histological subtypes, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), are major characteristics of EC. Deep understanding about both subtypes is essential to overcome EC. Here, we focus on chemokines and their receptors as biomarkers and their current applications for the prognosis in EC. We reviewed relevant articles identified using PubMed database for the chemokines and their receptors in EC analyzed by immunohistochemistry. The primary objective is to summarize evidences for them as prognostic biomarkers in EC. A total of twenty-one articles were reviewed after exclusion. Most studies have been done in ESCC, and less in EAC. CXCL12 and its receptor CXCR4 have been shown in both subtypes as biomarkers. CXCR7, CXCL8 and its receptor CXCR2, and CCL21 and its receptor CCR7 have been examined in ESCC. Although it was a small number of reports, CXCL10, CCL4, and CCL5 have been indicated to have anti-tumor effects in ESCC. Chemokines and their receptors have the potential to be the biomarkers in EC. Comparative studies between ESCC and EAC will reveal the similarity and difference in these two subtypes of EC. These studies may indicate whether these molecules play important roles in both subtypes or are unique to one or another.

Chemokines and their Receptors: Multifaceted Roles in Cancer Progression and Potential Value as Cancer Prognostic Markers

Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that mediate immune cell chemotaxis and lymphoid tissue development. Recent advances have indicated that chemokines and their cognate receptors play critical roles in cancer-related inflammation and cancer progression. On the basis of these findings, the chemokine system has become a new potential drug target for cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the essential roles of the complex network of chemokines and their receptors in cancer progression. Furthermore, we discuss the potential value of the chemokine system as a cancer prognostic marker. The chemokine system regulates the infiltration of immune cells into the tumor microenvironment, which induces both pro- and anti-immunity and promotes or suppresses tumor growth and proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Increasing evidence indicates the promising prognostic value of the chemokine system in cancer patients. While CCL2, CXCL10, and CX3CL1/CX3CR1 can serve as favorable or unfavorable prognostic factors depending on the cancer types, CCL14 and XCL1 possess good prognostic value. Other chemokines such as CXCL1, CXCL8, and CXCL12 are poor prognostic markers. Despite vast advances in our understanding of the complex nature of the chemokine system in tumor biology, knowledge about the multifaceted roles of the chemokine system in different types of cancers is still limited. Further studies are necessary to decipher distinct roles within the chemokine system in terms of cancer progression and to validate their potential value in cancer prognosis.

The Probiotic BB12 Induces MicroRNAs Involved in Antigen Processing and Presentation in Porcine Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) mediate the regulation of gene expression. Several reports indicate that probiotics induce miRNA-mediated immunomodulation at different levels, such as cytokine production and the up-regulation of several markers related to antigen presentation in antigen-presenting cells. The objective of this work was to identify target genes of miRNAs that are involved in the processing and presentation of antigens in monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) stimulated with the probiotic Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis BB12 (BB12). First, an in silico prediction analysis for a putative miRNA binding site within a given mRNA target was performed using RNAHybrid software with mature sequences of differentially expressed miRNAs retrieved from a Genbank data set that included BB12-stimulated and unstimulated porcine monocytes. From them, 23 genes resulted in targets of 19 miRNAs, highlighting miR-30b-3p, miR-671-5p, and miR-9858-5p, whose targets were costimulatory molecules, and were overexpressed (p < 0.05) in BB12-stimulated moDCs. The analysis of moDCs showed that the percentage of cells expressing SLA-DR⁺CD80⁺ decreased significantly (p = 0.0081) in BB12-stimulated moDCs; interleukin (IL)-10 production was unchanged at 6 h but increased after 24 h of culture in the presence of BB12 (p < 0.001). In summary, our results suggest that SLA-DR and CD80 can be down-regulated by miRNAs miR-30b-3p, miR-671-5p, and miR-9858-5p, while miR-671-5p targets IL-10.